Heat Exchange 1 Heat Exchange [RaMustt K. Sua, Hazrison Radiator Division, General Motors Corporation, Lockport, New York 14094, United States Aummep C. Must, Church Hill, Maryland 21623, United States 1. atroduction 6 83. Extensions ofthe Basic 2) Classification of Heat Exchangers Heat-Transfer Theory ar 21, Clasicaton According to Con 53.1. Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction 47 struction 75.32. arable Overall Heat-Transer Co- 2A, ‘Thar Heat Exchangers 7 efficients 56 21.1.1, Shetl-and-Tube Exchangers 7 SA, Exchanger Pressure-Drop Analy- 21.1.2. Double-ipe Heat Exchangers 9 sis 7 2118. Duip-ype Hea Exchangers 9 $41, Plate—Fin Exchangers 37 2.12. Plate-Type Heat Exchangers 9 $42, Tube-Fin Exchangers st 212.1, Plate Heat Exchangers 12543, Regenerators 8 2122. Spiral-Plae Heat Exchangers 1g 544 Plate Heat Exchangers 38 213. Extended-Surface Heat Exchangers 15 6 ——Single-Phase Heat-Tranafer_ and 213.1, Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 5 Pressure-Drop Correlations 88 2.1.32, ‘Tuoe—Fin Heat Exchangers vy Gh BasieConceptsand Dimensionless 21a. Regenerator 1» roups 62, ‘Theoretical Solutions and Corre. 22, Clasificaton According to Pro- eee * » lations for Simple Geometries. 60 a agua 30 O21. Fully Developed Flows 0 5 622. Hydrodynamically Developing 222, Liguid-to-Vapor Flows 04 a Oe hanes 25923, Thermally Developing Flows 65 222.1, Chemical Evaporators 2362. Simultaneously Developing Flows | 66 2222. Rebates 25 G3" “epic! Coreations for Car: 2223. Wave Hea Boles ag 6% Eepirical Correlations for Come 3 Heat Exchanger 631, TubularExchangess 8 Design Methodology 30932. Plate Exchangers 0 4 Criteria for Heat Exchanger 633. Extended Surface Exchangers 70 Selection 307" wo.Phase Heat“Transfer and 44, General Selection Criteria 30 Pressure-Drop Correlations n 411 Design Variables 30 44, Flow Paterne n 41.2. General Selection Guidelines 32 Gk. TeoPuure Preceue rep Corre. 42, Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 3 lows 4 421 Tubes 3372.1. Inte ressze Drop “ 42a and Layout 34722, Shellside ube Bundle) Pressure 423 x Drop 16 42a 38728, Other Geometries 16 425 od Heads 4073. HeatTransfer Correlations 426 Rearsind Heads 40 for Condensation 16 427. Nones 42 731. Condensation Inside a Horizontal 5. Basic Heal-Transfer and ‘Tube n Presrure-Drop Analysis 42 732. Condensation Inside a Vertical Tube 78 SA, Basic Equations and Debnitions 733. Condensation Outside Horizontal of Heat Transfer Analysis 2 “Tube Bundles ” 52, Dimensionless Methods for 718A, Condensation over Finned Tubes 80 Exchanger Heat-Trausfer Analy- 735. Condensation Outside Venice! Tube sis 45 Bundles %0 © 2005 Wiley-VCH Verag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 1002114356007 03.02,9a, oa. 912 914 9122 912s. 93. sna, ous. 916. 92. 92. 922, rN Ay Ay Ay Ay A, Heat Exchange Condensation of Mixtures Heat-Transfer Correlations for Boiling and Evaporation 81 Intube Forced Convective Boiling. $1 %0 tube Critical Heat Flux 8 Shellsde Forced Convective Boiling $4 Shellside Critical Heat Flux 84 ‘Thermal Design for Single-Phase Heat Exchangers 84 Introduction 55 Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 85 Segmental Baffles 5 Shellsde Heat Transfer 35 Shellsde Pressure Drop 87 Diseand-Doughnat Bafies 8 Rod Baffles 88 Design Procedure 88 Thermal Design for Multiphase Heat Exchangers 9 Condensers 9 Considerations in Condenser Design 89 ‘Condenser Types and Their Charac- teristics 90 Shellside Condensers 90 ‘Tubeside Condensers 31 Air-Cocled C 93 Condensation of Mixtures 9 ‘Mean Temperature Difference 95 Desupecheating 95 Subcooling 95 Vaporizers 96 Ketle and Internal Reboiler Design 95 Horizontal Shelside ‘Thermosipion Reboiler Design 7 Pressure Balance in the Reciccula- tion Loop 7 pmbols exchanger total heatiransfer area (pri- mary plus secondary, if any) on one side, mr orf fin or extended surface area on one side of the exchanger, m? or f frontal or face area of the exchanger, m? orf total wall cross-sectional area for longi tudinal conduction, m? or ft? ‘minimum free flow (or open) area, m? or ie primary surface area on one side of the exchanger, m? or ft? 923.1 922, 9233 924. 925. 926. 10. 101. 102. wo21, 1022. nL. nA nn Lia Hs. 1a nna. ua 122 3. 2, 13 Aw Ce G Shellsde Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 98 Design Methods and Special Con- siderations 98 ‘Vertical Taermosiphon Reboiler De- sim 98 Pressure Balance in the Reciccula- tion Loop 9 Flow Regimes and Hest Transfer 99) Approximate Design Methods... 100 Special Design Considerations... 101 ‘Mean Temperature Dffre 101 ‘Common Problems with Reboilers in Practical Applications 102 Flow-Induced Vibrations 103 ‘bration Analysis 104 104 ‘Tube Vibration 104 Acoustic Vibration 105 Flow Malaistribution 105 ‘Causes of Flow Maldstribution 105 Mechanical Design, Basic Geome- lay, and Tolerances 105 Self-nduced Malistrsbution 105 Mixod-Phase Flow 108 Fouling 106 ‘Consequences of Maldistribution 106 Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 108 Other Exchangers 106 Recommendations for SI ‘Tube Exchangers 107 Fouling 107 References 109 total area for heat conduction from hot to cold fluid, m? oF £2 coetficient [Eg. (85)], dimensionless distance between two plates (Lin height) ina plate-fin exchanger, m or ft flow stream heat capacity rate with a subscript ¢ or b, C=Wep, WIK ot Bub" °F hheat capacity rate ratio = Cysin/Crnaes dt mensionless fow-stream heat capacity rate of cold fluid = (We,)¢, W/K or Buh! *F-} flow-stream heat capacity rate of hot uid = (Wey), WIK o Bub“! °F!Crna rnin CHF Co maximum of Ce and Ch=(Wepnae WK or Btu ho! °F! minimum of Ce and C,= Wey mins WK orBruh °F! critical heat flux convection number (Bq, (127) sionless constant, used in many equations with specitic value at each place specific heat of fui at constant pressure, Jeg?" or Brut”! °F equivalent diameter, m orf hhydraulic diameter, m orf tube bundle diameter=Dj— yy, where Sy isthe shell-to-bundle diamettal clear- ance, m orf fin tip diameter of an individually finned tube, mor ft inside diameter ofa circular tube, m orf outside diameter ofa circular tube, m or ft Jog-mean temperature difference correc- tion factor, dimensionless ‘hui dependent parameter, dimensionless Froude mumber=G? g'dy" 037, dix mensionless Fanning friction factor=7w/(0v°/290), dimensionless modified friction factor per _ tube row= A pl(4N,G?/2 9.0), dimensionless apparent Fanning frition factor, defined in Table 8, dimensionless mass velocity based on minimum free flow area=W/Ay, ke m- 2s or Tom bo? i? Grashof number, (Ba. (176)], dimension- less acceleration due to gravitation, m/s? or tus? dimen proportionality constant in New- ton’s second law of motion, ge=1 and is dimensionless in SI units, $= 32.174 bm ft bt? 5? thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial wall heat ux with constant peripheral wall temperature thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial wall heat ux with constant peripheral wall heat flux hheat-transfer coefficient, Wm? K-! or Bub t-2°F tube inside diameter, m or ft Heat Exchange 3 jig stent heat of ‘vaporization, kg ot Bulbm ig =hig +301 Ta Tw), Ug ot Buwtbm J heattransfer coefficient correction fac- tots for shellside Ieakage and bypass flows, refer to specific definitions after Equation (144), dimensionless Colburn factor=Sr Pr?!" , dimensionless i thermal conductivity ofthe fuidifno sub- script, Wm! K~! orBtuh™! ft"! °F"? ky thermal conductivity of the fin material, Wm !K~! or Buh? f-? °F ky thermal conductivity ofthe wall material, Wm! K! orBtuh? ft! °F Lube length or fluid flow (core) length on ‘one side of the exchanger, m or ft Lay _ hydrodynamic entrance length, m or ft LMTD Iog-mean temperature difference, °C ue effective flow length between major boundary layer disturbances, distance between interruptions, m Igy =lelDyRe Pr Ff fin height for individually finned tubes = (d,— d)/2, mor ft M_— molecular weight, My for vapor, My, for mean gas phase, kgkg mol or Ibm/lbm mol MID mean temperature difference, °C ‘m Gn parameter defined in Table 4 for each fin geometry (m with this meaning used only in the fin analysis), m~? or ft Number of passes Ny number of bales Ne number of fins per unit length ina tube— fin exchanger, m~? or ft"? Np number of flow passage on one side in a plate—fin exchanger N, number of tube tows inthe low direction Ne number of tubes NTU number of heat-transfer units = UA/Cain, NTU}=UA/C), NTU3=UA/C, dimen: sionless Nu Nusselt number=hDy/k, dimensionless n exponent, dimensionless OD whe outside diameter, m or ft P temperature effectiveness ofthe tube-side stream, defined in Table 5, dimensionless P uid pumping power = W'A pe, W or hp Pr Prandtl number = 1 cg/k, dimensionless P Guid static pressure, Pa or Ibi?4 Heat Exchange Pe:Pe vapor and noncondensable gas partial pressure, Pa or lb/ft? Ap fluid static pressure drop on one side of a hheat exchanger core, Pa or lb/ft? Apy frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow, Pa or Ibg/t? Apy.g single-phase pressure drop considering gas (with its flow rate) in the two-phase mixture flowing alone in the tube across full cross-section, A\ py, defined simi- larly for the liquid, Pa or Ibg/t? Apso single-phase pressure drop consider ing otal flow rate of two-phase mixture as gas lowing in the tube across full cross- section; A py, defined similarly for the liquid, Pa or bere? Apia hydrostatic (graviational) pressure drop, Pa or Ibi? Apm momentum pressure drop, Pa or Toft? Pe reduced pressure =p/pe., dimensionless Pe tube pitch, center-to-center distance bet- ween tubes, m or ft Or ‘otal heat removed from vapor (o given point, W or Btuh 4g heat-transfer rate, heat duty, W or Brwh heat flux, heat-ransfer rate per unit area Wim? or Btu? 2 R heat capacity rate ratio, Ri=C\/C2, Ry=CxC;, dimensionless R_ thermal resistance based on area A, Ry=I/UA (see text after Bq, (7) for the efinitions of other thermal resistances, KIW orh°FIBtu) R___ pressure drop correction factors for shell- side leakage and bypass flows, refer to specific definitions alter Equation (148), dimensionless Re Reynolds number based on the by- raulie diameter=GDy/j.