41

CHAPTER- 3

SYNTHESIS OF BIOFUELS

3.1 Introduction

Based on literature review, this work focuses on comprehensive research on

methods of synthesis of oil from seeds, which is found abundantly in southern part of
India which will be followed by evaluation of engine performance parameters with
biodiesel blended diesel.

The research deals with synthesize oil from seeds by mechanical method using
screw expellers and novel method of oil extraction using microwave energy. This
research aims to compare the oil extraction on four different processes, namely
conventional single screw, modified single screw, twin screw and microwave heating.

For extraction of oil from seeds, seeds were cleaned and dried under sun. Figure
3.1 (a) shows the whole pongamia pinnata seeds and Figure 3.1 (b) shows the crushed
pongamia pinnata seeds. The average length, width and thickness of seeds were 25.29
mm, 15.58 mm and 7.88 mm respectively. The geometric mean diameter and sphericity
were 14.55 mm and 0.57 mm respectively. The seeds were fed to the single screw
expeller at constant rate and crushed flakes were obtained. Both whole seeds and crushed
seeds were used as feedstock.

Figure 3.1 (a) Whole Pongamia Pinnata Seeds

 42

Figure 3.1 (b) Crushed Pongamia Pinnata Seeds

3.2 Single Screw Extrusion Setup

Figure 3.2 (a) shows photographic image of a single screw oil expeller used in
this study. Figure 3.2 (b) shows the schematic view of the single screw expeller setup for
oil extraction. Figure 3.2 (c) shows the screw shaft in the single screw expeller. Figure
3.2 (d) shows the details of the design of the single screw used. The single screw oil
expeller used mainly consists of the following four sections namely feeding section
(hopper), screw shaft, barrel (screw housing) and drive assembly. A 5 HP, 3 phase motor
with 15 amps drives the expeller.
 43

Hopper

Belt Drive
Feed Control
Housing
Oil Outlet

Figure 3.2 (a) Single Screw Oil Expeller

Figure 3.2 (b) Schematic of the Single Screw Oil Extraction Setup
 44

Flight
Tapered
Shaft

Figure 3.2 (c) Screw Shaft of Single Screw Expeller

Tapered Shaft

Figure 3.2 (d) Detailed Design of the Screw of the Single Screw Expeller

Seed cake is obtained after oil is expelled from seeds. Figure 3.3 shows the
pongamia seed cake which serves as a good organic and natural manure.
 45

Figure 3.3 Pongamia Oil Cake

3.3 New Concept Development for Oil Extraction

Oil expelling technology in India is still in traditional state. There is a need for
advancement in technology. Hence newer concepts have been proposed. Concept
generation began with solution requirements and target specifications. Based on this,
various product concepts were generated out of which most suitable concept was
selected. A five step method has been adopted for concept generation process.

3.3.1 Step by step approach for Concept Generation

In this approach, initially complex problem was broken down into simpler sub-
problems. Solution concepts were identified for sub-problems by internal and external
search procedures.

Step 1: Problem Clarification

Problem was understood and broken down into sub-problems wherever necessary
as follows:

 Hopper feeds oil seeds into barrel.

 Motor drives the progressive screw shaft using transmission system for axial
movement of material in screw press.

 Screw shaft conveys seeds for crushing section.

 Crushed oil is collected through openings at the bottom.

 46

The basic needs of system are translated to target specification as follows:

 Processing time reduction needs to be considered.

 Oil yield increase needs to be considered.

 Suitable motor has to be used.

A complex problem was decomposed in to simpler sub-problems to arrive at

solution. The problem was decomposed functionally into energy input and suitable
movement of seeds wherein thin lines denote transfer and conversion of energy, while
thick lines indicate movement of material which forms the two sub-functions. Each sub-
function could be further sub-divided.

Decomposition of energy function comprises of energy from motor into rotational

energy of screw shaft. Seed movement comprises of dried and cleaned seeds stored and
conveyed from hopper. Rotation of shaft conveys seeds in barrel and then crushes it to
expel oil as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 Oil Expeller’s Functional Decomposition

Step 2: External Search

This step comprises of looking at existing solutions to overall and sub-problems by

information gathering using focused approach to optimizing available time from
following sources:
 47

Lead users: input from operations personnel on productivity and yield.

