Facul

tyofEngi
neeri
ng&Technology
,
SRM IST,
Katt
ankul
athur–603203

Pr
ogr
am:
B.Tech.(
CSE,
IT,
SWEandNanoTechnol
ogy
)

18PYB103J–Semi
conduct
orPhy
sics-
Inst
ruct
ional
Labor
ator
y
Manual

1
EX.NO. NAMEOFTHEEXPERI
MENTS PAGESNO

1. DETERMI
NATIONOFHALLCOEFFI
CIENTAND 3
CARRI
ERTYPEFORASEMI-CONDUCTI
NGMATERI
AL

2. BANDGAPDETERMI
NATI
ONUSI
NGPOSTOFFI
CEBOX 6

3. TOSTUDYV-ICHARACTERI
STI
CSOFALI
GHT 9
DEPENDENTRESI
STOR(LDR)

4. RESI
STI
VITYDETERMI
NATI
ONFORASEMI
CONDUCTOR 11
WAFERUSINGFOURPROBEMETHOD

5. STUDYOFI
-VANDI
-RCHARACTERI
STI
CSOFASOLARCELL 14

6. CHARACTERISTI
COFPNJUNCTI
ONDI
ODEUNDER 16
FORWARDBIAS

7. STUDYOFI
-VCHARACTERI
STI
COFPHOTOCELL 17

8. PARTI
CLESI
ZEDETERMI
NATI
ONUSI
NGLASER 18

9. STUDYOFATTENUATI
ONANDPROPAGATI
ON 21
CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFOPTI
CALFI
BERCABLE

10. CHARACTERI
STI
COFPNJUNCTI
ONDI
ODEUNDER 24
REVERSEBI
AS

11. DETERMI
NATI
ONOFEFFI
CIENCYOFSOLARCELL 25

12. CALCULATI
ONOFLATTI
CECELLPARAMETERS–X-
RAY 27 DI
FFRACTI
ON

13. MI
NIPROJECT–CONCEPTBASEDDEMONSTRATI
ON 30

2
 1.
Det
ermi
nat
ionofHal
lCoef
fi
cientandcar
ri
ert
ypef
oraSemi
-conduct
ingMat
eri
al
Ai
m
Todet
ermi
net
hehal
lcoef
fi
cientoft
hegi
vennt
ypeorp-
typesemi
conduct
or
Appar
atusRequi
red
Hallpr
obe(ntypeorpt
ype)
,Hal
lef
fectset
up,El
ect
romagnet
,const
antcur
rentpower
suppl
y,gaussmeteret
c.,
For
mul
ae

i
) Hal
lcoef
fi
cient(
RH) = ×108cm3C–1

wher
e VH = Hal
lvol
tage(
vol
t)
t = Thi
cknessoft
hesampl
e(cm)
I = Cur
rent(
amper
e)
H = Magnet
icf
il
ed(
Gauss)

i
i
) Car
ri
erdensi
ty(n) = cm –3

wher
e RH = Hal
lcoef
fi
ci cm3C–1)
ent(
q = Char
geoft
heel
ect
ronorhol
e(C)
i
i
i) Car
ri
ermobi
l
it )= RH cm2V–1 s–1
y(
wher
e RH = Hal
lcoef
fi
ci cm3C–1)
ent(
 = Conduct
ivi
t CV–1 s–1 cm –1)
y(
Pr
inci
ple
Hal
leff
ect:Whenacurr
entcarr
yingconduct
orispl
acedinatransver
semagneti
cfi
eld,a
pot
enti
aldif
ferencei
sdevel
opedacrosstheconductori
nadirect
ionperpendi
cul
art
obotht he
cur
rentandthemagneti
cfi
eld.

3
 Measur
ementofHal
lcoef
fi
cient
Cur
renti
ntheHal
lef
fectset
up=-
--
--
--
--
-mA

Curr
entint
he Hal
lcoeff
ici
ent
Magnet
icfi
eld(
H) Hal
lVolt
age(VH)
const
antcur
rent (RH)
(Gauss) (
vol
ts)
powersuppl
y(A) cm3C–1

Obser
vat
ionsandCal
cul
ati
ons

(
1) Thi
cknessoft
hesampl
e =t= cm

(
2) Resi
sti
vi
tyoft
hesampl
e == V C–1 scm

(
3) Conduct
ivi
tyoft
hesampl
e== CV–1s–1 cm –1

(
4) Thehal
lcoef
fi
cientoft
hesampl
e = RH = ×108

= -
--
--
--
--
--
--

(
5) Thecar
ri
erdensi
tyoft
hesampl
e = n=

= -
--
--
--
--
--
--

(
6) Thecar
ri
ermobi
l
ityoft
hesampl
e = RH
= -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--

4
 Fi
g.1.
1.Hal
lEf
fectSet
up

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Connectthewi dt
hwisecontactsofthehal
lprobetothet
ermi
nal
smar kedas‘volt
age’
(i
.e.potenti
aldiffer
ence should be measured al
ong t
he wi
dth)and lengthwise
contact
st otheterminal
smar ked(i.
e.cur
rentshoul
dbemeasuredal
ongt helength)
asshowni nfig.
2.Swi
tchont
heHal
lEf
fectset
upandadj
ustt
hecur
rentsay0.
2mA.
3.Swi
tchov
ert
hedi
spl
ayi
ntheHal
lEf
fectset
upt
othev
olt
agesi
de.
4.Now placetheprobei nt hemagnet
icf i
eldasshowni nfigandswitchont he
elect
romagneti
cpowersupplyandadjustthecur
rentt
oanydesiredval
ue.Rotate
theHallpr
obeuntilitbecomeper
pendicul
artomagneti
cfi
eld.Hallv
olt
agewil
lbe
maximum inthi
sadjustment.
5.Measur
ethehal
lvol
tageandt
abul
atet
her
eadi
ngs.
6.Measur
etheHal
lvol
tagef
ordi
ff
erentmagnet
icf
iel
dsandt
abul
atet
her
eadi
ngs.
7.Measur
ethemagnet
icf
iel
dusi
ngGaussmet
er
8.Fr
om t
hedat
a,cal
cul
atet
heHal
lcoef
fi
cient
,car
ri
ermobi
l
ityandcur
rentdensi
ty.
Resul
t

