European Textile Forum 2017

Medieval and Early Modern Silk

Textiles in Tyrol.
Extant Finds, Production and
Trade.

Beatrix Nutz
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

Tyrol Castle is a castle in the comune (municipality) of Tirol near Merano, in the Burggrafenamt district of South Tyrol, Italy.
It was the ancestral seat of the Counts of Tyrol and gave the whole Tyrol region its name.
 The putlog holes of the apsis of the crypt
of Tyrol Castle with textile finds

apsis

Lit.: Beatrix Nutz and Irene Tomedi, Die Textilfunde aus Schloss Tirol / Reperti tessili di Castel Tirolo.
In: Gerüstlöcher als Tresore für archäologische Textilien / Fori pontai come casseforti di stoffe archeologiche.
Bauforschung auf Schloss Tirol / Studi di storia edilizia a Castel Tirolo 6 (Schloss Tirol 2015) 21-62.
 Tyrol Castle – yellow silk fragments

Plain weave
29-30 threads/cm
35 threads/cm
 Tyrol Castle – beige silk fragment

Gewebeanalyse:
Kette: einfache Kette
Kettfaden: 0,1-0,3 mm Dm
Material: naturfarbene Seide
Drehung: keine
Dichte: 34-35 Fäden/cm
Schuss: einfacher Schuss
Schussfaden: 0,3-0,4 mm Dm
Material: naturfarbene Seide
Drehung: keine
Dichte: 24-26 Fäden/cm
 Tyrol Castle – red silk fabric

Gewebeanalyse:
Kette: einfache Kette Schuss: einfacher Schuss
Kettfaden: 0,1 mm Dm Schussfaden: 0,2 mm Dm
Material: rote Seide Material: rote Seide
Drehung: unscheinbare Drehung (manchmal Drehung: keine
leichte Z-Drehung) Dichte: 32-42 Fäden/cm
Dichte: 28 Fäden/cm
Nähfaden: S-gedrehter Seidenzwirn aus zwei Z-gedrehten Seidengarnen. 0,4 mm Dm.
 Tyrol Castle
Tablet woven band – silk and silver thread
Tyrol Castle – Brigantine with yellow silk samite
Tyrol Castle - Fragment of the brigantine ? - yellow silk samite
 Tyrol Castle - Numerous fragments of blue silk (cendal) with selvedge
Cendal is a thin and light silk material, chiefly used to make ceremonial clothing, church vestments, and banners.

Warp: 38-39 threads/cm

Weft: 28 threads/cm

14C-Date:

1314-1420 AD (95.4% probability)

 Tyrol Castle
Numerous fragments of blue silk (cendal) with seam, partially painted in gold and black
 Tyrol Castle
Numerous fragments of blue silk (cendal) with seam, partially painted in gold and black
cendal for banners

1499 May 3, Bregenz

Heinrich Specker to Marshal
Paul of Liechtenstein: Let Liechtenstein
send him 18 to 20 ells of cendal for a banner
 Tyrol Castle
Fragments of a banner – silk painted in black and gold

14C-date: 1320-1430 AD (95.4% probability)

Warp: 32 threads/cm
Weft: 24 threads/cm
 Tyrol Castle - Fragments of a banner – silk painted in black and gold

With seam – overcast stitch

Tyrol Castle - Fragments of a banner – silk painted in black and gold
Medieval imperial eagle
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

Layer 2
 Lengberg Castle
Red taffeta

42 threads/cm
64-66 threads/cm
 Lengberg Castle

Changeant taffeta

Yellow threads: 44 threads/cm

Blue threads: 70 threads/cm
Lengberg Castle
Brown damask
Lengberg Castle
Red damask
Lengberg Castle
Brocaded silk
721.04.01 5,5 cm faded blue mulberry silk Broad lace of five loops. S-plied two ply yarn.