Experts: collection of inputs from technical experts on technologies for oil expelling.

Literature: Journals, patents, reports for technical data and advancements.

Summary was derived from this step are:

 Use of reverse screw flight at suitable position in the shaft increases retention
time.

 Decreasing pitch increases force on material.

Step 3: Benchmarking related Products

It is consideration of existing products with functionalities similar to product or sub-

problems under study.

Step 4: Internal Search

Internal search is the application of expertise to generate solution concepts. Several

ideas was generated which stimulated more ideas. Ideas which seem infeasible might be
improved.

Step 5: Systematic Exploration

External and internal search led to fragmented solution concepts. These

fragments were organized systematically to explore possibilities. Based on above steps,
following concepts have been generated for oil expelling.

3.3.1.1 Concept 1- Single Screw Expeller

Concept 1 comprises of use of existing method i.e. single screw expeller for oil
extraction from seeds.

3.3.1.2 Concept 2- Sequential type Expeller

This concept comprises of two screw shafts with the top shaft placed similar to
shaft in existing expeller. After material conveys through top shaft, it would move to
 48

bottom shaft due to gravity. It is expected that material stays in the system for a longer
duration increasing yield. Schematic of this concept is as shown in Figure 3.5.

Hopper

Screw Shaft 1

Screw Shaft 2

Drive
Assembly

Figure 3.5 Schematic of Sequential type Oil Expeller

3.3.1.3 Concept 3 - Twin Screw Expeller

Twin screw expeller uses two intermeshing screws which exerts high pressure on
material for oil extraction from seed mass. This method is in use in various other
applications. 3D model and top view of meshing twin screws is as shown in Figure 3.6(a)
and (b) respectively.
 49

Screw Shaft 1

Screw Shaft 2

Figure 3.6 (a) CAD Model of the Twin Screws of the Twin Screw Expeller

Screw Shaft 1
Shank

Screw Shaft 2

Figure 3.6 (b) Schematic Top View of the Twin Screws of the Twin Screw
Expeller

3.3.1.4 Concept 4 – Shaft with Reverse Flight

In this concept, reverse screw at suitable position can be provided by modifying

the screw configuration of single screw expeller to increase residence time of seed mass.

Step 6- Reflection on the Results and the Process

The above steps were reviewed in terms of productivity and oil yield for various
concepts developed.
 50

3.3.2 Concept Selection

It is the process of evaluating concepts with respect to needs and other criteria,
comparing the relative strengths and weaknesses of the concepts and selecting one or
more concepts for further investigation, testing or development. Thus number of concepts
would be narrowed down.

There are various methods for selection of a concept among many. The methods
vary in their effectiveness and include the following:

External Decision: Concepts are turned over to the customer or some other
external entity for selection.

Intuition: The concept is chosen by its feel. Explicit criteria are not used. The
concept just seems better.

Decision Matrices: Each concept is rated against pre-specified selection criteria

which may be weighted. This method was used in current research for concept selection
as it involves ranking based on metrics.

3.3.2.1 Concept Screening Methodology using Decision Matrix

During Concept Screening, rough initial concepts were evaluated relative to a

common reference concept using the screening matrix. The purpose of this stage was to
narrow the number of concepts quickly.

This involves use of concept screening decision matrix. Following steps were
used during this process.

1. Preparation of selection matrix.

2. Rating the concepts.

3. Ranking the concepts.

4. Selecting one or more concepts.

5. Reflection on results and process.

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Step 1 - Preparing the Selection Matrix

A simple table matrix was created and the inputs i.e. concepts and criteria were
entered on the matrix. The selection criteria were considered and listed along the left
hand side of the screening matrix.

A concept has to be chosen as a benchmark or reference concept. In this problem,

existing oil expeller was chosen as reference, against which all other concepts were rated.