1.TheHal
lcoef
fi
ci
entoft
hegi
vensemi
conduct
ingmat
eri
al =
2.Thecar
ri
erdensi
ty =

5
 3.Thecar
ri
ermobi
l
ity =

BandGapDet
2. ermi
nat
ionusi
ngPostOf
fi
ceBox

Ai
m
Tof
indt
hebandgapoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hegi
vent
her
mist
orusi
ngpostof
fi
cebox.
Appar
atusRequi
red
Ther
mistor
,ther
momet
er,postof
fi
cebox,powersuppl
y,gal
vanomet
er,i
nsul
ati
ngcoi
l
andgl
assbeaker
s.
Pr
inci
pleandf
ormul
ae

(
1) Wheat
stone’
sPr
inci
plef
orbal
anci
nganet
wor
k

Ofthefourr
esist
ances,i
fthr
eer
esi
stancesar
eknownandonei
sunknown,
theunknown
r
esi
stancecanbecalcul
ated.
(
2) Thebandgapf
orsemi
conduct
orsi
sgi
venby
,

Eg=2k

ek=Bol
wher tzmannconst 3810–23 J/
ant=1. K
RT =Resi
stanceatTK
Pr
ocedur
e
1. Theconnect
ionsar
egi
venasi
ntheFi
g.6.
1(a)
.1.Tenohm r
esi
stancesar
etakeni
n
PandQ.
2. Thentheresi
stanceinRi sadjust
edbypressi
ngthetapkey
,unti
lthedefl
ect
ioni
n
thegal
vanometercrosseszeroreadi
ngofthegal
vanomet
er,sayf
rom l
eftt
ori
ght.
3. Afterf
indi
nganappr oxi
materesi
stanceforthi
s,twor esi
stancesinR,whichdif
fer
by1ohm,ar et obefoundoutsucht hatt
hedef lect
ionsint hegal
vanometerfor
theseresi
stanceswil
lbeonei
thersideofzer
or eadingofgalvanometer
.

4. Weknow RT = .
Thi
smeanst
hatt
her
esi
stanceoft
he
t
her
mi storli
esbet
weenR1and(R1+1)
.Thenkeepi
ngt
her
esi
stancei
nQt
hesame,
t
heresistancei
nPischangedt
o100ohm.
5. Agai
ntwor
esi
stances,whi
chdi
ff
erbyoneohm ar
efoundoutsucht
hatt
he
def
lect
ionsi
nthegal
vanomet
erar
eont
heei
thersi
deofzer
o.Ther
efor
etheact
ual
r
esi
stanceoft
her
mist
orwi
l
lbebet
ween and .

6
 Tof
indt
her
esi
stanceoft
het
her
mist
oratdi
ff
erentt
emper
atur
es

Resi
stance
Temp.of ofthe
Resi
stance Resi
stance Resi
stance ther
mi st
or 2.303
t
her
mistor
i
nP i
nQ i
nR l
og10RT
T=t+273 RT = R

K K-1 ohm ohm Ohm ohm ohm

Fi
g.2.
1.PostOf
fi
ceBox-Ci
rcui
tdi
agr
am Fi
g.2.
2.Model
Graph

Obser
vat
ion
Fr
om gr
aph,
sl dy/dx)=……
ope=(

Cal
cul
ati
on
Bandgap, Eg=2k(
dy/dx)=….
.

6. Thent heresi
stancei
nPismade1000ohmskeepi ngsame10ohmsinQ.Again,
tworesi
stancesRand( R+1)ar
efoundoutsuchthatt
hedefl
ect
ioni
ngal
vanomet
er
changesi
tsdirecti
on.Thenthecor
rectr
esi
stance.

7
 = (
or)

= R+1=0.
01R(
or)0.
01(
R+1)

7. Thus,theresi
stanceofthet
her
mist
ori
sfoundoutaccur
atel
ytotwodeci
mal
s,at
room t
emperat
ure.Thelowerval
uemaybeassumedtobeRT(0.01R)
.

8. Thent het
her
mistorisheat
ed,bykeepingiti
mmersedi
ninsul
ati
ngoil
.Forever
y
’
10Kr i
sei
ntemper
atur
e,theresi
stanceofthether
mist
orisf
oundout,(
i.
e)RTsare
foundout
.Ther
eadi
ngisenteredinthetabul
arcol
umn.

Gr
aph

A gr
aphi
sdr
awnbet
ween i
nX axi
sand2.
303l
ogRT i
nYaxi
swher
eTi
sthe

t
emper
aturei
nKandRTi
sther
esi
stanceoft
het
her
mist
oratTK.Thegr
aphwi
l
lbeasshowni
n
t
heFi
g.6.
1(a)
.2.

Bandgap(
Eg)
=2ksl
opeoft aph=2k( )
hegr

wher
eK=Bol
tzman’
sconst
ant
.

Resul
t

Thebandgapoft
hemat
eri
aloft
het
her
mist
or=………eV.