Lengberg Castle
 Lengberg Castle

Technische Daten
Material: Thussahseide - Antheraea mylitta;
Antheraea paphia
Fadendrehung: Garne keine, Nähgarn keine
Stoffbindung: leinenbindig
Gewebedichte (Fäden/cm): 26 und 34 Fäden/cm
 Lengberg Castle

Technische Daten
Material: Maulbeerseide – Bombyx mori
Fadendrehung: Garne keine, Nähgarn keine
Stoffbindung: leinenbindig
Gewebedichte (Fäden/cm): 25 und 35 Fäden/cm
 Lengberg Castle
Linen lining with remnants of the former red silk
outer layer of a girl´s dress (4-5 year old)

Technische Daten
Material: Seide – Bombyx mori
Stoffbindung: leinenbindig
Gewebedichte (Fäden/cm): 34-35 und 38
Lengberg Castle

Silk colours
Lengberg Castle Silk with gold and silver thread
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

Bruck Castle / East Tyrol
 Bruck Castle

J 1:
Damastfragment
Grün gefärbte Seide.
Größe: 100 x 33.
Bindung: Atlasbindung.
Dichte: 50 x 50 Fäden pro cm

J 2:
Damastfragment
Braun gefärbte Seide.
Größe: 110 x 27.
Bindung: Atlasbindung.
Dichte: 30 x 48 Fäden pro cm

J3
Damastfragment
Braun gefärbte Seide.
Größe: 43 x 45.
Bindung: Atlasbindung.
Dichte: 50 x 50 Fäden pro cm

Lit.: Monika Datterl, Zwischen Abfall und Verlust. Die Kleinfunde aus
den Zwickelfüllungen von Schloss Bruck in Lienz, Osttirol, als Spiegel
der frühneuzeitlichen Gesellschaft. Unpubl. Master´s Thesis (Innsbruck
2009).
 Bruck Castle

Taffeta, velvet and twill woven silk fabrics

Bruck Castle
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 Silk in Tyrol – written sources

Silk textiles can already be found mentioned in written sources in Tyrol in the 13th century:
In 1236 Count Albert III. of Tyrol impawned some silk cloths for the repayment of a loan.

A man called Soldulin is mentioned 1237 as a textile trader in the notary books of Bolzano.
His customers included Andreas of Bolzano and his wife Adelheid, who promised to pay the price of 71 pounds
for cendal ("Pro panno santellarino") purchased by her within fifteen days.

Further silk fabrics are mentioned in 1242 owned by the tailor Eberlin in Bolzano.

The veils and kerchiefs of women of Bolzano consisted of silk since the middle of the 13th century,
as evidenced by the mention of "pepla de seta" in 1242; the veil maker ("peplarius"or "velarius")
was considered a craftsman in his own right.

Around 1300, silk fabrics of several varieties are listed in account books

In 1382 Eckhard III. of Vilanders-Trostburg bequeathed a larger number of silk cloths to the church.
 Silk in Tyrol – written sources 13th century

Silk fabrics of several varieties listed in account books:

Panni serici – silk fabrics in general:

seyde , seta, panni serici metzlini et tercianelli

Special silk fabrics:

Cendatum, zendalum = Zendel (cendal)

Baldekinum, cum tabulis et imaginibus = silk from Bagdad
Scarletum rubrum = Scharlach
Sametus, samitellus = Samt (velvet) / sametus strangulatus, plavus, ultramarinus
Pannus purpureus = Scharlach?
Pannus aureus = with gold threads
Pannus ultramarinus = imported from over the sea
Pannus sericus rufus et gilvus, qui dicitur portseyden = red and yellow
blavus = blue silk fabric
cambicoloris, in diversis coloribus
Zendalum rubeum
Pannus virgulatus
Liste et frise = laces and fringes
Nakki de serico et aureis stellis conspersis = silk fabric set with gold stars
 Where did the silk found in Tyrolean castles
and mentioned in written sources come from?

Where was it produced? Who traded it?

What were the trade routes? Where were the markets?