Step 2-Rating the Concepts

A Relative score of ‘Better than’(+), ‘same as’(0), or ‘Worse than’(-) was placed
in each cell of the matrix to represent how each concept scores in comparison with the
reference concept for each criterion.

Step 3-Ranking the concepts

After rating the concepts, the number of ‘better than’, ‘same as’ and ‘worse than’
scores were summed up and the sum for each categories were entered in the lower rows
of the matrix. Next, the net score was calculated by subtracting the number of ‘worse
than’ ratings from the ‘better than’ ratings. Once the summation was completed, the
concepts were ranked based on the score. The concept screening matrix for the generated
concepts is shown in Table 3.1.
 52

Table 3.1 Concept Screening Matrix

Step 5-Selecting one or more Concepts

At this stage, there was a better understanding of each concept and its relative
merits. Thus decision was taken on selection of concepts for further refinement and
analysis. The number of concepts selected for further review would be limited depending
on the resources such as money, time and personnel. Consequently, concept 2 and 3 were
selected.

Step 6 - Reflection on the Results and the Process

Based on the review of the results obtained from these steps, modified screw
expeller and twin screw expeller were taken up for further development as they are
promising concepts for mechanical extraction of oil.

3.4 Modified Single Screw Expeller Setup

Figure 3.7 (a) shows the modified single screw oil extraction setup. Figure 3.7 (b)
shows the detailed design of the modified single screw and Figure 3.7 (c) shows the 3D
assembly model of modified screw. The modified single screw has one thread of the
screw in the reverse direction. During the crushing process, seeds flow along the forward
screw path. When the material faces the reverse screw flight, some part of the material
gets pushed back. This increases the residence time of the seeds inside the barrel thus
 53

increasing the crushing. A step down in the diameter at reverse section helps the seeds to
flow over the reverse screw. If the position of reverse flight of the screw is at the
discharge end, then it would lead to jamming of screw. If the reverse flight of the screw is
positioned towards the feeding end, then its effect is limited as expelling process takes
place at the cage bar assembly, located near discharge end. Thus, the reverse flight
section of the screw is positioned in the mid-section of the single screw.

Belt Drives

Reverse Thread

Oil Outlet

Figure 3.7 (a) Schematic of the Modified Single Screw Oil Extraction Setup

Figure 3.7 (b) Detailed Design of the Modified Screw for the Single Screw
Expeller
 54

Reverse Screw

Feed Control
Hand Wheel
Figure 3.7 (c) 3D Assembly of Reverse Worm Screw Shaft

The designed worm shaft (Screw Conveyor) provided with a single reverse screw
thread near the discharge end was fabricated in VMC 850, a 4-axis CNC machine as
shown in Figure 3.8 (a). The screw thus fabricated is shown in Figure 3.8 (b).

Machining
using VMC

Work Piece

Figure 3.8 (a) CNC Machining of Reverse Screw

Tapered Shaft
Reverse Thread

Figure 3.8 (b) Fabricated Modified Screw

Screw shaft in expeller was replaced with fabricated screw and trials were
conducted for expelling oil from pongamia seeds.
 55

3.5 Twin Screw Extrusion Machine

Twin screw extrusion processs is widely used in polymer processing industry,

since it generate intense pressure in the constituent materials. In a twin screw machine,
segmented screws are fixed on shafts with bearing supports. Screws rotate inside the
housing which is called as barrel. The schematic representation of a twin screw machine
is as shown in Figure 3.9 with feeding region at the beginning and pressing region for oil
extraction.The screws does the function of conveying, compressing and shearing.
Segmented screws are fixed one after another on splined shafts. Various standard screw
elements for required functions is shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.9 Block diagram of Twin Screw Oil Expeller

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Splined to Shaft

Co-rotation
Conveying Elements

Counter-rotation
Conveying Elements

Kneading Elements

Figure 3.10 Screw Element types

Thus rapid customization of the screw elements can be done to get good results.
Twin screw expellers are superior to single screw counterpart in the following aspects.

1. Set of screws inter-penetrate in a twin screw expeller. Also screw elements such
as kneading elements, reverse screw etc. can be configured to provide the required
force.