8
 3.
Tost
udyV-
IChar
act
eri
sti
csofaLi
ghtDependentResi
stor(
LDR)
Ai
m
Tomeasur ethephotoconduct
ivenatur
eandt hedarkresi
stanceoft
hegi
venl
i
ght
dependentr
esi
stor(LDR)andt
oplotthechar
acter
ist
icsoftheLDR.

Appar
atusRequi
red
LDR,
Resi
stor(
1k)
,ammet
er(
0–10mA)
,vol
tmet
er(
0–10V)
,li
ghtsour
ce,
regul
ated
powersuppl
y.

For
mul
a

Byohm’
slaw, (
or) ohm

eRi
wher stheresistanceoftheLDR(i.
e)ther esi
stancewhent
heLDRi osed.VandI
scl
r
epr
esent
sthecor
respondingv ol
tageandcur
rentrespecti
vely.

Pr
inci
ple
Thephotoconduct
ivedevicei
sbasedont hedecreaseint
her esist
anceofcer
tai
n
semi
conduct
ormateri
alswhentheyar
eexposedt
obot
hinf
raredandv
isi
bleradi
ati
on.
Thephotoconduct
ivi
tyi
stheresultofcarr
ierexci
tat
ionduetoli
ghtabsor
pti
onandthe
fi
gureofmeritdependsonthel
ightabsorpt
ioneff
ici
ency.Theincr
easei
nconduct
ivi
tyi
sdueto
anincr
easeinthenumberofmobilechargecarr
ier
sinthemat er
ial
.
Pr
ocedur
e
1. Theconnect
ionsar
egi
veni
nasshowni
nFi
g.6.
3.1.
2.Thel
i
ghtsour
cei
sswi
tchedonandmadet
ofal
lont
heLDR.
3.Thecor
respondi
ngv
olt
met
erandammet
err
eadi
ngsar
enot
ed.
4.Theprocedur
eisr
epeat
edbykeepi
ngt
hel
i
ghtsour
ceatdi
ff
erentdi
stancesf
rom t
he
LDR.
5.Agr
aphi
spl
ott
edbet
weenr
esi
stanceanddi
stanceofLDRf
rom t
hel
i
ghtsour
ce.
6. TheLDRiscl
osedandthecorr
espondi
ngv
olt
meterandammeterr
eadi
ngsar
enot
ed.
Thevalueoft
hedarkr
esist
ancecanbecal
cul
atedbyOhm’sl
aw.

9
 Fi
g.3.
1.Ci
rcui
tdi
agr
am Fi
g.3.
2.Model
graph
Obser
vat
ion
Vol
tmet
err
eadi
ngwhent
heLDRi
scl
osed=……V
Ammet
err
eadi
ngwhent
heLDRi
scl
osed=…….A

Dar
kresi
stance= =…….ohm

Todet
ermi
net
her
esi
stancesofLDRatdi
ff
erentdi
stances

S.
No Di
stance Vol
tmet
err
eadi
ng Ammet
err
eadi
ng RR
(
cm) (
V)v
olt (
I)mA k

Resul
t
1.Thechar
act
eri
sti
csofLDRwer
est
udi
edandpl
ott
ed.
2.Thedar
kresi
stanceoft
hegi
venLDR=…….
.ohm

10
 4.
Resi
sti
vi
tyDet
ermi
nat
ionf
oraSemi
conduct
orWaf
erusi
ngFourPr
obeMet
hod
Ai
m
Todeterminet heenergybandgapofasemi conductor(Germanium)usingfourprobe
method.
ApparatusRequired
Probesarrangement( itshouldhav ef ourpr obes,coatedwi t
hzi ncatthet i
ps).The
probesshoul dbeequal lyspacedandmustbei ngoodel ect
ricalcont
actwiththesampl e)
,
Sampl e(Germanium orsili
concr y
stalchipwithnon- conducti
ngbase),Oven(fort
hev ari
ati
onof
temperature ofthe cr y
stalf r
om r oom t emperaturet o about200° C),A constantcurrent
generator(opencircui
tvoltageabout20V, curr
entr ange0t o10mA) ,Mil
li
-vol
tmet
er(rangefrom
100mVt o3V),Powersuppl yforovenTher momet er.
Formula
Theener gybandgap, Eg.,ofsemi-conductori
sgiv enby

ekB i
wher sBolt
zmannconst
antequalt 6×10–5 eV/kel
o8. vi
n,and i
sther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
he
semi
-conduct
orcry
stal
giv
enby

Here,si
sdist
ancebet weenprobesandW i sthethi
cknessofsemi -
conducti
ngcr yst
al.V
andIarethevolt
ageandcurrentacrossandthroughthecrystal
chip.
Procedur
e
1.Connectonepairofpr obestodirectcurr
entsourcethroughmill
iammet erandother
pai
rtomil
li
vol
tmet er
.
2.Swi t
chontheconst antcurr
entsourceandadjustcurrentI,t
oadescribedv al
ue,say
2mA.
3.Connecttheovenpowersuppl yandst ar
theati
ng.
4.Measur et
heinnerprobev ol
tageV,forvari
oustemperatures.
Graph

Pl
otagr
aphi
n andl
og10 asshowni
nFi
g.6.
1(b)
.2.Fi
ndt
hesl
opeoft
hecur
ve

.Sot
heener
gybandgapofsemi
conduct
or(
Ger
mani
um)i
sgi
venby

11
12
 Todet
ermi
net
her
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hesemi
-conduct
orf
orv
ari
oust
emper
atur
es:

Cur
rent(
I)=…………mA

Temper
atur
e Vol
tage(
V) Resi
sti
vi
ty 10–3/T
S.
No. (ohm.cm) Log10
i
n°C i
nK (
Vol
ts) (
K)