What did silk cost and what was traded in exchange?
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 Silk production in Italy

Italy was the most important producer of silk during the Medieval Age. The first center to introduce silk
production to Italy was the city of Catanzaro during the 11th century in the region of Calabria.
The silk of Catanzaro supplied almost all of Europe and was sold in a large market fair in the port of Reggio
Calabria, to Spanish, Venetian, Genovese and Dutch merchants. Catanzaro became the lace capital of the world
with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in the Vatican.

Another notable center was the Italian city-state of Lucca

which largely financed itself through silk-production
and silk-trading, beginning in the 12th century.
Other Italian cities involved in silk production were
Genoa, Venice and Florence.

In the Late Middle Ages the silk trade was predominantly

controlled by Venice, the Serenissima also
playing a major role in silk production.

Gioanucentura Rosetti, Plictho de l'arte de tentori. Venetia 1540

Trattato dell'arte della seta in Firenze
Plut. 89 sup. Cod. 117, Biblioteca Laurenziana
1489
 Silk production moves north

In 1416 the first mulberry tree was planted in the Rovereto district under the reign of the Republic of Venice.

In the 15th century silkworms were bred with success in the Eisack Valley.
A silkworm house of the Poor Clares in Bressanone
is mentioned in 1479.

"…auch pitt wir yzunt sunderlich trewlich vnsern Herrn, für unsern
genedigen Herrn seiner sachen halb, das in got der Her peystendig
sei, auch hab wir vernummen, von der syxtin, das ewr genad die
seyden gern hab, die wir machen von den würmen, nun schick wir
ewr genaden hie mit ein wenig, vnd gefiel es ewr genaden so wolt
wir ewr genaden die seyden alle machen, die wir haben, vnd lasz
vns ewr genad wissen, wie sie ewr genaden gefall an der klein
und an dem dreen, so wolt wirs ewr genaden darnach machen.“

Letter of the abbess Brigitta Fleischmann (1479-1485) to the

Archduchess Eleanor of Austria
Eleanor of Scotland (*1433 – †Innsbruck 20 November 1480) was a daughter
of James I of Scotland. She was an Archduchess of Austria by marriage.
 Silk production moves north

The silk industry grew in some cities and towns of the Trentino region between the end of the fifteenth and
the beginning of the sixteenth century. Here the three main centers of production became Trent, Rovereto,
and Ala, all situated in the Adige Valley on the busy thoroughfare that led along the river from Verona to the
Tyrol and Germany.
In 1499 the master weaver Agostino degli Spinoli dalla Porta obtained a privilege for the production of several
types of silk fabrics in Trent, and by 1503 the Venetian government was already lamenting that cloths of silk
and gold made there were competing with Venetian products in the markets of central Europe. A few years
later, in 1511, Rovereto, too, considered introducing silk weaving, but it was only in 1534 that the local city
council granted tax exemptions to the Venetian Gerolamo Savioli, who had proposed - and actually managed-
to establish the craft. In the following decades, both Trent and Rovereto shifted their production from luxury
fabrics with gold and silver to the cheaper and lighter ormesini, which at that time were in great demand
among German merchants. As for the presence of filatoi in Trentino, it seems that the first hand-driven
machine was installed at Rovereto in 1520. Later on, Bolognese artisans made off with the secret for the
construction of the hydraulic mill and brought it to Trent in 1538. In 1585 spinning machines are also reported
at Ala.
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

Trade Routes – from the Via Claudia Augusta to the Via Raetia

Via Claudia Augusta – built in 46-47 AD

 Trade Routes – the Via Raetia

Via Raetia
• Verona built in the 2nd century AD
• Ala (Ad Palatium) map of Erhard Etzlaub – 1500
• Trento (Tridentum/Tridento)
• Neumarkt/Egna (Endidae)
• Bolzano (Pons Drusi)
• Klausen (Sublavione)
• Brixen
• Franzensfeste (Ladritscher Brücke)
• Mittewald
• Trens
• Sterzing (Vibidenum)
• Brenner
• Matrei (Matreium)
• Innsbruck/Wilten (Veldidena)
• Zirl (Teriolae)
• Seefelder Sattel
• Seefeld in Tirol
• Scharnitz
• Mittenwald
• Klais (Scarbia?)
• Partenkirchen (Partanum/Parthano)
• Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicum)