2. Processing parameters such as temperature, speed of screw and flow rate can be
altered leading to superior control of process in a twin screw expeller. Single
screw expellers have lower degree of control of process parameters.

3. Stroke of double screw exerts force on the feed while in single screw expellers
resistance between barrel and screw is used to exert force which could result in
slipping and surging.

4. Screw wear could be compensated by screw speed in a twin screw expeller which
is not possible in a single screw machine.
 57

5. Screw flight of a shaft removes the particles of the feed from supplementary flight
in a twin screw expeller. Single screw expellers have dull spots wherein particles
not transmitted would stick to screw.

Thus twin screw expellers offer following advantages.

 High degree of flexibility of process.

 Higher shearing capability.

 Better control of parameters of process and hence more production uniformity.

 Higher productivity.

 Self-wiping (self-cleaning) capability.

 Easier maintenance.

3.5.1 Developed Twin Screw Expeller

For the purposes of the present study, twin screw extrusion process was evalauted
as an option for extration of oil from pongamia pinnata seeds considering it’s
advantages. Detailed design of the twin screw expeller used for oil expelling and twin
screw expeller used in this research is shown in Figure 3.11 (a) and (b) respectively.
 58

Figure 3.11 (a) Views of the Twin Screw Expeller

Hopper

Feed Motor

Barrel
Drive
Assembly

Figure 3.11 (b) Twin Screw Oil Expeller

 59

Details of splined screw shaft and screw elements fixed on shaft for carrying out
oil extraction are shown in Figure 3.12 (a) and (b) respectively. Figure 3.13(a) and (b)
show the views of segmented barrels assembly with oil filter.

Material for both screw and barrel are alloy steel. They are subjected to hardening
and nitriding to resist corrosion and wear. Screw profile comprises of conveying,
kneading and reverse screw element segments. The segmented screws can be taken out of
spline shaft. Based on the process requirement, they can be rearranged. This gives
flexibility to arrange the elements as per requirement. The detail of the screw is as given
in Table 3.2.

Figure 3.12 (a) Details of Screw Profile of Twin Screw Expeller

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Conveying Elements Kneading Elements Reverse Elements

Figure 3.12 (b) Screw Configuration used in Twin Screw Expeller

 61

SECTION C-C Milled Surface

Right Side View Front View

Orthographic Views of the Barrel

Front View Left Side View

Oil Filter Holes

Top View
Orthographic Views of the Oil Filter

Figure 3.13 (a) Views of the Barrel with Oil Filter

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Right Side View Front View

Orthographic Views of the Oil Bin

Right
Views Side
of the View of Barrel, Oil Filter andFront
Assembly View
Oil Bin
Orthographic Views of the Assembly of Barrel, Oil Filter and Oil Bin

Barrel

Oil Filter

Oil Bin

Figure 3.13(b) Exploded View of Barrel Filter Assembly

 63

Table 3.2 Specifications of Screw in Barrel

SCREW DIA, mm Ø 40

ROOT DIAMETER, mm Ø 26

L/D 20

BARREL I.D, mm Ø 40.5

SCREW TYPE 16 Teeth Spline

There are 5 barrel segments; barrel segment 1 does the function of feeding. Top
vent holes for removal of moisture are provided at barrel segments 3 and 4. Barrel
segments 2-5 are provided with heaters and oil filter plates at the bottom. A volumetric
feeder of screw type is integrated to expeller. The principle of this feeder is to deliver
constant volume of feed material using a screw shaft. Feeder comprises of a variable
drive AC motor and a gear box. Conveying elements move the material, while kneading
elements kneads the feed material. Reverse screw elements presses the feed material.
Figure 3.14 shows the conveying, kneading and reverse screw elements used in the
research. Table 3.3 list the screw elements adopted in the twin screw setup.