Obser
vat
ions:
Di
stancebet
weenpr
obes(
s)=…………………….
.mm
Thi
cknessoft
hecr
yst
alchi
p(W)=……………………mm
cur
rent(
I)=……………….
.mA

13
 Fi
g.4.
1.FourPr
obeSet
up

Fi
g.4.
2.Model
Graph

Resul
t
Ener
gybandgapf
orsemi
conduct
or(
Ger
mani
um)i
sEg=….
eV
Sour
ceofer
rorandpr
ecaut
ions
1. Ther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemat
eri
alshoul
dbeuni
for
mint
hear
eaofmeasur
ement
.
2. Thesur
faceonwhi
cht
hepr
obesr
estshoul
dbef
latwi
thnosur
facel
eakage.
3. Thedi
ameteroft
hecont
actbet
weent
hemetal
li
cpr obesandt
hesemiconduct
or
cr
yst
alchi
pshoul
dbesmall
compar
edt
othedi
stancebetweent
hepr
obes.

14
 5.St
udyofv
-iandv
-rchar
act
eri
sti
csofasol
arcel
l

Ai
m
Tost
udyt
heV-
IandV-
Rchar
act
eri
sti
csofasol
arcel
l
.
Appar
atusRequi
red
Solarcel
l,
volt
met
er,
mil
l
iammet
er,
adi
alt
yper
esi
stancebox,
Key
s,i
l
lumi
nat
ingl
amps,
connecti
ngwi r
esetc.
Pr
ocedur
e
Asolarcel l
(photovolt
aiccel
l)essenti
all
yconsist
sofap- nj
unctiondiode,inwhich
el
ectronsandhol esaregener at
edbyt heinci
dentphotons.Whenanext er
nal ci
rcui
tis
connectedthrought hep-njuncti
ondev i
ce,acurr
entpassesthr
ought hecir
cui t
.Theref
ore,t
he
devi
cegener atespowerwhent heel
ect r
omagneticradi
ati
onisinci
dentonit.

Theschemat
icr
epr
esent
ati
onofasol
arcel
landt
heci
rcui
tconnect
ionsar
easshowni
n
Fi
g.7.
1.

Fi
g.5.
1.Schemat
icr
epr
esent
ati
onandci
rcui
tofSol
arCel
l

Thevolt
meterisconnectedi
npar
all
elwit
hthegi
vensol
arcell
thr
oughapl
ugkey.Amil
l
iammet eranda
var
iabl
eresi
storareconnect
edi
nseriest
othesol
arcel
lthr
oughakeyasshownint
heFig.
6.21.

Thesolarcel
lcanbei
rr
adi
atedbysun’
sradi
ati
on.I
nst
ead,
itcanal
sobei
rr
adi
atedbyaf
il
amentbul
b(60
W or100W ).

Ther
esi
stancev
aluei
sadj
ust
edbyar
essi
tanceboxandt
hev
ari
ati
onofV-
IandV-
Rar
epl
ott
ed.

Readi
ngsar
etabul
atedasf
oll
ows:

15
 (
i) V-
IandV-
Rchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Vol
tmet
er Ammet
er
I
ntensi
ty Resi
stance
Readi
ng Readi
ng

Maxi
mum

V-
IandV-
Rchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Vol
tmet
er Ammet
er
I
ntensi
ty Resi
stance
Readi
ng Readi
ng

Mi
nimum

Fig. 5.
2. Model Graph f
or V-I Char
act
eri
sti
c
Fi
g.5.
3.ModelGr
aphforV-RChar
act
eri
sti
c

16
Resul
t:
TheV-
IandV-
RChar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hesol
arcel
li
sst
udi
ed.
6.Char
act
eri
sti
cofPNj
unct
iondi
odeunderf
orwar
dbi
as

Ai
m:Topl
ott
hechar
act
eri
sti
cscur
veofPNj
unct
iondi
odei
nFor
war
dbi
as
Appar
atus:
Adiode,DCvol
tagesuppl
i
er,
Breadboar
d,100Ωr
esi
stor
,2mul
ti
met
erf
or
measuri
ngcur
rentandv
olt
ageandconnecti
ngwir
es

Fi
g.6.
1.PNJunct
ionFor
war
dBi
as Fi
g.6.
2.I
-VChar
act
eri
sti
cs
Pr
ocedur
e:
Fort hef orwardbiasofaP- Nj unction,P- t
ypeisconnect edt othepositive
ter
mi nalwhi letheN- typeisconnect edt ot henegat i
veterminalofabat t
ery.The
potenti
alatP- Njunctioncanbev ar i
edwi t hthehel pofpotentialdivi
der.Atsome
for
war dv oltage( 0.
3Vf orGeand0. 7Vf orSi )thepotent
ialbar ri
erisaltogether
eli
minatedandcur r
entst ar
tsfl
owi ng.Thi sv olt
ageisknownast hreshol
dv olt
age
(Vth)orcuti nv olt
ageorkneev ol
tage. Itispr acti
call
ysameasbar ri
ervol
tageVB.
ForV<Vth,t hecur rentisnegligible.Ast hef orwardappliedv ol
tageincrease
beyondt hreshol dvolt
age, t
heforwar dcur rentrisesexponentiall
y.
Obser
vat
ion:

S.No For
war
dVol
tage(
V) For
war
dCur
rent(
µA)

17
Resul
t: PNj
unct
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cisst
udi
edandcur
vei
sdr
awn.

7.ToSt
udyV-
Ichar
act
eri
sti
csofPhot
ocel
l

Ai
m:Tost
udyt
hei
l
lumi
nat
ionandV-
Ichar
act
eri
sti
cofphot
ocel
l

Appar
atus:
Phot
ocel
lAppar
atusandconnect
ingwi
res.