= 00 Daly, mensionless Rea Reynolds number based on the tube outside diameter =Gdy/y=ovdolu, di rmensionless Rer, 1,Rer.x mean and local film Reynolds ‘numbers, defined by Equations (112) and (104), dimensionless St Stanton number=h/(Ge,), dimension- less 5 fin spacing or fin pitch s=1/Ny; also transverse spacing for offset-srip fins, m orf distance between two fins=5~ 6, m or ft T temperature relative to an arbitrary da- tum, °C ATyyy log-mean temperature difference, °C ATm true mean temperature differ ence=F ATi, °C © thermal boundary condition referring to constant wall temperature, both axially and peripherally Tay saturation temperature, °C U" overall, heat-transier coefficient, Wm ?K~! orBuh”!'f?°F V-_ specific volume, m*/kg or ft*/lbm v fluid mean axial velocity occurring a the rinimmum free flow area, mis or fs Ye fluid mean velocity for low normal to a tube bank based on (X;— do) gap, mis or fs Yee superficial gas velocity or volumetric gas flux, the rate of volumetric flow of gas of two-phase mixture divided by the total flow area, mis or £08 ‘ug superficial liquid velocity, defined similar (o ge, mis or fs W — fhuidmass flow rate= ov Ay, ke/s orIbms X, Xeg Martinelli parameter, X defined in Equa tion (90): Xx defined by Equation (956) dimensionless Xq_— diagonal tube pitch=0C7+X2)/2; m or f X; _ongitudinal ube pitch, m or ft X__—_ transverse tube pitch, m or f X vapor or gas mass quality, vapor weight fraction, or dryness fraction, dimension- less Z_—ralio of vapor sensible heat removed (0 the total vapor enthalpy change = Cartesian coordinate along the flow diree- 2 axial coordinate for the thermal en- trance region=2D;, Re! Pr! dimene sionless axial distance=2Dj," Rew, dimension: less Greek Symbols void fraction = Apr golApr tos dimensionless condensate o guid film flow rate per unit perimeter, kgs~! m=! or Ibmh=? ft"! wall or fin thickness, m or ft exchanger effectiveness, dimensionless Sheme No 8 » temperature effectiveness of fins oran ex tended surface, dimensionless total surface temperature effectiveness, defined by Equation (10). dimensionless angle of inclination (Eq. (69)] longitudinal wall heat conduction param cter=kyAxL 'C,,},, dimensionless dynamic viscosity, Pas or lbmh ft ‘uid density, kg/m? or Ibmv/ft? ratio of fee flow area to frontal ofA, surface tension, Nim or Ibi/it shear stress, Pa or Ibi/it® correction term, sce Equation (166), di- mensionless (1 two-phase frictional pressure drop mul- Lupliers, defined by Equation (87), dimen- sionless ‘wo-phase frictional pressure drop mul- Uiplier, detined by Equation (76), dimen- sionless ratio of true mean temperature dif ference to inlet temperature differ ence=ATwl(T,;—Te,i), dimension less Subscripts B bundle © cold fluid side ef counterflow er critical £ fin (uid in Section 10) {fully developed flow value z gas HI, H2 constant axial wall heat flux boundary ‘conditions hot uid side hom homogeneous i ilet to the exchanger i interface id ideal L laminar flow TV Tiguid Im logarithmic mean m mean or bulk value outlet to the exchanger; overall when used. with R or ¢ scale of fouling when used with R ob; otherwise, shell side Heat Exchange 5 T constant wall temperature boundary con- dition, also turbulent flow in Equations G4), (66), and (67) only. otherwise total tube side two-phase vapor wall or property atthe wall temperature local valuc along the flow length fone section (inlet or outlet) of the ex: changer; one pass in a multipass ex: changer: fluid | ther section (outlet or inlet) of the ex- changer; fluid 2 euagege 1. Introduction ‘The topic heat exchange includes a broad range of topics that cannot be treated here. This article deseribes heat exchangers, and would be better ‘entitled Heat Exchangers. ‘A heat exchanger is a device that transfers thermal energy between two or more fluids that have differing temperatures, Typical applica tions involve heating or cooling of a luid stream, ‘evaporation or condensation of single ot mulli= ‘component fluid stream, and heat recovery or re- jection from a system, Tn other applications, the ppurposeis toheat, cool, condense, vaporize, ster- ilize, pasteurize, fractionate, distil, concentrate, crystallize, or control process fluid, In some heat ‘exchangers, the fuids transferring heat are in di- rect contact, In other exchangers, heat transfer between fluids takes place through a separating wall or into and out of a wall ina transient man- ner. In most process heat exchangers, fluids are separated by a heat-iransfer surface, and ideally they do not mix, Such exchangers are referred to as direct transfer type ot simply recuperators. Ia ‘contrast, exchangers in which there is an inter- mittent low of heat from the hot to cold fluid-via hheat storage and heat rejection through the ex- ‘changer surface or matrix-ate referred (0 a8 in direct transfer type or storage type exchangers, or simply regenerators In this article, comprehensive information is presented for design of single-phase and two- phase heat exchangers used in process, power, petroleum, air-conditioning and refrigeration, yogenics, tansportation, and other industies Also, design information is provided on impor-6 Heat Exchange tant operating problems such as flow-induced vibration, ow maldistribution, and fouling. 2. Classification of Heat Exchangers Heat exchangers can be classified according to wansfer process, construction, flow arrange- ‘ment, surface compactness, number of dluids, ‘and eat-tansfer mechanisms as shown in Fig ‘we 1 [1]. They can also be classified according to the process function (Fig.2), industry, type of ‘uid, and site of installation in the plant. 2.1, Classification According to Construction 2.1.1, Tubular Heat Exchangers ‘Tubular heat exchangers are generally built of circular tubes, although elliptical and rectangu- Tar tubes have also been used. There is consider- able design flexibility because the core geometry ‘can be varied easily by changing the tube diam- eter, length, and arrangement, Tubular exchang- cers can be designed for any operating tempera- tures, pressures, and any temperature and pres- sure differences between the fluids, limited only by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating conditions: heavy fouling, highly viscous low, corrosiveness, tox- icity, radioactivity, etc. These exchangers may be further classified as shell-and-tube, double- pipe, spiral and tube-coil exchangers. Only the firstwo types, the most important, are described further here. 2.1.1.1. Shell-and-Tube Exchangers Shell-and-tube exchangers ate composed of round tubes mounted in a cylindrical shell with the tube axis parallel to tha of the shell. One fluid flows inside the tubes, the other flows across and along the tubes. The major components of this exchanger are tubes (or tube bundle), shell, sta- tionary or frontend head, reat-end head, bal- fles, and tubesheets. Detailed components for several shell-and-tube exchangers are shown in Figue 3 A variety of intemal constructions are used in shelland-tube exchangers, depending upon the desired heat-transfer and pressure-drop per- formance and the methods employed o reduce thermal stresses, to prevent leakages, to provide for case of cleaning, to contain operating pres- sures and temperatures, and to control corro- sion. These exchangers are classified and con- structed according to Tubular Exchanger Manu- facturers Association (TEMA) standards [2] in the United States or modified TEMA standards in other countries TEMA has developed a notation system to designate major types of shell-and-tube ex ‘changers. In this system, each exchanger is des- ignated by a three letter combination, the first Teter indicating the front-end head type, the sec fond the shell type, and the third the rear-end head type, These arc identified in Figure 4. Some of the common shell-and-tube exchangers are ABS, AEP, CFU, AKT, and AIW, Other special types of shell-and-tube exchangers have front- ‘end and rear-end heads different from those in Figure 3. These exchangers may not be identii- able by the TEMA letter designation, ‘The sizes of shells or tube bundles are desig- nated by describing the shell/tube bundle nom- inal diameter and tube lengths (both in inches, 1in=2.S4em, by TEMA), Except for the ket- Ue reboiler, the nominal diameter is the shell inside diameter, rounded off to the nearest inte- ‘ger; forthe kettle reboiler, the nominal diameter is the port diameter (the shell inside diameter (ID) near the tube fluid inlet) followed by the shell ID. The three lever designation of the type of the exchanger follows the size of shell. Some ‘examples of Figure 3 are the following: B) Fixed tuhesheet exchanger with bonnet sla: ionary head, single pass on shellside and tubeside, 23-1/4 in (99.1 em) shell inside di- ameter, 18 ft (5.491) tubes, Size 23-216 ype BEM, ©) Outside packed floating head exchanger with removable channel and cover, one shell pass, wo tube passes, shell inside diameter 21 in (53.3.em) with 14 1 (4.27 m) tubes. Size 21 — 168 type AEP. -tube exchanger with stationary head chan- nel integral with tubesheet and removable cover, two-pass shell with longitudinal baf- D)Heat Exchange @ Classification according to transfer processes Indect contact type Breet contact type Dect transter type Storage type Flidzed bed nine Gas-iqud Ligi-vapor fee Single-phase Maltghese ® Classification according to rumber of fide ve-thig ‘nvee-tat nea wea) Classification acrdng to untae conosctess Conpat seo-conpct WSurtace area Sey £70052/0h) (swrtace Sen Setty «7002/0 © Castetion scerang to centration ower vare-ne tended Regerrative Sita Pate Spiral Lanelia Plates oubecrpe Shel-anétube Spiral tube Pipecas Pate“ Tube-fin Rotary Findsnatrie osiflo Paral flex Ordrary_—HeahpieOiah-tyge—_orum-type torube fo te separating val ® assitcation according to How scrangem Sirslepaes wuttoass Countartiow Paral toy Cresson Spit flow Oiided flow Estendet surface Sa sno tube Pate Cross rose empound Parallel ccantwtiow Split Row Bde flow CGantertiog paral flow flow W shell gasses ud 1% posces N fate poceee Fd 2 asses ® Classication according to beat transfer nachariens Simglesphase conection Sibgln-haee convacton _Twesphase convection Combine! conection en be ses fn onesie, twnghase on bath sider ted rate heat CGovedion on sine sie iranster Figure 1. Classification of het exchangers8 Heat Exchange Ulassitication accarding to process function i Consencers Liquid o-vapor phase-cha Figure 2, Classiation according o process funtion fle, 31 in (78.7 em) shell inside diameter, 20 (6.Lm) tubes, Size 31-240 type CFU, ) Pull-through floating head kettle-type reboiler with removable channel and cover, 25in (63.Sem) port diameter and 44in (112m) shell inside diameter with 20 1 (6.1 m) tubes. Size 25/44—240 type AKT. IA has set up mechanical standards for design, fabrication, and materials for three classes of heat exchangers: R, C, and B. Class R designates the unfired shell-and-tube heat ex- changers generally used for severe conditions in petroleum and related processing. Class C designates the unfired shell-and-tube heat ex- changers generally used for moderate conditions ‘of commercial and general processing. Class B designates the unlired shell-and-tube heat ex- changers used for chemical process service Generally, Class B exchangers employ nonfer- rous materials, while the other heat exchangers ‘employ ferrous materials. Further description of the individual compo nents of shell-and-tube exchangers is provided in Section 4.2 2.1.1.2. Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers Double-pipe heat exchangers usually consist of concenitic pipes. One fluid flows in the inner pipe and the other flows countercurrently in the annulus between the pipes. This is perhaps the simplest heat exchanger. Flow distibution is no problem, and cleaning is done easily by disassembly. This configuration is appropriate when one or both of the fluids are at very high presse because containment in small diameter pipe or tubing is less costly than containment in large diameter shell. Double-pipe exchangers are generally used for the small capacity appli- cations where the total hea-transfer surface area is 50m? (500?) or less. Stacks of double-pipe ‘or multitube-type heat exchangers are also used +, T | Heaters Coolers Chalers in some process applications with radial or lon- gitudinal fins 2.1.1.3. Drip-Type Heat Exchangers Drip or trombone exchangers are serpentine or flattened helical coil tubes with water flowing over the horizontal tubes in a falling lm. They are similar to double-pipe exchangers except that the outer pipe jacket is omitted. It has the advantages of high water side heat-transfer co- efficient, casy cleaning while in operation, and no possibility of leakage of water contaminating the process fluid. Additional cooling can take place by evaporation, but this is of minor impor- lance. Major disadvantages are the large space requirement, the need for a sump pump or sewer line, and messy operation. 2.1.2, Plate-Type Heat Exchangers Plate-type heat exchangers are usually built of thin plates (all prime surface), which are either smooth or corrugated andare either lator wound in an exchanger. Generally, these exchangers ‘cannot accommodate high pressure and temper- ature differences. These exchangers may be fur- ther classified as plate, spial plate, lamella, and platecoil exchangers [1], the fist two types be- ing described further, 2.1.2.1. Plate Heat Exchangers “The plate and frame or gasketed plate heat ex- ‘changer (PHE) consists of anumber of thin, rect- angular metal plates sealed around the edges by ‘gaskets and held together in a frame as shown in Figure 5, The frame usually has a fxed- end cover (headpiece) fitted with the connect- ing ports and a movable cover plate (pressureHeat Exchange wes us ne ur wo 7 8 om nm wR Tid Ti At /\ \\} | JN 36 % ats s oe oon ° Measu nope mo wm 8 2 ReAmI \\L % 33s % ae we ae Figure 3. Shell and be het exchangers [2] 1 Stationary head-chanel, 2 Slaionary head-hoont 3 Stationary head fange-chanael or boat; 4 Channel cover 5 Ste tionary heed nozdle 6 Stationary tbeshee, 7 Toes: 8 Shell; 9 Shel cover, 10 Shell fange-staionary ead end, 11 Shell ‘ange-rearhcad end: 12 Shell nozale: 13 Shell cover ange: 14 Expansion jit 15 Fleaing tubeshet. 16 Floating head ‘cover 17 Floating head Mange, 18 Floating head backing device; 19 Spc shea fing; 20 Slip-on backing ange, 21 Foaing ‘ead eover-eternal, 22 Fling tubeshee ht; 25 Packing box 24 Packing 25 Packing glad 26 Laer nog, 27 Taeods sod spaces, 24 Transverse baffles ot sopport plate; 29 Impingement plate, 30 Longtudsal afl, 31 Pas partion; 32 Vert Connection 33 Drain conection, 4 nstrumeat connection 85 Suppor sade: 86 Lifting lug. 37 Sppor bracket. 38 Wer, 439 Liguid level connection10 Heat Exchange L : ey i : a T Fixed tubesheet like ae » ap eh. longitudinal baffle BY stationary heas Shs ia SP Double split flow Qutside packed floating head x a! : : { T I 3 Oivided ow backing device = sal Speen, Channa integral ith tube- ) t at . sheet and removable cover lL at 5 i -) , ” ; types, frontend and earend head pe [2] SAD Externally sealed Floating tubeshestplate, follower, or tailpiece). In the frame, the plates are suspended from an upper carrying bar and guided by a bottom carrying bar to ensure proper alignment. The plate pack with fixed and movable end covers is clamped together by lat- cral bolts. The carrying bars are longer than the ‘compressed stack so that when the movable end cover is removed, plates may be slid along the support bars for inspection and cleaning. igure £4 plate heat exchanger (courtesy of AlfaLaval AB, Sweden) 43) Movable end cover b) Fixed end cover «) Plate pack Carrying ba, ©) Compression bot Each plate is made by stamping or embossing ‘a comugated (or wavy) surface pattern on sheet ‘metal. Typical plate geometries (corrugated pat- terns) are shown in Figure 6. The plates are assembled with the corrugations on successive plates abutting so as to form narrow interrupted fo torturous flow paths. Since adjacent plates are in mutual contac, the mean plate spacing is well defined and determined by the geometry of the corrugations, The corrugations also improve the rigidity ofthe plates and provide mechanical support to the plate pack through multiple con- tact points. They also enhance the heattransfer rate and decrease fouling resistance by incteas- ing the level of turbulence. Plates are designed as hard of soft, depending upon whether they ‘generate high ot low intensity of turbulence. Sealing is accomplished by elastomeric gas- ket (typically 5mm, 0.2 in, thick) that are fitted in special grooves provided along the edges of the plates and around the ports as indicated by the dark lines in Figure 6. Some manufacturers offer special interlocking types to prevent gasket Heat Exchange n blowout at high differential pressures. Typical ‘gasket materials and their range of applications are listed in Table I (3 ‘Allarge number of pass arrangements are pos- sible ina plate heat exchanger (3), [4] depend- ing on the required heat-iransfer duty, available pressure drops, minimum and maximum veloc ities allowed, and the flow rate ratio of the two fluid streams. Whether the plate exchanger is a single-pass or multipass unit, the thetmodynam- ically superior counterilow or overall counter flow arrangement is used exclusively. Some advantages of plate heat exchangers are as allows: ‘They can easily be taken apart for cleaning, inspection, and maintenance, The heat-transfer surface area can be readily changed or rear ranged for a different task or anticipated chang ing loads, through the flexibility of plate size, corrugation patterns, and pass arrangements ‘The high turbulence due to plates reduces foul- ing to ca, 10~25 % that of a shell-and-tube ex- changer. Because of the high heat-transfer co- efficients, reduced fouling, absence of bypass and leakage streams, and pure counterflow ar- rangements, the surface area required for a plate ‘exchangers one-half to one-third that of a shell- and-tube exchanger for a given heat duty, thus reducing the cost, overall volume, and mainte- nance space forthe exchanger. The gross weight of a plate exchanger is about one-sixth that of an equivalent shell-and-tube exchanger. Leak- age from one fluid to the other cannot take place unless aplate develops ahole, Since the gasketis between the plates, any leakage from the gaskets is to the outside of the exchanger. The residence time for uid particles ona given side is approxi- ‘mately the same. This is desirable for uniformity of heat treatment in application such as steriliz- ing, pasteurizing, and cooking. There are no sig- nificant hot or cold spots in the exchanger that ‘could lead to the deterioration of heat-sensitive uids. The volume of uid held up in the ex- ‘changer is small; this is important with expen- sive fluids, for faster transient response, and fora better process conirol, Finally, high thermal per- formance can be achieved in plate exchangers. ‘The high degree of counterflow makes tempera ture approaches of 1 °C possible, The high ther- maleffectiveness (up toca. 93 %) facilitates eco- nomical low-grade heat recovery. Flow-induced vibration, noise, thermal stresses, and entry im-2 Heat Exchange igure 6, Pate pate: a) Washboaré; b) Zig-7ag;¢) Chevron o hesingbone. 