Conveying
Element Reverse Kneading
Element Elements
Figure 3.14 Conveying, Kneading and Reverse Screw Elements used in Twin
Screw Machine
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Table 3.3 Screw Element details adopted in the Twin Screw Setup

SCREW PROFILE

RH SHAFT LH SHAFT

SCREW SCREW
SIZE BARREL SIZE
ELEMENTS ELEMENTS

15 mm SPACER 15 mm SPACER

Ø 40 X 54 SE(R) Ø 40 X 54 SE(L)
THROAT BARREL
Ø 40 X 54 SE(R) Ø 40 X 54 SE(L)

Ø 40 X 54 SE(R) Ø 40 X 54 SE(L)

Ø 40 X 54 SE(R) Ø 40 X 54 SE(L)

Ø 40 X 54 SE(R) CLOSED BARREL Ø 40 X 54 SE(L)

Ø 40 X 54 KBR Ø 40 X 54 KBL

Ø 40 X 36 KBR Ø 40 X 36 KBL

Ø 40 X 36 SE(R) Ø 40 X 36 SE(L)
VENT OPEN
Ø 40 X 27 SE(R) BARREL (OIL Ø 40 X 27 SE(L)
FILTER)
Ø 40 X 18 SEL Ø 40 X 18 SER

Ø 40 X 36 SE(R) Ø 40 X 36 SE(L)

Ø 40 X 36 KBR Ø 40 X 36 KBL

Ø 40 X 36 KBR VENT CLOSED Ø 40 X 36 KBL

Ø 40 X 36 SE(R) BARREL (OIL Ø 40 X 36 SE(L)

FILTER)
Ø 40 X 12.8 SEL Ø 40 X 12.8 SER

Ø 40 X 54 KB(R) Ø 40 X 54 KB(L)

Ø 40 X 54 KB(R) Ø 40 X 54 KB(L)

Ø 40 X 18 SER Ø 40 X 18 SEL

Ø 40 X 27 SEL Ø 40 X 27 SER

Ø 40 X 27 SE(R) Ø 40 X 27 SE(L)
OIL FILTER
Ø 40 X 12.8 SER Ø 40 X 12.8 SEL
 65

Oil extraction using mechanical methods were successfully carried out. Further
innovative method of oil extraction using microwave radiation has been proposed.

3.6 Microwave Assisted Oil Extraction

The microwave oven used in this study is Sanyo EM-C6786V Microwave Oven
with the operating frequency of 2450 MHz [128]. The conceptual design of microwave
assisted oil extraction is as shown in 3.15 (a). The layout of the microwave assisted oil
extraction system developed is as shown in the Figure 3.15 (b). Pongamia pinnata seeds
when exposed to microwave radiation will get heated up due to the presence of polar oil
molecules. Due to intense heat, oil will vaporize. In the condenser, the oil vapors get
converted into oil by giving heat to the coolant flowing in the glass tube. The oil flows to
the vacuum flask and gets collected in it.

Figure 3.15 (a) Flow Chart of Conceptual Design of Microwave Method

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Figure 3.15 (b) Detailed Layout of Microwave Assisted Extraction System

3.6.1 Development of Microwave Assisted Extraction System

Subsystems used in the developed system comprises of the following:

3.6.1.1 Microwave Oven

The microwave oven used in this research is Sanyo EM-C6786V as shown in

Figure 3.16. The detailed specification of the Microwave Oven is given in Table 3.4.

Figure 3.16 Microwave Oven used in the Research

 67

Table 3.4 Specifications of Sanyo EM-C6786V Microwave Oven

Model EM-C6786V

Voltage, Frequency 240 V, 50 Hz

Power Consumption 2500 W

Max. Power Output 900 W (Microwave)

Operating Frequency 2450 MHz

Magnetron Used MM51200100068R

Dimensions (W x H x D),

Oven Cavity 520 x 343 x 478 mm

Volume 30 X 10-3 m3

Net Weight 19.2 kg

3.6.1.2 Two – Neck Glass Flask

Heating is created by microwave radiation. Due to this, oil vapours would be

released from the seed mass. Heat resistant borosilicate glass flat-bottom flask as shown
in Figure 3.17 with two-neck was connected to a condenser. For ensuring air tightness,
necks were closed with rubber corks.
 68