Old Roman road near Franzensfeste

 Trade routes – the Kuntersweg

The “Kuntersweg” – first mentioned in 1307 – was a road in the Alto Adige Eisack Valley that significantly improved
the road between the Brenner and Bolzano. Before the construction of the “Kuntersweg” through the Eisack ravine
the old road led from Bolzano over the Ritten and reached the Eisack Valley again in Kollmann. As a result of the
new route, the travelers no longer had to cope with the ascents (from 490 meters in Kollmann to 1164 meters in
Lengmoos and again down to 265 meters
to Bolzano).

The new route favored the development

of Bolzano as the most important trading
city in Tyrol. "Losers" of this development
were the market place Gries and the old
provincial capital Merano.
Around 1480, under the sovereign Archduke
Siegmund, the “Kuntersweg”
was expanded by means of blasting to the
extent that it could also be used by wagons.
Tollhouse in Kollmann built in 1484
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

The fair in Bolzano – under the bowers

first mentioned in 1202 in an agreement between the Bishops Konrad of Trent and Konrad of Brixen.
From the first decade of the 16th century onward already four trade fairs were held here: Mittfasten
(Laetare Sunday), Corpus Christi, St. Genesius (also St. Aegidius or St. Bartholomew) as well as St.
Andreas.
The bowers were erected by the bishops of Trent in the late 12th century, during the reign of Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa, as a time-typical street market with a central grain market and the city castle.
The bishops sought to create a controlled trading place in the Bolzano basin, but they had to share their
control with the Counts of Tyrol. At fair times the Bolzano merchants rented their vaults to the dealers
from the north and the south. The northern arbours were reserved for merchants from the south, the
southern ones for merchants from the
north. Therefore, the bowers were
named “welsche Lauben” and
“teutsche Lauben”.

„welsche Lauben“ in Bolzano

 The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

Veronese merchants in Bolzano – 15th century

Verona's position on the Adige River put it on one of the principal thoroughfares linking northern Italy and
central Europe, especially via the fairs at Bolzano in the Tyrol.

According to a liber bullettarum, written in Trent between September 1468 and June 1474,
on average no fewer than 39 Veronese merchants came to Bolzano to attend one of the sixteen fairs held
during this period. They are wood merchants, hoodmakers, leather merchants, but above all cloth merchants.

They include some the most important Veronese businessmen of their time, such as Giacomo Maffei,
Paolo di Torresano Alcenago, Zeno and Filippo Banda, Francesco Guarienti, Francesco Verità, Nicola and Simone
Spolverini, Senone Del Bene, Baldassarre di Alessandro da Clusone, Pietro and his son Francesco da Imola,
Alvise Patrocini, Bartolomeo Prandini and Gerolamo Sandrini, Gabriele Carteri and Francesco Bagolini.
 The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

Other Italian merchants in Bolzano

An additional testament to the central role played by Bolzano in the second half of the 15th century in
the trade relations between Germany and Northern Italy is the report of the Veronese chronicler (and merchant)
Cristoforo Schioppa who, in the course of his covering the incidents that lead to the outbreak
of the war between Tyrol and the Veneto in 1487, noted that at least 400 merchants from the Veneto, including
"Veronexi, Trivixani, Vixentini, Bressani e Bergamaschi ", with goods worth 200.000 Ducats, were captured by the
soldiers of the Duke Sigmund of Austria on their way to the Mittfasten fair .