6) Protusions and depressions) Washboad ‘with secondary comugations; 1) Oblique washboard “able 1 Gane trie plate Be excing (3) SBR (rene bes) 50 gerd pupove aqueous, spon a eitace ESfonstecued cate Neoprene tmnt 79a ai sale 100-140 dusy pode, ates, beverage. Patrol ad boca est fatter ptely suabiefocteas fppleatoes a gw sal sad ‘eget ses, ed alipbae irae see uy pesca) 120-150 as, sia nd vege, teas tone. pena od se ais, oxygens clea oc area: table or emi der re aioe ale fray igs ae propsene 10 (erpan nie Shower goa 200-269 crue voles gh opening pingement problems of shell-and-tube exchang- «ers do not exis in plate heat exchangers. ‘Some inherent limitations of plate heat ex- changers are caused by the plates and gaskets: ‘The plate exchanger can be used for a maxi- :mum pressure of about 2.5MPa (360 psig), but usually below LOMPa (150psig). The gasket materials (except forthe Teflon-coated type) re- siriet the use of plate exchangers in highly corro- sive applications; they also limit the maximum ‘operating temperature to 260°C (500°), al- though operation is usually carried out below 150°C (300°F) to avoid the use of expensive gasket materials. For equivalent flow velocities, the pressure drop in plate exchangersis very high compared to shell-and-tube exchangers. How- ‘ver, the flow velocities are usually low and the plate lengths ae shor, so the resulting pressure drops are generally acceptable. Because of the long gasket periphery, plate exchangers are not suitable for high vacuum applications. Plate &x- ‘changers a not suitable for erosive duties (5]or for fuids containing fibrous materials. In cer- tain cases, suspensions can be handled, but to avoid clogging, the largest suspended particles should be at most one-third the size of the aver- age channel gap. Viscous fluids can be handled, but extremely viscous fluids lead to flow maldis- tribution problems, especially on cooling. Plate exchangers should not be used for toxic fluids due to potential gasket leakage. Some of the largest units have a total surface area of about 2500? (27000?) per frame. Large differ ‘ences in fluid flow rates of two streams with rea- sonable pressure drops cannot be handled in a plate exchanger, 2.1.2.2. Spiral-Plate Heat Exchangers ‘The spiral-plate heat exchanger consists of two relatively long strips of sheet metal, pro- vided with welded studs for plate spacing, and ‘wrapped helically around a spit mandrel to form a pair of spiral channels for two fluids, as shown in Figure 7. Thus, cach fluid has a long single passage arranged ina compact package, The ba- sic spiral element is sealed by either welding at ‘each side of the channel or by providing a gas- kee (asbestos-based) at each end cover to obtain the following arrangements ofthe wo fluids: (1) both fluids inspiral counterflow; (2) one fluid in spiral flow, the other in crossflow across the spi- ral; or 3) one fluid in spiral flow, and the other in a combination of crossilow and spiral flow ‘The whole assembly is housed in a cylindrical shell enclosed by (wo circular end covers, either flat or conical Fad 2 Fluid + spiral counterion Heat Exchange 13 The spiral plate exchanger has a relatively large diameter because of the spiral turns. This is @ noncompact heat exchanger with maxi- ‘mum of about 185m: (2000 f) surface area for maximum 471m (S8in) diameter shell. The hheattransfr coefficients are not as high asin a plate exchanger ifthe plates are not corrugated However, the heattransfer coefficient is higher than tat fora shell-and-tube exchanger because of curved rectangular passages. Hence, the sur face area requirement is about 20% lower than a shell-and-tube unit forthe same heat duty ‘The advantages ofthe spral-plate eat ex- changer are the following It can handle viscous, fouling liquids, and slurries more readily because ofthe single pas sage. The fouling rac is low compared to the shelland-tubeunitItis more amenable to chem- ical, flush, and reversing fluids cleaning tech- ries, and thus maintenanceis low compared to a shelland-tube unit, The intemal void volume is low compared to a shell-and-tubo exchanger, and iis well suited as a condenser or reboiles ‘The disadvantages ofthis exchanger are the following: ‘The maximum size is limited. The maxi ‘mum operating pressure is limited to 1000KPa (150 psig) for large units andl the maxinvum op- eating emperatureis imited to 500°C (930°F) with compressed asbestos gaskets, Field repair is difficult due to construction features. 2.1.3. Extendes wrface Heat Exchangers ‘The tubular and plate-type exchangers described previously are all prime surface heat exchang- fers, except for those having low finned cir cealar tubes, The design thermal effectiveness is usually <60% for a single-shell unit. The hheat-transfer surface area density is usually <700m*/m? (200 f/f). In many applica- tions, amuch higher exchanger effectiveness (up to 98 %) is essential, and the box volume and ‘mass are limited so that a more compact surface ismandated, When either agas or aliquid having alow heat-iransfer coefficient isthe fluid on one or both sides, i results in a large heat-transfer surface area requirement, This is met by adding fins on the primary surface on one or both fuid sides, Plate~ fin and tube~fin geometries are the4 Heat Exchange ‘wo most common types of extended surface ex- changers. 2.1.3.1. Plate—Fin Heat Exchangers Platefin heat exchangers have fins or spacers sandwiched between parallel plates (referred (0 as plates or parting sheets) as shown in Figure 8, Sometimes fins are incorporated in a flat tube ‘with rounded corners (referred to as a formed tube), thus eliminating a need for the side bars Other plate~fin constructions include drawn- ‘cup or ube-and-center configurations, These are shown in Figure 9, The plates or flat tubes sepa- rate the two fluid streams and the fins form the in- dlvidval flow passages. Alternate fluid passages are connected in parallel by suitable headers (0 form the two or more sides ofthe exchanger. Fins are die- or roll-formed and are attached to the plates by brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, welding, mechanical fit, or extrusion. Fins are used on both sides in gas-lo-gas heat exchang- cers. In gas-to-liquid applications, fins are usu- ally used only on the gas side-if employed on the liquid side, they are used primarily for struc tural strength and flow mixing purposes. Fins are also sometimes used for pressure containment and rigidity. In Europe, the plate~fin exchanger is referred to as the matrix heat exchanger, Figure . Basic components of a platen heat exchanger 3) Pate oe parting set 8) Fine) Side bar Plate fins are categorized as (1) plain i.e. un- cut) and straight fins, such as plain triangular and rectangular fins, (2) plain but wavy fins, and (3) interrupted fins such as offset stip, louver, perio- rated, and pin fins. Examples of commonly used fins are shown in Figure 10. The velocity and temperature boundary layer thicken along the flow length on plain surfaces resulting in both a lower heatransfer coefficient and a lower fric- tion factor compared to interrupted fins. Plain fins are used when the pressure drop is criti cal, and interrupted or wavy fins cannot mect the pressure drop requirement together with & flow (or frontal) area constraint. For wavy fins, the boundary layers are either thinned or inter- rupted when the fluid follows waves, resulting in both « higher heat-transfer coefficient and & higher friction factor. Boundary layers can be Evaporation or [14-16] Forced circulation evaporators are used when concentration is needed for thermally degradable, heavy fouling, viscous liquids, or when crystallization is required, For these ap- plications, the temperature rise across the ex ‘changers in one cycle is kept 2—3 °C (3-5 °F) or lower, which results in circulation rates 2 300 times greater than the evaporation rate. Foul- ing tendency is ower due to high velocities in the tube. However, pumping power is required for forced circulation. The cost of a forced circula- tion evaporator is generally higher than that of a natural circulation evaporator. The overall space requirement could be significantly reduced com- pared to a natural circulation evaporator for a ‘given duty because of higher heat-iransfer coe ficients with forced circulation. By circulating the liquid with a pump, the flow rate is con- trolled independently of the heat transfer in the ‘evaporator (evaporation rate), and as ares the desired flow control could be achieved. Many lypes of forced circulation evaporators are in use, The most common ones are the submerged- tube type with either a vertical or horizontal tube bundle (heating element) totally submerged inHeat Exchange 23, Liuis-to-vapar phase-change exchangers ‘Yaporzing exchangers Boers Ire) (unfirea) Stean waste neat Evaporators Rebolers Vaporizers generators boilers te Water Gas Liquid metal Powsr-plant Cheeieal fooled tooled canied evaporators evaporators reactors teactors. reactors Vert —ayonet —Herizantal_—_ Horizontal alancria tube ustube Crosson so-vaper phase-change exchanges Figure 19, Clasitcation of i ® Clasifiction according to the type of consiructon Sheli-and-tube Plate Agtated film Batch pan Natorat ciecuation Forced eculstion Short-tube Baskel Long-tube Rising Failing Vertical Horiaonta vertial ype. vertical fm film type type pe ® Classification according te how eneroy i supalied Stean Vapor recompression Both Single Multiple Nuttin Mechanical Therna- fied effect” flash compression compression r+ Forward Sackward Med Parallel. feed feed fend feed Figure 20, Clasifition of chemical evaporators24 Heat Exchange the liquid. For further details > Evaporation and (14), [15] Plate evaporators (or plate and frame evap- ‘rators) are used when low to medium heat con- ditions are required. Four types of plate evapora- tors are available: falling film, rising/falling film, flash, and free-flow evaporators as described in 07), ‘Toe major advantages of plate evaporstors are as follows: liquids have a low residence time as required forheat-sensitive liquids in pharmaceu- tical, fruit, and dairy products. Also, there is a Tow liquid holdup, which results in rapid startups and shutdowns with minirmum wastage, They are relatively easy and fast to clean. Capacity can be increased or decreased by changing the number of plates. ‘The major disadvantage is that they cannot be used with very viscous liquids, Except for the flash evaporate, they are nat suitable for liquids containing large suspended particles, or where crystallization may occur duc to evaporation, Agitated film-type evaporators, also referred to as wiped film or scraped film evaporators (see Fig. 21) are used when shell-and-tube or plate ‘evaporators cannot be used, Some specific ap- plications are: very viseaus liquids, liquids with suspended particles, liquids with