Figure 3.17 Two-Neck Flask (2000 ml)

3.6.1.3 Condenser

A Graham condenser with spiral coil coolant jacket was used as shown in Figure
3.18. Spiral coils provide higher contact area. The inner coil ends can be connected to
hoses or glassware. Two ends of outer coil were connected to hoses for the flow of
coolant [129]. This is a counter flow condenser which has effectiveness higher than that
of a parallel flow condenser. Owing to the high temperature of oil vapours that need to be
condensed in the proposed system, counter flow condenser has been selected [130]. Also
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for counter flow heat exchanger is more than
LMTD for parallel flow heat exchanger leading to higher heat transfer rate [131]. The
specifications of the coiled Graham condenser are as given in Table 3.5.

Exhaust Port

Cooling
Water Outlet
Cooling
Water Inlet

Vapour Inlet
Port
Figure 3.18 Coiled Graham Condenser (300 mm Jacket)
 69

Table 3.5 Specifications of Coiled Graham Condenser

Material Borosilicate Glass

Cooling Jacket:

Outer Diameter 40 mm

Length 300 mm

Total Length 480 mm

Surface area of inner coil 35000 mm2

End diameter of Cooling Jacket 10 mm

for Connections

Heat Exchanger type Counter Flow

3.6.1.4 Diaphragm Pump for Suction

Diaphragm pump is a suction pump wherein a membrane reciprocates. When

membrane moves down, volume of pump chamber increases leading to pressure
decrease. This creates vacuum for suction. When membrane moves up, pressure increases
forcing out the fluid. Hence in this research, for creating vacuum pressure in the air
sealed enclosure, a diaphragm pump was used ensuring flow of oil vapours through
condenser and finally collection of oil in suction flask. This was done to ensure that oil
vapours doesn’t get trapped in oven cavity which could lead to oil quality deterioration
due to burning by extensive application of heat. Also increase in flow rate results in
increase in oil yield. Diaphragm pump used in this research is shown in Figure 3.19. The
detailed specifications of the PDF2-75 Double Diaphragm Pump are as described in
Table 3.6.
 70
Diaphragm Head
Stage 1
Outlet Port 6 mm
Diaphragm Head
Inlet Port 6 mm Stage 2

Motor with Cooling

Fan and Fins

Figure 3.19 PDF2-75 Double Diaphragm Suction Pump

Table 3.6 Specifications of PDF 2-75 Double Diaphragm Pump

Model PDF2-75

Power 373 W

Voltage, Frequency 230 V, 50 Hz / Single Phase

Maximum pressure 397.95 N/m2

Maximum Vacuum 950.872 N/m2

Dimensions H x W x L 305 X 127 X 203 mm

3.6.1.5 Vacuum flask

It is glass conical flask with cork for air tightness [132]. There is an inlet at the
top for collection of condensed oil in the flask. A side bent tube is provided for
connection with diaphragm pump. Inlet piping was drawn into vacuum flask preventing
oil flow into membrane pump which could cause damage to pump. The conical flask used
in this study is shown in Figure 3.20.
 71

Figure 3.20 Conical Suction Flask of Capacity 250ml

3.6.2 Fabrication of Microwave Assisted Extraction System

2 holes were drilled at microwave oven’s top of as shown in Figure 3.21(a) for
tubing of 2-neck flask. Different sized rubber corks were used and necessary silicone tube
hoses were connected. Condenser was connected to flask for collection of oil mass. Other
side of suction was connected to diaphragm pump for creating the negative pressure
gradient in the system. Thus oil vapour from the 2-neck flask flows to condenser and oil
droplets gets collected in the suction flask. The system thus fabricated is shown in Figure
3.21(b).