Theor y:Sol id-

state devi
ce with a phot osensit
ive cathode 
thatemi ts 
elect rons when
i
llumi nated and an anode forcol l
ecting the emitted elect
rons.I l
luminat ion exci t
es
electrons,whi char eat t
racted t
ot heanode,pr oducing currentpr oportionalt ot he
i
nt ensityoft heil
luminati
on.Inaphot ovol
taiccel
l,lightisusedt oproducev oltage.Ina
phot oconduct i
vecell
, l
i
ghtisusedt or egulatet
hef lowofcur r
ent .Photocellsar eusedi n
cont rolsystems,wher einterrupt
ingabeam ofl i
ghtopensaci rcui
t,actuat ingar el
ay
thatsuppl iespowert o amechani sm t o bri
ngaboutadesi redoper ation,suchas
openi ngadoororset ti
ngoffabur glaralarm.

Pr
ocedur
e:

 ILLUMINATI ONCHARACTERI STICS:

1.Connectt hevolt
met erandammet eraspercir
cuitdiagram shownont he
apparatusandsetRLt ominimum posit
ion.
2.A100W l ampi sar r
angedoverthesolarpanelsucht hatl
i
ghtf al
l
soni tat
normal.Ini
ti
all
y,thelampi spl
acedatmax imum distanceandi sswitchedon.
3.Thev olt
ageandt hecur r
enti
snoted.

18
 4.Theintensityoft
hel ampisv ari
edinst epsbychangi ngt hedist
anceofl amp.
Thereadingsar enotedinObser v
ationTabl e1.
 
 i
i) 
CURRENT- VOLTAGECHARACTERI STICS  :
5.Theintensityoft
hel ampiskeptatMedi um(I1).
6.Thevoltageandcur rentar
eswi tchedon.
7.Theloaddi ali
ssetat470ohms.Thev oltageandcur rentar enoteddown.The
l
oadsissett o1k, 2.
2k, 3.3k,4.7kand10kohmsandateachset t
ingt he
vol
tageandcur r
entarerecorded.Ther eadingsar erecor dedinObser vationTabl
e
2.
8.Theintensityoft
hel ampisincreased( I2).
Att hi
ssetting,step7i srepeated.
9.Theintensityoft
hel ampissett oitsmaxi mum (I3)
.Att hissett
ingst ep7is
againr
epeat ed.

Obser
vat
ions:

Obser
vat
ionTabl
e1 
- 
Il
l
umi
nat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs 

I
ntensi
ty(
dist
anceCm) Vol
tage

11  
0.5V
20 0.
4V
29 0.
3V
38 0.
2V
 
 
 
 
 

Obser
vat
ionTabl
e2 
- 
V-Ichar
act
eri
sti
cs 

Intensit
yI1(
at I
ntensi
tyI
2 
(at I
ntensi
tyI
3(at
distance..
..
..
)  dist
ance.
..
..
.) di
stance.
..
..
.)

RL 
(k
ohms)
Cur
rent Vol
tage Cur
rent Vol
tage Cur
rent
Vol
tage
(mi
cro- (Vol
ts) (mi
cro- (Vol
ts) (mi
cro-
(Vol
ts)
amps) amps) amps)

0.
47            

19
 1
2.
2
3.
3
4.
7
10

GRAPH:For
 V-
ICHARACTERI
STI
CS,
agr
aphi
spl
ott
edbet
weent
hecur
rentandv
olt
age.

RESULT:
Ill
umi
nat
ionandV-
Ichar
act
eri
sti
csofPhot
ocel
lhasbeenst
udi
ed.

20
 8.Par
ti
clesi
zedet
ermi
nat
ionusi
ngl
aser
Ai
m
Todet
ermi
net
hesi
zeofmi
cropar
ti
clesusi
ngl
aser
.
Appar
atusRequi
red
Finemi
cropar
ticl
eshavi
ngnear
lysamesi
ze(
sayl
ycopodi
um powder
),agl
asspl
ate(
say
mi
croscopi
csl
i
de),di
odelaser
,andascreen.
Pr
inci
ple
Whenlaserispassedt hr
oughagl assplat
eonwhi chfinepart
icl
esofnear l
yunif
orm size
arespread,duetodi f
fract
ionci r
cularri
ngsar eobser
ved.Fr om themeasur ementofradiiofthe
observedrings,wecancal cul
atethesizeoft hepart
icles.Sincefordif
fracti
ontooccursi zeof
theobstacl
emustbecompar ablewit
hwav elengt
h,onlyforext r
emelyfi
nepar t
icl
esofmi cronor
sti
ll
lesserdimension,dif
fracti
onpat t
erncanbeobt ai
ned.
Dif
fract
ionisv eryoftenr ef
erredtoasthebendingofthewavesar oundanobst acle.
Whenaci r
cularobstacleisil
l
umi natedbyacoherentcol
l
imat
edbeam suchasl aserl
i
ght,dueto
di
ff
racti
onci r
cularri
ngsar eobtainedasshownint hefi
gur
e3.1.If“
r”istheradiusofthefir
st
dar
kr i
ngand“ D”ist hedistancebet weentheobstacl
eandscreenonwhi cht hedif
fract
ion
pat
ter
ni sobtained,
then.