heavy scaling ‘or foaming characteristics, and heat-sensitive liquids requiring a low residence time or high vacuums to reduce evaporation temperature Feed inlet igure 2. Wipe lm evaporators a) Rotor astembly; 8} Vaporiing tection) Condenser Basically, this evaporator consists of a verti- cal cylindrical jacketed vessel which is heated primarily by steam (sometimes by oil), a ro- tor with blades, and a drive system to rotate the blades. A horizontal tapered cylindrical evapo- rator is used for special applications. The clear- ance between the vessel and rotor blade is either fixed (as in cylindrical units) or adjustable (as in tapered units). During operation, the liquid is fed from the top, and is transported down in ahe- Tical path by the action of the blade rotation and gravity. Evaporation of the solvent takes place in te thin film formed at the wall. The thin film ¢yields high heat-transfer coeflicients that are not possible with other types of evaporators. Agi- tated film evaporators are designed for operat- ing pressures ranging from vacuums to 1 MPa (150 psig), operating temperatures up to 340°C (650 °F), surface area up to 40m? (430.82), and liquid viscosities up to 50 Pa s (50 x 10° ep, al- ‘though special units up to 1000 Pas (I x 10° cp) are available. Since the heat-transfer surface area is small, the heating medium is generally at & high temperature (o obtain reasonable evapora tion rates, ‘The major benefits are: extremely low resi- dence time (in seconds), wide product viscos- ity range (outlet: inlet viscosity ratio= 1000 or higher), minimum fouling of heat-transfer sur- face due (o wiping action, high recovery rates due (o “squeezing” of residues, and minimum bback-mixing, Some of the major applications are: concen- tration of food products (dairy concentrates, fruit juices, tomato pastes, etc), heat sensitive to- bacco products, re-relining of waste lube ol, and recovery of wash solvents in paint and varnish ‘manufacture, ‘The capital cost of the agitated film evapora- tor is high. Also the moving parts, blades, and rotor need periodic maintenance Batch pan is one of the oldest methods of ‘concentration, A spherical or a spherical eylin- ddrical vessel is either jacketed or has internal coils for heat transfer. Because of heat trans- fer by natural convection inthe vessel, the heat- transfer coefficient is generally low; the surface reais also limited. Hence, the batch pan has lim- ited evaporation capacity, The residence time of the product is generally large, in hours. Hence, for heat sensitive liquids, the batch must be e- ther operated at low lemperatuzes or in vacuum,Batch pans are now used only in limited applica- tions, such as for the concentration of jams and jellics that contain whole fruits, in the pharma- ‘ceutical industry, and in fermentation processes. Classification According to How Energy is Supplied. Steamis generally used asthe heating ‘medium in the evaporator. The cost of steam or ‘energy requirement of an evaporator may be sig- nificant depending upon the application. If the ‘vapor produced inthe evaporation process or the hot concentrated liquid could be used to evapo- rate the liquid to be concentrated, the amount of steam required could be significantly reduced, resulting in a considerable saving in the operat~ ing cost Steam economy is defined as unit mass of solvent evaporated per unit mass of steam used, ‘The steam economy of the evaporator can be in- creased significantly in a number of ways, The ‘most common method is the use of multiple ‘evaporators arranged in series or alternatively; these are referred to as multiple effect evapora tors, The vapor evolved from ane stage of evap- ‘oration is thus used as the heating medium in the subsequent stage where boiling is carried out at reduced pressure, An alternative method of in- creasing steam economy requires thatthe steam ‘generated in the first stage be tecompressed to a sufficient pressure so that it could be used as the heating medium in the stage in which itis gen- crated. The steam can be recompressed either by thermocompression or by mechanical com- pression. For further details + Evaporation or [14-16}, [18] 2.2.2.2, Reboilers ‘A reboiler is a heat exchanger used to generate vapors (aqueous or nonaqueous) from a process liquid at the base of a distillation columa. The vapors generated are used to provide the energy for vaporization in the distillation column, All reboilers considered here have a flow boiling process for the vaporizing fluid. As shown in Figure 22, they are classified according to how this flow is induced, whether by natural circula- tion ory forced cixculation, Natural circulation ccan occur due (othe hydrostatic pressure differ- cence createdby the difference in density between the liquid in the downcomer at the bottom of the Heat Exchange 25 distillation column and the two-phase mixture from the reboiler leading to the distillation col- ‘umn, Forced circulation is achieved by a pump inthe downcomer line, and is used where the hy- drostatic pressure difference is not adequate for the required circulation in a natural circulation reboiler, Natural Circulation (Thermosiphon) Re- boiler. In a kettle reboiler the vapor at the exit of the boiling liquid side is dry or almost dry; in other thermosiphon reboilers, itis a two-phase (vapor liquid) mixture. Proper design ofthe in- Tetand outlet piping to the reboiler is essential to maintain minimum pressure drop in the piping ‘The kettle reboiler (TEMA K shell), as shown in Figure 23A, usually consists of horizontal bundle of heated U tubes (two tubepasses),cir- ccular in cross section, placed in an oversized shell; a multiple tube-pass floating head bun- dle may also be used. The tube bundle diame- ter ranges from 50 to 70 % of the shell diameter. ‘The liquid tobe vaporized enters from below and ‘covers the tube bundle; the vapor occupies the "upper space in the shell without the tubes, The large empty space in the shell acts asa vapor dis- ‘engaging space, and almost dry vapor exits from the top nozzle, Depending upon the length of the kettle and a need to reduce liquid entrainment, fone of more vapor nozzles are used. The liquid is fed at arate greater than the vaporization rate so that low volatile components do not build up in the shell. The small holdup space beyond the weir is used to control the removal of excess liquid (which includes nonvolatiles); the nozzle in this space is used to drain the excess liquid. ‘Typical weit heights exceed bundle heights by 50—150mm (2~6 in). To maintain abigh liquid circulation rate, the tube pitch-to-diameter ratio is kept between 1.5 and 2. Generally, the kettle reboiler is considered a8 a pool boiling device, however flow boiling prevails in the tube bundle ‘The internal or sube-in-column reboiler as shown in Figure 23B, is similar to the kettle re- boiler without the shell, and is diectly inserted into the bottoms reservoir ofthe distillation col- ‘umn, Its used for low heat duties and nonfouling liquids, thus eliminating the need fora shell and piping ‘The vertical thermosiphon reboiler, as shown. in Figure 23C, has a TEMA E shell with single-26 Heat Exchange Classification of eboiters Natural cculation Forced circulation Kettle internat Vertical Horizontal Vvertieal Horizontal, reboie bundle-in-clur|thermosiphon thermsphon reboler igure 22 Classification of ebeles esting edu gad Bottons. product © Bottoms product Tworphase flow Laws surface © a 4 guid t n surface Heating Bottons — product Botton. Liquid product Figure 23. Reboierinstalations A) Ketde; 8) Intemal;C) Vertical ‘hemosiphon; D) Horizontal thermosiphon 42) Distllaien coloms. >) Wer. c) Usube bundle: d) Ketuerebeile,e) Baile suppor plats: )Iteal seller, g) Valve: 4 Thermosiphon rebar} Reboler (G-ype shel) Tube support plate, k) Hettoota afi) Tube bundleppass tubes in which boiling occurs. The tube di- ameter ranges from 25 to SOmm (1~2in) for low pressure operation with wide-boiling mix- tures, and tube lengths are usually 2.4—3.7 m (8-124), The outlet pipe is kept short with its flow area equal tothe flow arca of all tubes be- ‘cause ofthe high exit velocity. The inlet pipe area is kept small (up to 50% of the tube area) to en- able flow to be restricted in case of flow instabil- ity, The liquid level for non-vacuum operations is maintained to the upper (top) tubesheet. This ‘means the liquid level inthe base ofthe distlla- tion column mustbe higher, and the column must be elevated above the ground, For vacuum appli- cations, the liquid level may be dropped to 0.3~ 0.6 times the tube length. Vapor liquid mixture leaves the reboiler and separation takes place in the column, ‘The horizontal thermosiphon reboiler, as shown in Figure 23D, has » TEMA X, G, H, or E shell, single or two-tube passes, and boiling takes place on the shell side, Flow is restricted in the inlet line for stable operation and good control ofthe reboiler, Forced Circulation Reboilers. These re- boilers are used for heavy fouling, viscous, or solid-bearing liquids, or when the vaporization rate is Iow, The pump in the liquid feed line to the reboiler is used to circulate the fluid through the system, The boiling fluid is on the tube side in most eases, but may be on the shell side in special applications. The reboiler may be hori- zontal or vertical, Generally, very little boiling (< 1%) takes place within the reboiler due (0 the high circulation rate ‘The foregoing four major types of reboilers are compared in Table 3 for several important process conditions [20]. This table may be used for prescreening the type of reboiler before go- ing through a detailed design. 