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An Investigation of Hydrogen Sulfide Plume Migration in the

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An Investigation of Hydrogen Sulfide

Plume Migration in the Asmari Reservoir
of the Iranian Marun Oil Field: Using
Repeat Formation Tests
a a b
Ali Telmadarreie , Seyed Reza Shadizadeh & Bahram Alizadeh
a
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Abadan Faculty of
Petroleum Engineering , Petroleum University of Technology (PUT) ,
Abadan , Iran
b
Department of Geology, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Remote
Sensing , S. Chamran University of Ahwaz , Ahwaz , Iran
Published online: 05 Sep 2013.

To cite this article: Ali Telmadarreie , Seyed Reza Shadizadeh & Bahram Alizadeh (2013) An
Investigation of Hydrogen Sulfide Plume Migration in the Asmari Reservoir of the Iranian Marun Oil
Field: Using Repeat Formation Tests, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental
Effects, 35:21, 1991-2001, DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2010.531506

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 Energy Sources, Part A, 35:1991–2001, 2013
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2010.531506

An Investigation of Hydrogen Sulfide Plume Migration

in the Asmari Reservoir of the Iranian Marun Oil Field:
Using Repeat Formation Tests
Downloaded by [The University of Manchester Library] at 01:44 16 October 2014

Ali Telmadarreie,1 Seyed Reza Shadizadeh,1 and Bahram Alizadeh2

1
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Abadan Faculty of Petroleum Engineering,
Petroleum University of Technology (PUT), Abadan, Iran
2
Department of Geology, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Remote Sensing, S. Chamran
University of Ahwaz, Ahwaz, Iran

Marun oil field is one of the giant oil fields in southwest of Iran. It consists of two oil reservoirs
and one gas reservoir named Asmari, Bangestan, and Khami, respectively. One of the major problems
in this field is contamination of Asmari reservoir with H2 S gas. The aim of this article was to
study the trend and history of H2 S spreading in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field and also to
investigate communication of Asmari reservoir layers via evaluation of fracture distribution, horizontal
and vertical permeability distribution, and repeat formation test results. The results demonstrated good
communication of layers in the center, especially in sectors 4 and 6 of the southern limb, central part
of Asmari reservoir, due to higher fracture, higher permeability, and good pressure communication
in these sectors. Moreover, the history of H2 S concentration during time showed a decreasing trend
while this contamination is spreading from the southeast to northwest of Asmari reservoir.

Keywords: Asmari, H2 S, Marun, repeat formation test, reservoir communication

1. INTRODUCTION

Increasing mass of hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) per unit mass of total produced fluids is the phenomenon
of souring, and a well which produces H2 S is said to be sour. Up to around 3 ppmv (parts
per million by volume), are typically benign or even beneficial in their effects on oil well and
processing equipment. The transition from sweet to sour is usually referred to a baseline of
around 3 ppmv rather than zero (Eden et al., 1993). Hydrogen sulfide is generally an undesirable
component of natural gas. H2 S not only dilutes the proportion of hydrocarbon gas in the reservoir,
it is also highly toxic and highly corrosive to production equipment (Worden and Smalley,
1996). The three main sources of H2 S in hydrocarbon reservoirs are: (1) bacterial or microbial
sulfate reduction; (2) thermal decomposition of organic sulfur compounds in kerogen or oil;
and (3) thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) (Orr, 1974, 1977; Machel, 1987, 1988). These
mechanisms could not have occurred in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field because of its low
temperature, absence of anhydrite Formation in Asmari reservoir, and no application of sea water

Address correspondence to Dr. Seyed Reza Shadizadeh, Abadan Faculty of Petroleum Engineering, Petroleum
University of Technology, Northern Bowarde, Abadan, 6318714331, Iran. E-mail: shadizadeh@put.ac.ir

1991
 1992 A. TELMADARREIE ET AL.