Si
nceθi
sver
ysmal
li
nthi
sexper
iment

Accor
dingt
othet
heor
y,t
hedi
amet
er1a’
oft
heci
rcul
arobst
acl
eisgi
venby

wher
e

21
r
n = r
adi henthor
usoft derdar
kri
ng(
m)
D = di
stancebet
weent
heobst
acl
eandt
hescr
een(
m)
λ = wav
elengt
hoft
hel
aserl
i
ght(Å)

22
 Fi
g.8.
1.Par
ti
clesi
zedet
ermi
nat
ionusi
ngLaser

Det
ermi
nat
ionofpar
ti
clesi
ze

Di
ff
ract
ionor
der Radi
usofdark Par
ti
clesi
ze
Sl
.No. Di
stance(
D)
(
n) r
ing(
rn) (2a)

Uni
t m m m

1 1
2

2 1
2

3 1
2

Mean

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Fi
nepowderofpar
ti
clesi
sspr
ayed/
spr
eadont
hegl
asspl
ate.
2.Laseri
shel
dhor
izont
all
yandt
hegl
asspl
atei
sinser
tedi
nit
spat
h.
3.Posi
ti
onoft
hegl
asspl
atei
sadj
ust
edt
ogetmax
imum cont
rastr
ingsont
hescr
eenwhi
chi
s

23
 atadi
stancemor
ethan0.
5m.
4.Awhit
epaperisplacedonthescreenandtheposi
ti
onsofthedar
kri
ngsar
emar
ked.The
r
adi
iofdi
ff
erentor
derdarkr
ings(
rn)aremeasur
edusingascal
e.
5.Thedi
stancebet
weent
hescr
eenandt
hegl
asspl
ate(
D)i
sal
someasur
ed.Usi
ngt
hegi
ven

f
ormul
a,t
heav
eragedi
amet
eroft
hepar
ti
clesi
scal
cul
ated.

6.Theexper
imenti
srepeat
edf
ordi
ff
erentDv
alues.
Resul
t
Theav
eragesi
zeoft
hepar
ti
clesmeasur
edusi
ngl
aser= .
..
..
..
μm

24
 9.St
udyofat
tenuat
ionandpr
opagat
ionchar
act
eri
sti
csofopt
ical
fiber
cable
I.ATTENUATI
ONI
NFI
BERS
Ai
m
(
i) Todet
ermi
net
heat
tenuat
ionf
ort
hegi
venopt
ical
fiber
.
(
ii
) Tomeasurethenumer
icalaper
tur
eandhencet
heaccept
anceangl
eoft
hegi
ven
fi
bercabl
es.
Appar
atusRequi
red
Fiberopt
icl
ightsource,opti
cpowermet erandfi
bercabl
es(
1m and5m)
,Numer
ical
aper
tur
emeasurementJIG,optical
fibercabl
ewi
thsour
ce,scr
een.
Pr
inci
ple
The propagati
on ofl i
ghtdown di
elect
ricwav egui
desbearssome simil
ari
tyt othe
propagat
ionofmi crowavesdownmetalwaveguides.I
fabeam ofpowerPii
slaunchedintoone
endofanopt i
calfiberandifPfist
hepowerremainingafteral
engt
hLkm hasbeent raver
sed,
thentheatt
enuati
oni sgi
v enby,

At
tenuat
ion= dB/km

For
mul
a

At
tenuat
ion(
dB/km)=

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Oneendoft heonemet refi
bercableisconnectedtosourceandotherendt
ot he
opti
calpowermet re.
2.Digi
talpowermet erissett o200mV r ange(-200dB)andt hepowermet eris
swit
chedon
3.Theacmai noft heopticsourceisswitchedonandt hef
iberpat
chcordknobi
nt he
sourcei
ssetatonel evel(A).
4.Thedigi
talpowermet erreadi
ngisnoted( Pi)
5.Theprocedureisrepeatedfor5m cable(Pf).
6.Theexperi
menti srepeatedfordi
ffer
entsour cel
evel
s.

25
 Fi
g.9.
1.Set
upf
orl
ossmeasur
ement

Det
ermi
nat
ionofAt
tenuat
ionf
oropt
icalf
ibercabl
es

L=4m =4×10–3km

Source Powerout
putfor Powerout
putfor
Lev
el 1m cabl
e(Pi) 5m cabl
e(Pf) At
tenuat
ion= dB/km

Fi
g.9.
2.Numer
ical
Aper
tur
e

Measur
ementofNumer
icalAper
tur
e

Dist
ancebet
ween
Diamet
eroft
he NA=
Ci
rcl
e sour
ceandscreen θ
spotW (
mm)
(
L)(mm)

Resul
t
1.At
tenuat
ionatsour
cel
evelA=-
--
--
--
--
--(
dB/
km)
2.At
tenuat
ionatsour
cel
evel
B =-
--
--
--
--
--(
dB/
km)

26
 3.At
tenuat
ionatsour
cel
evel
C =-
--
--
--
--
--(
dB/
km)

I
I.Numer
ical
Aper
tur
e
Pr
inci
ple
Numeri
calapertureref
erstothemaximum angl
eatwhichtheli
ghtinci
dentonthef
iber
endistotal
l
yinternal
l
yr ef
lect
edandt r
ansmit
tedpr
operl
yalongt
hef i
ber.Theconef or
medby
ther
otati
onofthisanglealongtheax
isofthefi
beri
stheconeofaccept
anceofthefiber
.
For
mul
a

Numer
ical
aper
tur
e(NA)
=

Accept
anceangl
e=2θmax(
deg)

wher
eL=di
stanceoft
hescr
eenf
rom t
hef
iberendi
nmet
re
W =di
amet
eroft
hespoti
nmet
re.