2.2.2.3. Waste Heat Boilers ‘Waste heat boilers are used in recovering heat from the flue gas, or for cooling and controlling ‘of chemical process gases by generating steam. This steam can be used for industrial processes, Heat Exchange 27 power generation, or space heating. A combina tion boiler that operates both by firing fuel and by removing heat from a gas stream is also re- ferred to as a waste heat boiler. ‘Waste heat boilers may be categorized as fre- tube and watertube units. In a firerube boiler, the hhot gas flows through the tubes, and a water~ steam mixture flows outside the tubes. In wa- rertube boiler, the water—steam mixture flows ‘through the tubes and the hot gas flows outside the tubes, Firetube boilers are designed with nat- ‘ural citculation, and watertube boilers with nat- ‘ural or forced circulation, Firetube boilers are used to recover or re- ‘move heat from relatively high pressure, high temperature process gases. For example, in the steam—methane reforming process, the high pressure gas leaves the reformer at several hun- dred kPa and at $70—980°"C (1600- 1800°F) ‘The boiler resembles a shell-and-tube type heat ‘exchanger. Since high pressure steam is gener- ated on the shell side, the shell and tube wall thickness should be chosen properly because both the shell and tube are pressurized, ‘The firetue boilers are generally limited to steam pressure of under 6.9 MPa (1000 psig) ‘They are usually more economical than the wa- tertube boilers if the low area required is less than 0.4m? (42) since construction is rela tively uncomplicated. The heat-exchanger effec- tiveness of firetube boilers usually ranges from (65 10 75 % (21 Watertube boilers are used to recover heat from flue gases at near-almospheric pressure Nearly all watertube boilers have finned tubes; plain tubes are used for those watertube boil- ters having gases above 760°C (1400°F). The heat-exchanger eflectiveness for watertube boil- cers with fins usually ranges from 90 10 95 %, and that for watertube boilers without fins froma 65 to 75% [21 Tn natural circulation boilers, thermosiphon action or natural circulation results due to the density difference between the steam—waler ‘mixture in the steaming area and the water in the downcomer. In this ease, walertubes are ei- ther vertical or inclined, When horizontal tubes are used in the boiler with vertical gas flow, forced circulation ig mandatory since buoyant force is nol sulfcient to sustain natural cireula- tion. Forced circulation is achieved with pumps.28 Heat Exchange “Tbe. Rei elson ie 20 ‘pening pese eagn AT ‘yal ge companea » Toran iatbaige Veil ubesde— Faedfow “Garzoryaveiaar B Best 6, Good opin, Pa prt, bt be coe pose RA Ray we cacy ‘stent. could bx cc in somes Ruy betune fin at: PF operon Opt bt ‘Natural circulation boilers cost less, are easier to construct, and require minimum maintenance. The circulation ratio (water mass flow = steam ‘mass flow) in natural circulation boilers varies from 15:1 to 25:1; the circulation ratio for forced convection boilers is restricted to 5: 1 ~ 7:1 to minimize pump size and power con- sumption Firctube boilers have either horizontal tubes ‘or vertical tubes, and most of them have natural circulation ofthe steam - water mixture, Usually they are heated by process gas, A variety of ire- tube boilers are available; further design details, are presented in [2], [23] ‘Watertube boilers with vertical and inclined tube have natural circulation, and those with hor- izontal tubes have forced circulation; the latter are less reliable and more expensive. For boil- cers with natural circulation, either unfinned or finned ordinary tubes are used or bayonet un- finned tubes are used. Again, many types of wa- tertube natural circulation boilers are available; further design details can be found in (22), (23) 3. Heat Exchanger Design ‘Methodology A methodology for designing a new heat ex- ‘changer is illustrated in Figure 24 [24]. Major design considerations include: 1) Process and design specifications 2) Thermal and hydraulic design 3) Mechanical design including operation and ‘maintenance considerations Manufacturing considerations and cost ‘Trade-off factors and. system-based opti- 5 ‘There could be strong interactions and feed- back among the aforementioned considerations as indicated by the double-sided arrows in Fig- ‘ure 24, One example of these interactions is as follows ‘Consider a shell-and-tube exchanger design with heavy fouling. In the process specification ‘module, geometry and material ae properly se- lected to minimize fouling and corrosion, and to facilitate cleaning. The heat exchanger can be positioned and oriented such that on-location cleaning or easy removal for external clean- ing is possible. In thermal-hydraulic design,Heat Exchange 29 i | fo} | [Frcaner coatacon, Tn mh | | considerations, material and Operating ] || | | [surface selection, fuside seniors | | || 1 [ef eo ar aes i r 5 vit \ Gon) i | { 1 | fatace “neeno- |_| | characerstis\ Raat ranter 3) ohysea. il i (om mesure Gop Le prope) [1 1 | eases esemeas oes ag) || 1 Agrees / | sae wena | | I iil te iy echanicat design ncing | ‘Thermat and ‘structural analysis, therma 1 hycrauic design | Firesues, thereat exponsn >! | SENS ana i iatrane coglnatns i I) ' i | 170) sae ees 240-4314 py for Apr dl oy for pigs 378 nity = 1707 Figure 25, Nomeaclatue and geomet propestie of tbe banks common in sell-adé-tube exchangers rections instead of four, as in the square pitch arrangement. Where mechanical cleaning is re- quired, the 45° layout is preferred for laminar or turbulent flow of a single-phase fuid, and for condensing uid on the shell side. Ifthe pressure drop is constrained on the shell side, the 90° Iay- ‘out is used for turbulent flow. Where boiling is necessary, the 90° layout, which provides vapor escape lanes, is preferred. However, if mechan- ical cleaning is not required, the 30° layout is preferred for single-phase laminar or turbulent flow and condensing involving a high AT range (a mixture of condensibles). The 60° layout is preferred for condensing involving a high AT range (generally pure vapor condensation) and forboiling applications. Horizontal tube bundles are used for shellside condensation or vaporiza- tion, 4.23, Baffles Batlles may be classified into wansverse and lon- ‘gitudinal types. The purpose of longitudinal baf- fies is to contol the overall flow ditection of the shell uid. For example, F,G, and H shells have longitudinal baffles (see Fig. 4). The transverse batlles may be classified as plate baffles and rod (or strip) batiles. The plate baflles are used 10 ‘support the tubes, (0 direct the fluid in the tube bundle at approximately 90° (o the tubes, and to increase the turbulence of the shell fluid. Two types of plate bailles are shown in Figure 26, seg- ‘mented and disk-and-doughnut. The rod baflles are used to support the tubes and to increase the turbulence of the shel luid and are shown in Fig- ‘ure 27. The flow in arod-bafiled heat exchanger is parallel to the tubes, and the problem of flow- induced tube vibration is virtually eliminated by the baile support ofthe tubes. The choice of baf- fle type, spacing, and cut are largely determined by flow rate, allowable pressure drop, tube sup- port, and flow-induced vibration. Plate Baffles. The two types of plate baf- fles are either segmental or disk-and-doughnut ig.26). The single- and double-segmental ballles are most frequently used. The single: segmental baffe is generally simply referred to as a segmental baifle, The practical range of34 Heat Exchange Single-segnental bale No-tubes-in-window seqnental battle _- Tobe ox - Doughnut tisk Uisk-and-doughrut battle ‘Trple-segmentat pattie Figure 26, Plate bale types ® ® kod from Battle 3) Rods from battle 2 Rod battle & fod tattle 3 5%@_ Bate sina — 3 fod fron baffle 3 wy Rode trom battle 1 igure 27 Rod ble supports ‘n) Four od hale supported hy skid bar (tubes not shown) 8) A tube supported hy four sods a 90 degree angle round the petphery ©) square layout of tubes wit ods D) A triangular layout of tubes wit rods 4) Sei barb) Tube; Rod; Rod or barsingle-segmental batile spacing is one fifth to fone shell diameter, though the optimum could be 40-50% of the shell diameter. The mini- ‘mum spacing is S0.8mm (2in) or one fifth of the shell diameter, whichever is larger. A spac- ing of SO.8mm (2in) is required for cleaning the bundle. Spacings closer than one fifth of the shell diameter provide added leakage (see Section 8.2.1) which nullfies the heat-ransfer advantage of closer spacings. If the foregoing limits on the baifle spacing do not satisfy other design constraints such a8 APyrax OF tube Vi- bration, no-tubes-in-window or pure crossflow design should be tried, The bafiles are generally spaced between the nozzles, and donot cover the centre length of the tubes. The inlet and outlet baile spacing is generally larger than the “cen- tral” baffle spacing due to the nozzle locations in the shel. ‘The segmental baflle is a circular disk (with, baifie holes) with a segment removed. The baf- fe cuts, expressed as the percentage of the shell inside diameter, vary from 20% to 49%, the ‘most common being 20-25 %, The baflle cut and spacing should be designed such that the flow velocity is approximately the same for the «ross flow and window flow. AUlarge baile spac- ‘ngs, the percent cut may approach 4549 % in order to avoid excessive pressure drop across the windows compared tothe bundle. Large or small spacings coupled with large baffle cuts are un- desirable because of the increased potential of fouling associated with stagnant flow areas. If fouling is of prime concern, the baile cut should bekept < 25 % tomaintainhigh velocity through the window zone. The direction of the baile cut is selected as either horizontal (see Fig.26) or vertical for a single-phase fluid (iquid or gas) ‘on the shell side, For a very viscous liquid, the direction of the bale cut should be horizontal for better mixing. The direction ofthe baile cut is selected as vertical forthe following shellside applications: condensation (for better drainage), evaporation/boiling (to promote more uniform flow), entrained solids in liquid (to provide the least interference for solids t fall out), and mul- Lishell pass exchangers (includes F shell), Even though one of the major functions of the plate ballle is to include eross flow (flow normal to the tubes) for improved heat-trans- fer performance, this objective is only approxi- ‘ated. Various clearances