injection for activity of reducing bacteria (SRB). A former study introduced Bangestan reservoir
as a possible source of H2 S contamination in Asmari reservoir (Alizadeh et al., 2012). Bangestan
reservoir is located in a deeper part and initially has been producing sour oil due to TSR (Alizadeh
et al., 2007). But the sources of H2 S pollution in Asmari reservoir have been debated up to now.
Two possible sources of H2 S pollution in Asmari reservoir are Bangestan reservoir and injection
of sour gas into the Asmari reservoir, which has been performing since 1990. Similar studies, such
as a study of the source of H2 S and its migration trend were performed in Marjan complex of
Saudi Arabia, which showed a slight increase in H2 S concentration with time in Khafji reservoir
(Al-Eid et al., 2001).
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Natural fractures have a significant influence on the reservoir behavior and performance.
Fractured zones can probably be detected both directly and indirectly using seismic sections,
petrophysical logs, well tests, drilling mud loss history, and core description (Thompson, 2000;
Nelson, 2001; Martinez-Torres, 2002; Dutta et al., 2007). Image logs are presently the main
specialized tools for fracture detection in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Where image logs are not
available, other less rewarding substitutes, such as isolated well tests and type curve analysis,
drilling mud loss history, core description, and conventional petrophysical logs, are used for
fracture detection (Tokhmechi et al., 2010). The study of fracture distribution in a reservoir
can help to find high fracturing areas in order to show good communication between the layers.
Moreover, to achieve this goal (determining communication of layers), repeat formation test results
could be useful. A repeat formation test is used to obtain formation pressure measurements and
fluid samples. Formation pressure profiles have long been used as important tools to determine
reservoir pressure, evaluation of fluid type from in-situ densities, identification of fluid contacts,
differential depletion, and inter-reservoir connectivity (Jackson et al., 2007).
In this article, communication of reservoir layers in Asmari formation were studied via consid-
ering fracture distribution, horizontal and vertical permeability distribution, and repeat formation
test results in order to find reservoir parts with good communication of layers that sustain the
possibility of H2 S spreading during time. Moreover, history and trend of H2 S spreading in due
course of time in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field are presented.

2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Zagros mountain belt is divided into several zones that differ according to their structural style
and sedimentary history (Berberian and King, 1981; Falcon, 1974; Motiee, 1994; Stocklin, 1968).
The NW and SE boundaries of the central Zagros coincide with the Balarud and Kazerun faults,
respectively. The Zagros province generally is divided to three zones: trusted zone, imbricated
zone, and simply folded zone (Sepehr and Cosgrove, 2004). Marun oilfield is situated at the
end of a simply folded zone, very close to the border of the folded zone (southwest Iran) and
unfolded zone (Arabian plate). During Upper Cretaceous to early Tertiary periods, stratigraphy
and structural geology in the Marun area were severely influenced by tectonic activities.

2.1. Marun Oil Field

One of the most important oil fields in Iran is Marun. It is a giant oilfield in southwest Iran, south
of North Dezful Embayment. This field consists of two oil reservoirs (Asmari and Bangestan)
and one gas reservoir (Khami). This field is an asymmetric anticline with NW-SE trend. The
dimensions of Marun oil field at Asmari reservoir horizon are 67 and 7 kilometers in length and
wide, respectively. This reservoir is divided into eight sectors. The Bangestan reservoir of this
field being deeper in comparison to Asmari reservoir produces H2 S. Asmari reservoir has been
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE PLUME MIGRATION 1993

producing sweet oil and gas since 1964, but for the first time a high amount of H2 S gas was
observed in one well of Asmari reservoir in 1980. Tectonic activities caused severe fracturing
especially in the southern limb of this field, which, as a consequence, resulted in spreading of
H2 S contamination in Asmari reservoir.

2.2. Asmari Reservoir

The Asmari formation (Oligocene-early Miocene) is the most important reservoir in the oil fields
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of Zagros foreland in Dezful Embayment. This reservoir is divided into five layers and five sub-
layers in Marun oil field. Layers 1, 2, and 3 contain mainly dolomite and limestone but the
amount of dolomite decreases with depth from layer 1 to 3 where layer 1 has dolomite as the
main lithology. Folding and bending in this reservoir, with brittle layers in the upper part, caused
an increase in fracture intensity of the upper part of the reservoir (layers 1 to 3, especially layer
1) compared to layers 4 and 5, which contain mostly shale with some limestone as the main
lithology. Due to the upward movement of Marun oil field in central parts (sectors 4, 5, 6, and 7),
this reservoir has more bending and fractures in comparison to other sectors, which are located
in higher depths (Mohammadian, 2008). Producing hydrocarbons from Asmari reservoir caused
pressure depletion and resulted in a decrease in productivity. Consequently, the necessity of gas
injection was felt in Asmari reservoir to increase pressure and productivity. Gas injection has been
performed since 1990. The main part of the injected gas was sour with a high amount of H2S,
but recently injection of sour gas has been almost replaced with sweet gas.

3. INVESTIGATING COMMUNICATION OF ASMARI RESERVOIR LAYERS

Fracture distribution in different layers of Asmari reservoir with permeability distribution and
RFT results were used to evaluate the communication of layers in this reservoir.