In the period between September 1468 and June 1474 the city of Trent noted the passage of 953 Bergamasques
(especially cloth merchants from Lovere and Gandino), 621 merchants from Vicenza and 602 from Brescia, all
"ire ad Bulzanum" or "venire de Bulzano ", that is on the way to Bolzano, and an equally considerable number of
merchants from Mantua, Cremona, Como, as well as from Milan and cities in the Emilia such as Parma, Reggio
Emilia, Ferrara or Mirandola.
 The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role
Veronese merchants at the Bolzano fairs of the 16th century

Veronese merchants continued to visit the Bolzano fairs in the 16th century.
Valuable information comes from the private archives of the brothers Gerolamo and Donato Stoppa, who
visited the fairs in Bolzano and Neumarkt continuously between 1506 and 1525.
They sold fabrics and headdresses of their own manufacture and Lombard dyer 's woad and dyer' s red from the
Romagna. In return they bought linens, leather and leather goods, wax, horses and, above all
"grisi et bianchete“ = qualitatively rather inferior gray and white cloth from German production.

bianchete = white wool cloth

grisi = grey wool cloth

undyed wool cloth made from the

fibres of white, grey, brown or black
sheep or a mix of these fibres

Grautuch / grey cloth Differently coloured sheep

(„pannus griseus“) Fresco in the Neustift Monastery,
from Lengberg Castle Bressanone, 1400
 Short excursion to value and use of grey cloth
or
Why would the Veronese merchants exchange precious silk for cheap wool?

"grisi et bianchete“
from Lengberg Castle
 Short excursion to value and use of grey cloth
or
Why would the Veronese merchants exchange precious silk for cheap wool?

Black wool fabric with grey-cloth-lining

from Lengberg Castle
E.g.: Gray cloth was used in large quantities at
monasteries to dress the convent and their "familiae".
1345 one ell of this type of cloth costs about 7 Pfennige,
in Regensburg (accounts of the Abbot of St. Emmeram).

Pannus griseus was also, among other things, part of the

remuneration of the entourage and "familia" of the
sovereign.

Grey cloth as cheap fabric for lining (Futtertuch)

1510: 1 Elle Futtertuch: 6 kr
1511: 1 Elle Futtertuch: 10 kr
(account books of Emperor Maximilian I.)
 Short excursion to value and use of grey cloth
or
Why would the Veronese merchants exchange precious silk for cheap wool?

Grey cloth as fabric for hunter´s garments
His Majesty to Ulrich Möringer, administrator of the
Chamber of Commerce in Innsbruck: HM
orders to immediately buy gray cloth for two
pyrssröcken and two praiten hats, make them wet
and shear them.
Fragenstain, Friday after Egidi 1500 (= Sept. 4)
(Egidi = September 1)
Pyrssröcken = Pirschröcke (Pirsch = deer-stalking/hunting).

Ulrich Möringer, administrator of the Chamber of

Commerce in Innsbruck, gave Hans Pehem,
scherer (=shearer), 1 lb 10 kr for the shearing of 11 ells of
gramechlischs tuech (gray cloth from Mechelen), which he

Deer hunt an the Lange Wiese near Innsbruck. bought for two piers claider (hunting clothes) for HM on
St Michael´s Day 1500 when he was here (in Innsbruck).
(St Michael´s Day = September 29)
(account books of Emperor Maximilian I.)
 Short excursion to the use of bianchete
or
Why would the Veronese merchants exchange precious silk for cheap wool?

White cloth as fabric for women´s gowns in Italy

 Short excursion to the use of bianchete
or
Why would the Veronese merchants exchange precious silk for cheap wool?