Powdered seeds were placed in the 2-neck flask and kept in the microwave oven.
Power and duration was set and system was switched on. Due to microwave radiation,
temperature in the oven cavity increases resulting in release of oil vapour which flows to
the condenser due to pressure gradient formed by the diaphragm pump. Vapors of oil get
converted into liquid in the shell of the condenser by transferring heat to the flowing
coolant in the condenser’s glass tube. Finally oil gets collected in the vacuum flask
 72

Hose Pipe
Outlet
to Condenser

Rubber Cork

Oven Top

Figure 3.21 (a) Connections on the Top Surface of the Microwave Oven

Graham Condenser
Microwave
Oven Diaphragm Pump

Suction Flask

Figure 3.21 (b) Microwave Assisted Oil Extraction Setup

3.7 Filtration of Oil Produced

Raw oil needs to be free of floating impurities and sediments. Oil needs to be
clear and unadulterated. External impurities getting into oil could add to process
difficulties. Hence oil produced was pumped through filter cloth of filter press for
separation of seed particles from the oil. Filter press shown in Figure 3.22 comprises of
six plates of 6” x 6”. 100 micron filter cloth is used in the oil filter press.
 73

Oil Inlet
Filter
Cloth

Figure 3.22 Oil Filter Press

3.8 Transesterification

Transesterification is widely accepted and attractive method for conversion of oil

into biodiesel [46]. Proportions for biodiesel production per l litre of oil (clear and free
from sediments) include 200 ml methanol reactant and 8 g of NaOH catalyst. Reaction of
mixture was carried out at 60 C for about an hour. After settling, glycerine was drained
out and biodiesel was water washed 8 times with proportion of about 100 ml water to get
clean biodiesel as terminal product. The biodiesel was dried by heating without
circulation. A 50 litre transesterification setup used to produce biodiesel is as shown in
Figure 3.23.
 74

Methanol
Recovery Tank

Catalytic
Reactor
Washing Unit
Esterification
Unit Transesterification
Unit
Temperature
Gauge

Pump

Figure 3.23 Biodiesel Production Setup

Mahua and calophyllum biodiesel were blended with diesel with 0%, 10%, 20%,
30%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% for comparison of performance results with pongamia
biodiesel blends with diesel in same proportions. The mahua and calophyllum seeds are
shown in Figure 3.24 and 3.25 respectively.

Figure 3.24 Mahua Seeds

 75

Figure 3.25 Calophyllum Seeds

3.9 Apparatus for Characterization of fuel

Viscosity of the fuel was measured using viscometer shown in Figure 3.26 (a).
Viscosity is the resistance to fluid flow at a given temperature. Kinematic viscosity takes
fluid density into account and is measured by noting the time taken for liquid flow
through the orifice of capillary tube under gravity. This time is directly converted to
kinematic viscosity by using a simple calibration constant for the tube. Flash point of the
fuel was found out using apparatus shown in Figure 3.26 (b). Density of the fuel was
measured using hydrometer shown in Figure 3.26 (c). Hydrometer is the instrument used
for measuring relative density. It is made of glass and contains a scale for direct
measurement.

Copper strip corrosion test is used to determine corrosion level caused by sulphur
and acidic compounds in the fuels on equipments containing copper and its compounds
(brass and bronze) which are sensitive to these compounds. For conduction of this test, as
per ASTM D130, the copper strip after polishing was immersed in biodiesel bath
contained in the bomb apparatus as shown in Figure 3.26 (d). The bomb apparatus in turn
was kept vertically in the water bath and water bath was heated for 3 hours at 50±1  C.
Then copper strip was removed and compared with standard to make sure that no rusting
or black spots were observed.
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Water Bath
Heater

Temperature
Display

Viscometer Tube

Control Buttons

Figure 3.26 (a) Cannon-Fenske Viscometer

Handle
Stirrer

Temperature
Display

Figure 3.26 (b) Pensky–Marten's Apparatus to Measure Flash Point

 77

Graduated Hydrometer (Inside)

Outer Glass Cylinder

Biodiesel

Figure 3.26 (c) Hydrometer for Measuring Density

Inserted Copper Strip

Indicator Lamps

Temperature Control knob

Figure 3.26 (d) Copper Strip Corrosion Test Apparatus

3.10 Summary

Oil was synthesized from seeds using mechanical methods and microwave
assisted method. Transesterification of oil was carried out for blending with diesel to
conduct engine performance tests.