are required for man- Heat Exchange 35 ‘ufacturing. Fluid can leak through these clear- ance passages and reduce the heat-iransfer ef- fectiveness, Three clearances associated with & plate bafiled shell-and-tube exchanger are tube- to-bundle hole clearance, baffleto-shell clear- ance, and bundle-to-shell clearance ‘The tube-to-baffle hole clearance should be kept at a minimum to reduce tube vibration and resultant damage as well as to minimize the A Ieakage stream (sce Section 8.2.1). The clear ance in terms of the difference between the baf- fie hole 1D and tube OD is 0.40mam (1/64 in) for unsupported tube length L > 0.91 m (6in) or for the tube OD 31,8 mm (1.25 in) or smaller; this clearance is 0.80m (1/32) for the unsup- ported tube length L<0.91 mm (36in) or for the tube OD >31.8mm (1.25in). The baffe to-shell clearance should be kept to a mini- ‘mom to minimize the E leakage stream (see Section 8.2.1), The recommended maximum di- ametral clearance (shell ID minus ballle OD) varies from 2.5mm (0.100in) for 0:20m (Sin) shell ID to 7.6 mma (0.300 in) for 1.52.m (60in) shell ID [2], From the strength and weldability viewpoints, the tube holes are kept some dis- lance away from the edge ofthe tubesheet (shell TD) and hence from the baffle edge resulting in undle-to-shell bypass stream C flowing around the edge (see Section 8.2.1). Sealing strips are used (© block this space and force the bypass siream to flow through the tubes, The use of seal- ing strips is recommended every five to seven row of tubes in the bypass stream direction pro- vided that the design is checked for flow-induced vibration of tubes near the sealing strips. If the primary function of baffles is to sup- port the tubes, they are referred to as ‘support plates”. They may be thicker than the baffle, have less tube-to-balfle hole clearance, and provide greater stiffness tothe bundle ‘The double-segmental baffle, Figure 26, also referred to as a strip balile, provides lower shellside pressure drop than that for the single- segmental hafile for the same unsupported tube span, Hence an exchanger with this type of bafile ‘can handle larger fluid flows on the shell side Mult-segmental baliles have a strong parallel flow component, provide a lower pressure drop, and permit closer tube support to prevent tube vibrations ‘The lower pressure drop results in alarge baf- fe spacing. Since the tubes in the window zone36 Heat Exchange are supported ata distance of two or more times the baffle spacing, they are most susceptible to vibration, To eliminate the susceptibility of tube vibrations and to reduce the shellside pressure drop, the tubes in the window zone are removed and support plates are used to reduce the unsup- ported span of the remaining tubes. The resul- tant design is referred to as the segmental alle ‘with no-tubes-in-window and support plates as shown in Figure 26, The low velocity regions in the batfle corners do not exist, resulting in good flow characteristics and less fouling. Thus the loss of heattransfer surface in the window re- ‘gion is partially compensated for, However, the shell size must be increased to compensate for the loss in surface area in the window zone. If the shellside operating pressure is high, this no- tubes-in-window design is very expensive. The disk-and-doughnut bate is made up of alternate disk- and doughnut-shaped baffles as shown in Figure 26. Generally, the disk diam- cter is larger than the half shell diameter, and the diameter of the hole of the “doughnut” is smaller than the half shell diameter, This bat fic design provides a lower pressure drop com- pared to a single-segmental bafile for the same “unsupported tube span, and eliminates the tube bundle-to-shell bypass stream C. The disadvan- tages of this design are; (1) all tie rods to hold the baffles are within the tube bundle, and (2) the central tubes are supported by the disk baliles, Which in turn are supported only by tubes in the overlap region of the larger diameter disk over the doughnut hole, This design is used in nuclear shell-and-tube exchangers Rod Baffles. A rod batile is made up of par allel rods (a rod matrix) mounted on a ballle ting. The rod diameter is equal tothe tube spac- ing (zero clearance), so that the batfle touches and constrains all cubes on four sides as shown in Figure 27. Thus, in a square layout, two ver- tical hatfles constrain all tubes fzom two sides. ‘The following two horizontal baiiles constrain alltubes from the remaining two sides (90° tothe first side). A set of four rod baffles (two vertical and two horizontal) is repeated inthe exchanger. ‘The rod bafile arrangements for both square and triangular tube layouts axe showa in Figure 27. ‘The hatile spacing is generally kept at 0.152m (Gin) for single-phase applications and 0.305 m (12in) for condensers and reboilers. Generally the tube diameters and tube pitches are selected. so that the rod diameter is 4.8mm (3/16in) or 6.4mm (1/4 in). ‘The rod baflle exchanger has several advan- tages over the plate-baified exchanger, as fol- lows: (1) It eliminates flow-induced tube vibra- tions since the tubes are rigidly supported at four sucessive points. (2) The pressure drop on the shell side is about one-half ofthat with a double- segmental bafile atthe same flow rate and heat transfer rate. Alternatively, the rod. baile ex- ‘changer will result ina smaller unit for the same heat transfer and pressure drop. (3) There are no stagnant flow areas with the rod batiles, resulting in ess fouling and corrosion, and improved beat transfer compared to that for a plate bafile ex- changer. However, the rod baifle exchanger will require longer tubes of smaller diameter, If the tubeside fluid is controlling and has a pressure drop limitation, the rod bafile exchanger may not be applicable tials, ill, ® 24 Opening Figure 2%. mpingement protecon designs A) impingement pate; B) Impingement rods ©) Noze n= ‘pingement baile; D) Angular dstibator [26] Impingement Baffles. The most_ common ‘cause of tube failure is the improper location and size of the impingement plate. Impingement balfles or plates are generally used in the shell- side just below the inlet nozzle, They protect the tubes in the top row from erosion, cavitation, and vibration due to the impact of high veloc- ity fluid jet from the nozzle (© the tubes. One of the most common forms of this hafile is a solid circular plate located under the inlet noz- le justin front of the first (ube row as shown in Figure 28A and C. The location of this baflle within the shell is critical in order to minimizethe associated pressure drop and high escape ve- locity. For this purpose, adequate areas should be provided both between the nozzle and plate and between the plate and tube bundle. This ean be achieved by cither omitting some tubes from the circular bundle as shown in Figure 28A or the nozzle contains an expanded section as shown in Figure 28C. Alternatively. impingement rods (ig. 28B), dummy tubes, or thick-walled tubes are used. The annular distributor of Figure 28D isan excellent but expensive design. It permits higher velocities and any orientation of the noz- ales. 4.24, Shells Seven types of shells, as classified by the TEMA, [2],are shown in Figure 4, The E shellis the most ‘common as it is inexpensive and simple. In this shell, the shell fluid enters at one end of the shell and leaves atthe other end, i¢., there is one pass ‘on the shell side, The tubes may have single or ‘multiple passes and are supported by transverse plate batfles. This shel is the most common for single-phase shell fluid applications. Multiple passes on the tube side and a single shell pass reduce the exchanger effectiveness or F factor ‘over a single-pass arrangement. If itis too low, two E shells in series may be used o increase the mean temperature difference and the heat exchanger effectiveness ‘The F shell has a longitudinal baffle, result- ing in two shell passes and a pure counterflow arrangement. Although ideally this is a desit= able flow arrangement, the F shell is rarely used in practice because there are many problems as- sociated with the design. In particular, these will bbe heat tansfer through the longitudinal baflle from the hot side to the cold side of the shell ‘uid; also if the longitudinal baffle is not con- tinuously welded to the shell, or if seals ate not provided between the longitudinal baftle and the shell, there will be leakage from the high pres sure to the low pressure shell side. Both these factors will educe the mean temperature differ- ‘ence and the exchanger effectiveness more than the gain by using the pure counterflow arrange- ment, Itis also difficult to remove or eplace the tube bundle. With the F shell there are also adi- ‘ional problems of fabrication and maintenance. Hence, if one needs to increase the exchanger Heat Exchange 37 cffectiveness, multiple shells in series are pre ferred over the F shel. The G and H shells are related to the F shell, having variants of the longitudinal bafile. The double-split dow H shell is similar to the G shell, but with two inlet and two outlet noz- zles (and two horizontal baflles) to accomme- date high inlet velocities. The G and H shells are seldom used for shellsde single-phase appli- cations, since there is no advantage over E ot X shells. They are used as horizontal thermosiphon reboilers, condensers, and other phase-change applications. The longitudinal baile serves to prevent flashing out of the lighter components ofthe shell uid, helps fushing out of noncon- 4150 kPa or 600 psig) ‘The fluid should be clean on the shell side or the shell side should be cleanable by the chemi- cal cleaning methods, IFitis essential to prevent possible leakage between the two fluid streams, double tubesheets are used, The fixed tubesheet ‘exchanger is @low cost unit after the U-tube ex- changer, ‘The differential thermal expansion can be accommodated by a floating rear-end head in which the tubes expand freely within the shell ‘thus eliminating thermal stresses. The tube bun- dle can also be removed for cleaning the shell