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Oneendoft
he1met
ref
ibercabl
eisconnect
edt
othesour
ceandt
heot
herendt
othe
NAji
g.
2.TheACmai nsareplugged.Li
ghtmustappearatt
heendofthefi
beront
heNAj
i
g.The
setknobi
nsourceisturnedcl
ockwi
set
osett oamaxi
mum output
.
3.Thewhit
escreenwitht
hef ourconcent
ri
cci
rcl
es(10,15,20and25mm di
ameter
s)is
hel
dvert
ical
lyatasuitabledist
ancetomaket heredspotfrom t
heemitt
ingfi
ber
coi
nci
dewiththe10mm ci
rcl
e.
4.Thedistanceofthescreenfr
om thefiberendLi
srecordedandthedi
amet
eroft
hespot
Wi snoted.Thedi ameterofthecir
clecanbeaccurat
elymeasuredwi
tht
hescal
e.The
procedureisr
epeatedfor15mm, 20mm and25mm diameterci
rcl
es.
5.Thereadi
ngsar
etabul
atedandt
hemeannumer
icalaper
tur
eandaccept
anceangl
ear
e
det
ermined.
Resul
t
i
) Thenumer
ical
aper
tur
eoff
iberi
smeasur
edas.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
i
i
) Theaccept
anceangl
eiscal
cul
atedas.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..(
deg)
.

27
 10. Char
act
eri
sti
cofPNj
unct
iondi
odeunderr
ever
sebi
as

Ai
m:Topl
ott
hechar
act
eri
sti
cscur
veofPNj
unct
iondi
odei
nrev
ersebi
as
Appar
atus:
Adiode,DCvol
tagesuppl
i
er,
Breadboar
d,100Ωr
esi
stor
,2mul
ti
met
erf
or
measuri
ngcur
rentandv
olt
ageandconnecti
ngwir
es.

Fi
g.10.
1.PNJunct
ionRev
erseBi
as Fi
g.10.
2.I
-VChar
act
eri
sti
cs
Pr
ocedur
e:
Fort her eversebiasofp- njuncti
on,P-typei sconnect edtothenegative
terminalwhi l
eN- t
ypeisconnect edt otheposi ti
vet erminalofabat ter
y.Under
normalr ev
er sev olt
age,av er
yli
ttlereversecurrentfl
owst hroughaP- Njuncti
on.
Butwhent her eversevoltageisincreased,apoi ntisreachedwhent hejunction
breakdownwi t
hsuddenr i
seinreversecurrent
.Thecr i
ti
cal v
al ueoft
hevoltageis
knownasbr eakdown( VBR).Thebr eakdownv ol
tagei sdef inedasthereverse
volt
ageatwhi chP- Njuncti
onbreakdownwi thsuddenr iseinr ever
securr
ent.
Obser
vat
ion:

S.No Rev
erseVol
tage(
V) Rev
erseCur
rent(
mA)

28
Resul
t: PNj
unct
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cisst
udi
edandcur
vei
sdr
awn.

11. Det
ermi
nat
ionofef
fi
ciencyofsol
arcel
l
Aim:Toexpl
oresol
arcell
sasr
enewableener
gysour
cesandt
estt
hei
ref
fi
ciencyi
n
conv
erti
ngsol
arradi
ati
ontoel
ect
ri
calpower.
Appar
atus:
Solarcel
l
,vol
tmet
er,mil
l
iammet
er,
adi
alt
yper
esi
stancebox,
Key
s,i
l
lumi
nat
ingl
amps,
connecti
ngwir
esetc.

For
mul
a:

Ef
fi
ci
encyofsol
arcel
lη=[
Pmax/
AIo]x100
Pmax=Maxi
mum power=I
mpxVmp Wat
t
A-
Areaoft
hesol
arpanel
[7.
2cm x4.
5cm Si
ngl
ecel
lonl
y]
I
oInt
ensi
tyofl
i
ght=Poweroft
hebul
b/4πd2
d-Di
stancebet
weensol
arpanel
andbul
b

Pr
ocedur
e
A solarcell(photov oltaiccell
)essenti
all
yconsi st sofap- nj uncti
ondiode,in
whichel ect
ronsandhol esar egener at
edbyt hei ncidentphot ons.Whenanext ernal
ci
rcuitisconnectedthrought hep-njuncti
ondev i
ce,acur rentpassest hroughthecircui
t.
Therefore,t
hedev i
cegener atespowerwhent heel ectr
omagnet i
cr adiati
onisinci
dent
onit.Thev olt
met eri
sconnect edi
npar al
lelwi
ththegi vensol arcellthroughaplugkey .
Ami ll
iammet erandav ariabler esi
storareconnectedinser iestothesol arcel
lthr
ougha
keyasshowni ntheFig.

Thesolarcel
lcanbeirr
adiatedbysun’sr adi
ati
on.I
nst
ead,
itcanalsobeirr
adi
atedbya
fi
lamentbulb(75W) .Ther esi
stancev alueisadj
ust
edbyar esi
stanceboxandthe
vari
ati
onofV-Ii
splot
ted.From t
hegr aphcalcul
atemaxi
mum power.

29
 Di
stancebet
weensol
arpanel Di
stancebet
weensol
arpanel
andbul
b(d)= cm andbulb(d)= cm
I
ntensi
tyofl
i
ghtI
o= Wm-2 I
ntensi
tyofl
i
ghtI
o= Wm-2
Resi
stance Vol
tage Curr
ent Resi
stance Vol
tage Curr
ent
(Ohm) (
V) (
mA) (
V) (
mA)

Obser
vat
ion:
Maxi
mum powerPmax=……….
Wat
t
Ar
eaoft
hesol =……….m2
arpanel
I
ntensi
tyoft
hel
i
ghtI
o= m2
………….W/
Ef
fi
ciencyofsol
arcel
lη=[
Pmax/
AIo]x100

Resul
t:
Ef
fi
ci
encyofsol
arcel
lη=…………………….