3.1. Study of Fractures and Permeability Distributions in Asmari Reservoir

Fractures are the most common geological structure that may exist in any outcrop rock. One
of the main features of fractures is their effect on increasing porosity and permeability, which
resulted in good productivity of carbonate reservoirs in southwest Iran. Fractures are the main
path of fluid flow in carbonate reservoirs (Bourne et al., 2000). Lithologic factors affecting the
development of fractures in low permeability reservoirs are rock composition, particle size, and
porosity. Rocks different in composition, texture, and structure are also different in mechanical
properties. Therefore, the degree of fracture development of rocks of a specific lithology is clearly
different from that of another lithology, even under the same tectonic stress. Usually, fractures are
better developed in rocks containing brittle compositions (e.g., dolomite) than in rocks containing
plastic compositions (e.g., shale) (Zhang et al., 2009). Generally, the productivity of Asmari
reservoir cannot be related only to permeability of rock matrix and usually is much more than
it. Therefore, fractures have an important effect on Asmari reservoir, such as its productivity.
Figure 1 shows iso-fracture density maps of Asmari reservoir layers (layers 1 to 4), which were
plotted with RMS software via information obtained from image logs and core analysis of several
wells in Asmari reservoir. According to this figure, most of the fractures in all layers are seen
in central parts that were subjected to bending. Also, by increasing the depth from layer 1 to 4,
the quantity of fracture density decreases. The highest fracture exists in layer 1, which is labeled
with a maximum number of 309 and the fracture density decreases toward layer 4, which has the
 1994 A. TELMADARREIE ET AL.
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FIGURE 1 Iso-density map of fractures in all layers of Asmari reservoir in Marun oil field. (a) Iso-density map
of fractures in layer 1; most of the fractures were seen in western and central parts with a maximum number of
309. (b) Iso-density map of fractures in layer 2; most of the fractures were seen in central and eastern parts with
a maximum number of 106. (c) Iso-density map of fractures in layer 3; most of the fractures were seen in central
and eastern parts with a maximum number of 106. (d) Iso-density map of fractures in layer 4; most of the fractures
were seen in eastern parts with a maximum number of 90. (color figure available online)

lowest fracture density with a maximum of 90. Moreover, from layer 1 to 4, the high fracture
area has moved from west to the eastern part of the reservoir.
Based on fluid flow in horizontal and vertical direction of the core samples, horizontal and
vertical permeability is obtained in the laboratory. In Marun oil field, the iso-maps of horizontal
and vertical permeability were plotted via Fraca software by STAT Oil Company. The accordance
of permeability maps with fracture distribution can be used to determine vertical communication
of the layers. Figure 2 shows iso-vertical and iso-horizontal permeability maps of Asmari reservoir
in Marun oil field. Based on this figure, the maximum horizontal and vertical permeability were
seen in the northeast and southern limb of central parts with 278 and 284 md (Mille Darcy)
values, respectively. Continuity of high permeability parts with high fracture areas in all layers
demonstrates the vertical connection of fractures in Asmari reservoir.

3.2. Investigating Communication of Layers by RFT Tests

A repeat formation test can be used for estimation of fluid pressure in different producing layers of
oil/gas reservoirs. Pressure maps obtained from RFT results can be applied for investigation of for-
mation pressure in different depths in order to find the vertical communication of reservoir layers.
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE PLUME MIGRATION 1995
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FIGURE 2 Horizontal (a) and vertical (b) permeability distribution maps of Asmari reservoir in Marun oil field.
(color figure available online)

The same slope of pressure with increasing depth, demonstrates the vertical pressure connection
of layers. Existence of natural open fractures could improve reservoir layers communication.
The RFT results in several wells of Asmari reservoir are shown in Figure 3. Based on this
figure, the vertical pressure communication at five layers and sub-layers of Asmari reservoir was
studied. Obviously, it showed a decrease in vertical connection of layers with depth from layer 1 to
5, which is in agreement with results of fracture distribution maps. Figures 3a–3 show the vertical
pressure connection of layers 1, 2, and 3. Based on these figures, a good pressure connection exists
in the south limb of central parts, at sectors 4 and 6 and to some extent in the eastern part (sector
8), which is comparable with the western part (sectors 1, 2, and 3), which have a poor vertical
connection. By increasing depth, this connection decreases in layers 4 and 5 (Figures 3g and 3h).
For better explanation of vertical pressure connection of layers, RFT tests for some wells in
different parts of Asmari reservoir were applied. Figures 4a–4c show the RFT results of some
wells in the south limb (sectors 4 and 6) and eastern part (sector 8) of the reservoir. Good vertical
connection of layers 1 to 3 is observed, whereas by increasing the depth, this connection decreases.
As a consequence, if the Asmari reservoir is polluted with H2 S in the upper layers, the spreading
of this pollution will be possible due to good vertical communication of layers, especially in
central parts where the fractures are high and good pressure continuity exists also. Moreover,
Figure 5 shows the RFT results of wells in the western part of Asmari reservoir, sectors 1, 2, and
3. A poor connection of layers was seen in these sectors, which is in agreement with other results
such as those obtained from fracture distribution.