White cloth as fabric for women´s gowns in Italy

White gown of the Blessed Osanna Andreasi of Mantua

*17 January 1449, Mantua, Italy - †18 June 1505

Lit.: Elisa Tosi Brandi, Un abito per Osanna. La moda come linguaggio non
verbale alla fine del Medioevo. p. 171–182 and
Thessy Schoenholzer Nichols, Un abito per Osanna. La ricostruzione. p. 183–193.
In: Angela Ghirardi (ed.), In gloria 1515-2015 Osanna Andreasi da Mantova
(Mantova 2016).
 Contents

• 14th century silk textiles from Tyrol Castle / South Tyrol

• 15th century silk textiles from Lengberg Castle / East Tyrol

• 16th-17th century silk textiles from Bruck Castle / East Tyrol

• Silk in Tyrol – written sources

• Silk production

• Trade routes

• The fair at Bolzano and it´s central role

• Customs and prices

 Customs – 14th century

As a unit of weight in all custom tariffs of Tyrol from

the 13th to the 15th century, the load of a sumpter,
usually a horse, is used. In Latin documents "sagma",
"sauma" and "soma“
In German documents "Saum", later "Sam“

Custom charges in 1305 at the toll station „Lueg“

24 Solidi for fabrics from Venice and

12 Solidi for fabrics from Verona

Toll house in Lueg at the Brenner

 Customs in the 15th century

1420: 29 Groschen for the Sam for cotton and silk fabrics of Italian or Oriental production

The goods from "German Lands" traded south over the Brenner, such as linen and woolen
cloths, skins, and colors were only charged with about half the toll, namely 17 Groschen
for the Sam. Cheap fabrics made of linen, such as Zwilch and Gölsch only 8, flax and yarn
only 4 Groschen.

The tariff for Bruneck of 1440 mentions for the first

time a variety of fabrics from Italy, namely silk, cendal,
damask, velvet, further cloth woven with gold and silver
threads with 12 Kreuzer/Sam.
 Length measurements for silk fabrics

Tyrolean or Bolzano ell = 0,8 m

Bolzano silk ell (Bracce) = 0,548 m

Venetian ell for silk (braccia, Prätschen or Pratze) = 0,6387 m

Trento = 0,630750/0,633582/0,633650 m
Rovereto = 0,622046/0,642900 m
Riva = 0,671900 m
Ala, Pikante, Verona ("braccia corte") = 0,642449 m

Lanndtßordnung der Fürstlichen Grafschafft Tirol 1532

Seydenwaar / wie die außgemessen werden soll.
Aber alle Seidene waar mag nach obgeschribner new̆ en Elen / oder nach Venedigischer Praͤtschen / die vmb
ainen Fünfften tail kürtzer dann die Elen ist / Vnd sunst bey kainem anndern Mass / gemessen / kaufft vnd
verkaufft werden.
Prices per (silk) ell 1501-1504

Atlas and damask

atlas = 9½ lb/ell

karmesin damask and atlas / attlas, tomaschkh (damask) alz rot karmasin = 17 lb/ell (2x)

prawn Tamaschg (brown damask) = 1 flRh 3 lb/ell

prawnn Tamaschgg = 1 flRh 3 lb 6 kr/ell

atlas = 2 flRh/ell

charmesin atlas / red charmesin atlas = 3 flRh 2 lb/ell (5x)

Velvet

karmesin samat = 6 flRh/ell

Karmesinsamt = 8 flRh/ell

Venetian karmesin samat = 8 flRh 2 lb/ell

flRh (florenus Rheni = Rhenish guilder)

lb (Pfund Berner = pounds) (account books of Emperor Maximilian I.)
kr (Kreutzer)
Prices per (silk) ell 1510-1516

White damask = 1 fl 45 kr/ell

Green atlas = 1 fl 3 lb 9 kr/ell

Green velvet = 2 fl/ell

Venetian black damask = 2 fl 6 kr/ell

Black velvet (1511) = 2 fl 3 lb 9 kr/ell

Black velvet (1512) = 3 fl/ell

Red karmesin velvet (1510) = 5 fl 3 kr/ell

Red karmesin velvet (1511) = 6 fl/ell

1514

Goldenes Tuch (=golden cloth) ???? = 45 fl/Pratze (ell)

(account books of Emperor Maximilian I.)

Silk Market (or Xiu Shui Jie in Chinese)
Beijing