30
 12.
Cal
cul
ati
onofLat
ti
ceCel
lPar
amet
ers–X-
rayDi
ff
ract
ion
Ai
m
Thecal
cul
atet
hel
att
icecel
lpar
amet
ersf
rom t
hepowderX-
raydi
ff
ract
iondat
a.
Appar
atusr
equi
red
PowderX-
raydi
ff
ract
iondi
agr
am
For
mul
a
Foracubi
ccr
yst
al

Forat
etr
agonal
cry
stal

Foraor
thor
hombi
ccr
yst
al

Thel
att
icepar
amet
erandi
nter
planardi
stancear
egi
venf
oracubi
ccr
yst
alas,

Wher
e,a =Lat t
iceparameter
d =I nt
erpl
annerdistance
λ =Wav el
engthoftheCuKαr
adi
ati
on(
1.5405)
h,
k,l=Mi
ll
erint
egers

Pr
inci
ple
Br
aggsl
awi
sthet
heor
eti
cal
basi
sforX-
raydi
ff
ract
ion.

EachoftheMil
leri
ndicescant
akev
alues0,
1,2,
3,….Thus,
thef
act h2+k2+
or(
2
l)t
akest
hev
aluesgi
veninTable6.
7.1.

31
32
 ueofh2+k2+l
2
Val fordi
ff
erentpl
anes

h,
k,l h2+k2+l
2
h,
k,l h2+k2+l
2

100 1 300 9
110 2 310 10
111 3 311 11
200 4 322 12
210 5 320 13
211 6 321 14
220 8 400 16
221 9 410 17
nt
I t
ensiy

2

Fi
g.12.
1.XRDpat
ter
n

Thepr
obl
em ofi
ndexi
ngl
i
esi
nfi
xi
ngt
hecor
rectv
alueofabyi
nspect
ionoft n2v
hesi alues.
Pr
ocedur
e:

Fr
om t
he2v
aluesonapowderphot
ogr
aph,t
hev
aluesar
eobt
ai n2v
ned.Thesi alues
ar
etabul
ated.Fr
om t
hatt
hev
aluesof , , ar
edet
ermi
nedandar
e

t
abul
ated.Thev
aluesof ar
eroundedt
othenear
esti
nteger
.Thi
sgi
vest
hev
alueof

h2+k2+l
.Fr
om t
heset
hev
aluesofh,
k,
lar
edet
ermi
nedf
rom t
heTabl
e.6.
7.1.

Fr heh,
om t k,
lval
ues,
thel
att
icepar
amet
ersar
ecal
cul
atedusi
ngt
her
elat
ion

33
 ueofh2+k2+l
2
Val fordi
ff
erentpl
anes

a d
S.No 2 n2
si h2+k2+l
2
hkl
Å Å

Lat
ti
cedet
ermi
nat
ion

Lat
ti
cet
ype Rul
eforr
efl
ect
iont
obeobser
ved

Pr
imi
ti
veP None
Bodycent
eredI hkl:h+k+l=2n
Facecent
eredF hkl:h,
k,lei
theral
loddoral
lev
en

Dependi
ngont
henat
ur heh,
eoft k,
lval
uest
hel
att
icet
ypecanbedet
ermi
ned.

Resul
t:
Thel
att
icepar
amet
ersar
ecal
cul
atedt
heor
eti
cal
l
yfr
om t
hepowderx-
raydi
ff
ract
ion
pat
ter
n.

34
13. Mi
nipr
oject–conceptbaseddemonst
rat
ion

Aim:
Toconstr
ucttheworki
ngmodelbasedonprinci
plesofphysi
cs,t
heoppor
tuni
ty
todev
eloparangeofski
ll
sandknowl
edgeal
readylear
nttoanunseenpr
obl
em.

Object
ives:
Onsuccessf ulcompleti
onoft
hemi
nipr
oject
,thest
udentwi
l
lhav
edev
eloped
ski
ll
s
i
nthef oll
owingareas:
1.Desi
gnofexper iments.
2.Exper
iment
alorcomput
ati
onal
techni
ques.
3.Sear
chi
ngt
hephy
sical
andr
elat
edl
i
ter
atur
e.
4.Communi
cat
ionofr
esul
tsi
nanor
alpr
esent
ati
onandi
nar
epor
t.
5.Wor
kingaspar
tofat
eam.
6.Assessmentoft
eam member
s.
AssessmentandEv
aluat
ion:
1.Each Cl
ass shoul
d hav
e atleastei
ghtgroups.Each gr
oup shoul
d hav
ea
mini
mum of5member soraboveandMaxi
mum of9member s.

2.MiniProj
ectshouldbeawor ki
ngmodel.Onepagewri
te-
upabouttheproj
ect
shoul
dbesubmi t
tedaspert
hetempl
ateprov
idedbyt
hecl
asssubj
ectt
eacher
.

3.Depart
mentofPhy sics& Nanot
echnologywil
lbeorgani
zinganeventTechKnow t
o
showcaset heseMiniProj
ect
s.Al
lgroupsshoul
dpresentt
heworki
ngmodelalongwit
h
theposterattheTechKnow.

4.Exper
tCommi
tt
eewi
l
lev
aluat
eandsel
ectt
hebestpr
ojectf
rom eachcl
ass.

5.Cer
ti
fi
cat
eswi
l
lbeawar
dedf
ort
hebestpr
ojectdur
ingt
heev
entTechKnow.

6.Mar
ksf
ort
hepr
ojectwi
l
lbeawar
dedundert
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
a.

S. Cr
it
eri
a Mar
ks
No
1. Wor
kingmodel
/Desi
gn 5
2. I
dea/Concept/Nov
elt
y 5
3. Pr
esent
ati
on/Vi
va 5
4. Usef
ulness/Appl
i
cat
ion 5
Tot
al 20

35
36