4. CONSIDERING HISTORY AND TREND OF H2 S SPREADING IN

ASMARI RESERVOIR

Reservoir souring is a term that generally refers to any process that increases the H2 S concentration
in a reservoir. The Asmari reservoir initially has been producing sweet oil and gas, but for the
first time in 1980, a high amount of H2 S was observed in one well of this reservoir, which has
been spreading up to now.
Figures 6a–6c show the H2 S profiles of Asmari reservoir in Marun oil field during 2002,
2005, and 2009, respectively. According to this figure, the hot spot of H2 S pollution is from the
center to the southeast of the reservoir, especially in sector 6. Despite the increase in the number
of polluted wells, the H2 S concentration has decreased from 2002 to 2009. The profiles clearly
showed that the H2 S concentrations in the hot spot located in the southeastern part of the reservoir
have decreased in the year 2009 in comparison to 2002. Based on Figure 6 the probable direction
 1996 A. TELMADARREIE ET AL.
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FIGURE 3 Vertical pressure continuity of five layers in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field: (a) pressure
connection of layer 1 and sub-layer 1, (b) pressure connection of sub-layer 1 and layer 2, (c) vertical pressure
connection of layer 2 and sub-layer 3, (d) vertical pressure connection of sub-layer 2 and layer 3, (e) vertical pressure
connection of layer 3 and sub-layer 3, (f) vertical pressure connection of sub-layer 3 and layer 4, (g) vertical pressure
connection of layer 4 and sub-layer 4, (h) vertical pressure connection of sub-layer 4 and layer 5. (color figure
available online)
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE PLUME MIGRATION 1997
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FIGURE 4 Parts (a), (b), and (c) represent repeat formation test results for some wells in Southern limb and
eastern part of Asmari reservoir. (color figure available online)

FIGURE 5 Parts (a), (b), and (c) represent repeat formation test results for some wells in Western parts of
Asmari reservoir (sectors 1, 2, and 3). (color figure available online)
 1998 A. TELMADARREIE ET AL.
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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6 H2 S profile in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field. (a) Year 2002: Most polluted wells are situated
in the South Eastern part of the reservoir. (b) Year 2005: Polluted wells extend toward the Central parts. (c) Year
2009: Polluted wells extend to North West of the reservoir but the H2 S concentration of wells decrease. (color
figure available online) (continued )

of H2 S pollution spreading in Asmari reservoir of Marun oil field is from southeast to northwest.
For better explanation of decreasing trend of H2 S concentration in Asmari reservoir, the histogram
of several polluted wells were plotted in years 2002, 2005, and 2009 (Figure 7). Figure 7 shows
a decreasing trend during these years.
According to pressure difference of all sectors in this reservoir, the migration of H2 S from
polluted to unpolluted sectors with lower pressures is possible. Figure 8 shows the bottom hole
static pressure of wells in different sectors of Asmari reservoir. Figures 8a and 8b show the
static pressure of wells produced from layers 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Asmari reservoir, respectively.
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE PLUME MIGRATION 1999
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(c)

FIGURE 6 (Continued ).

FIGURE 7 Decreasing trend of H2 S concentration in some polluted wells of Asmari reservoir.

Clearly, in both parts maximum pressure exists in sector 6 where the pollution with H2 S has been
started. Consequently, pressure difference between sector 6 (which has the higher pressure than
other sectors) and other near sectors such as 4 and 7 could act as a source for spreading of H2 S
pollution in this reservoir.

5. CONCLUSIONS

For investigating communication of Asmari reservoir layers in Marun oil field results of fracture
density distribution of layers, permeability distribution, and RFT results were used. The results
demonstrated the high fracturing and good vertical connection in central parts and to some extent
in the northeast of this reservoir. Moreover, upper layers of this reservoir had good vertical
and horizontal communication due to lithology type (mostly dolomite and limestone) and higher
 2000 A. TELMADARREIE ET AL.
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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 8 Static pressure difference of several wells in all sectors of Asmari reservoir. (a) Static pressure of
wells produced from layers 1, 2, and 3 and (b) static pressure of wells produced from layer 4.

fracture. Results of the repeat formation test presented good vertical pressure connection of layers
1, 2, and 3 in central parts especially sectors 4 and 6 and northeast of Asmari reservoir, which
shows good vertical communication of these layers in mentioned parts. By increasing depth from
layers 1 to 5, this communication decreases. Also, in western parts of the reservoir, sectors 1, 2, and
to some extent 3 vertical connections of layers are poor. According to pressure difference in various
sectors of Asmari reservoir, the H2 S could migrate and spread from polluted sectors towards the
unpolluted sectors. Moreover, the iso-H2 S map of Asmari reservoir showed this spreading from
southeast to northwest and a decreasing trend in H2 S concentration in this reservoir with time.
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE PLUME MIGRATION 2001

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are appreciative of the National Iranian South Oil Company (NISOC), especially the
reservoir evaluation section as well as geology departments, for data preparation and the Petroleum
University of Technology for supporting this study.

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