side, Basically, there are three types of float- ing rear-end heads: U-tube head, intemal float- ing heads (pull-through or split ring heads), and ‘outside packed floating heads, In the U-tube bundle, the thermal stresses are almost eliminated due to free expansion of the U tubes, and the rear-end head has an integral cover which is low in cost compared to other rear-end heads. The exchanger construction is simple, having only one tubesheet and no expan- sion joins, and hence itis the lowest cost design, ‘The tube bundle can he removed for shellside leaning or replaced; however, itis dificult to remove a U-tube from the bundle except in the ‘outer row, and itis also difficult to mechanically clean the tubeside bends, So a U-tube exchanger is used with clean fuids inside the tubes unless the tube side can be chemically cleaned, Flow induced vibration can also be a problem for the Heat Exchange 39 tubes in the bend region in the outermost row be- cause of a long unsupported span, particularly in large diameter bundles. ‘The next simplest floating head is the pull through head T as shown in Figure 4 with its own bonnet head, The tube bundle can easily bbe removed from the shell by fist removing the front-end head, Individual tubes or the tube bun- dle can also be replaced if required. Because of the floating head bonnet flange and bolt circle, ‘many tubes are omitted from the tube bundle near the shell, This results in the largest bundle- to-shell clearance ora significant bundle-to-shell bypass stream C. In order not to reduce the ex- changer performance, sealing strips (or dummy tubes or tie rods) in the bypass area are essen: tial, However, localized high velocities near the sealing strips could cause flow-induced tube vi- bration; hence, proper care must be exercised for the design, Since this design bas the least num- ber of tubes in a bundle for a given shell diame- ter compared to other floating head designs, the shell diameter is somewhat larger to accomme- date a required amount of surface area, One of the ideal applications of the T head design isin the kettle reboiler for which there is ample space fon the shell side, and the flow bypass stream C is of no concer (see Fig. 38, AKT), ‘The large bundle-to-shell clearance can be minimized by bolting the floating head bonnet toa split backing ring (ange) as shown in Fig- ‘ure 3A (AES), It is referred to as an S rear- ‘end head. The shell cover over the tube float- ing head has a diameter larger than the shel. As a result, the bundle-to-shell clearances are reasonable and sealing strips are generally not required. However, both ends of the exchanger ‘ust be disassembled for cleaning and mainte- nance. In both S and T heads, the shell fluid is held tightly to prevent the leakage to the out- side, However, internal leakage is possible due to the failure of an internal hidden gasket, and is not easily detectable. The T head has more positive gasketing between the two streams than the Shead. Both S and T head configurations are used for the tubeside multipass exchangers; the single-pass construction is not feasible ifthe ad- vantages ofthe positive sealing of S and T heads 1 to be retained, The cost of S and T head de- signs is relatively high compared to the U tube or fixed tubesheet units, The cost for S heads is higher than for T heads. The split backing ring40 Heat Exchange floating head is extensively used in the petro eum industry for moderate operating pressures and temperatures. For very high operating pres- sures and temperatures, the S head design has a special test ring (2 In the outside packed floaring head P design ‘of Figures 3C (ABP) and 4, the stuffing box pro- ‘vides a scal against the skir ofthe floating head and prevents shellside fuid leakage to the out- side, This skirt (and the tube bundle) is free to ‘move axially against the seal to account for ther- ‘mal expansion. A split ring flange near the end Of the skirt seals the back end of the chamber. Because of the specific design of this floating hhead, any leak (either from the shell side or the tube side) atthe gaskets isto the outside. Hence, the P head is generally not used with very toxic fluids, In this design, the bundle-to-shell clear ance is large (ca, 38mm or 1.5in); as a result, sealing strips are required, The Phhead exchanger is more expensive that the W head exchanger. ‘The packed floating head with lantern ring ‘or W head is shown in Figures 3F (ATW) and 4, Here a lantern ring rests on the machine sur- face of the tubesheet and provides an effective seal between the shellside and tubeside flanges. Vents are usually provided in the Iantern ring to help locate any leaks in the seals before the shellside and tubeside fluids are allowed to mix. ‘Where severe fluctuations in the heat duty are ex- pected, the W head is not used since the packing could be loosened. Although single-pass design ‘on the tubeside is possible, generally an even number of tube passes are used. The W head ‘exchanger is the least expensive design of all floating heads. Although its cost is higher than the U tube bundle, this is offset by the accessi- bility o the tube ends for cleaning and repair; consequently, this design is sometimes used in petrochemical and process industries. A large number of combinations of the front- ‘end and rear-end heads with different shell iypes ‘of Figure 4 are possible depending upon the ap- plication and the manufacturer. Some common \ypes of combinations are shown in Figure 3 4.2.7. Nozzles Nozzle sizes are related to the piping size, the exchanger shell design (Fig.28), and the es- ccape flow area into the tube bundle. This es- ‘cape area should have gv? < 6000kg ms * (4000 tbm f-! s~?). Itis the total free area bet- ‘ween a nozzle and the projected area on the tube bundle. Sometimes tubes may be removed to obtain sufficient area. This sizing can not be ‘made until some mechanical drawings have been ‘made, The location of the nozzle with respect to the shell flanges is determined by pressure vessel codes. 5. Basic Heat-Transfer and Pressure-Drop Analysis 5.1. Basic Equations and Definitions of Heat-Transfer Analysis In order to determine heat transfer and inlet or outlet emperaturesin aleat exchanger, the basic ‘equations used are the energy (and mass) conser- vation and the rate equations, either in a differ ‘ential or integrated form. Referring to Figure 30, the temperature drop d7}, ofthe hot fluid and the temperature rise dT, of the cold fluid across & differential element dx for an exchanger having any arbitrary low arrangement are given by Agra" A= —C,aT,= ACT. o Hest transter area A Jie thats = we Positive x eels ‘rection ey igure 30, Nomenclature fr beat exchanger viable Unit overalt resistance Here dig is the heat transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid across the surface area da; Cj, and Ce are the heat capacity rates for the hot and cold fluids, and the + sign depends upon whether dT, is increasing or decreasing with increasing dA. ‘The overall rate equation in a differential form (on a local basis) is Ag—a"AA=U (TT) AA-UATAA — Here U isthe overall heat-transfer coefficient.Equations (1) and (2) in an integrated form for a heat exchanger are 1.3) o and ‘The true temperature difference AT, depends ‘on the exchanger configuration (Gow arrange- ment) and the degree of fluid mixing within each Muid stream. The reciprocal of the over- all thermal conductance UA is referred to as the overall thermal resistance R,, The mean overall heatiransfer coefficient is defined as Up: a fue o Unless explicitly mentioned, Uy, is used throughout this article simply as U. This is be- ‘cause a constant and uniform U is idealized in the simplified theory as well as experimentally ‘obtained, Note that the integration of Equation (2) with the definition of Uy from Equation (5) ‘will yield Equation (4) with the following cor- rect definition of AT, Liisa ama) o Tae overall thermal resistance R. consists of ‘component resistances in series as shown in Fig ‘ue 31. Z et Rac + Re Tokay Gok, * tana, okey, o where Ry=hot-side film convective resis- tance, R,,,=hot-side scale (fouling) resistance, R=Wwall thermal resistance, R,<=cold-side scale (fouling) resistance, R¢= cold-side film convective resistance, n= the extended surface efficiency, and h,= fouling coefficient (inverse ‘ofa fouling factor) ‘The wall thermal resistance Rw is Heat Exchange a Aek, Inldeld) for a flat wall for a cireular whe witha single-layer wall with 2 multiple= layer wall In(d,, v5) fora circular ube Where 5 is the plate thickness, Ay is the total wall area for heat conduction, ky is the thermal ‘conductivity of the wall material, d, and dare tube outside and inside diameters respectively, L is the ube length, and N is the number of tubes. For a flat (or plain) wall associated with a plate—fin or an all prime surface exchanger, Ay=LilaNy ° where L), [2, and Np are the length, width and total number of separating plates. ‘The extended surface efficiency my is A m= 1 An) co where Ay=fin surface area, A=total (Gn-+primary) surface area on one side of the ‘exchanger, and n= fin efficiency ‘The expressions for ny are provided in Ta- ble 4 for some common types of fins. The fin efficiency for continuous flat fins on an array of circular tube is obtained by asector method [27] In this method, the rectangular or hexagonal fin (see Fig. 32A or B) is divided into N sectors Each sector iis considered as a circular fin (see ‘Table 4) with the radius re, , equal tothe length ofthe centerline ofthe sector, The fin efficiency ‘ig oF the whole fin is then given by Somedes See Only a few segments N (¢.g., 8- 10) will suffice to provide ny, accurately. UA in Equation (7) is defined as ay UARU Ay UA. UwAy oy ‘Thus U is defined optionally in terms of the hot fluid surface area Ay, the cold fluid surface area ‘Ac, oF the wall conduction atea Ay. For a plain42 Heat Exchange yp Ratan Ras tae = Hot tua “= Scale or fouting on the tere ee Sele fou = Stale gr fouling on the fole'se Cole fie igure 32, Fst nove (A) a iline and (B) a staggered tbe acrangement; the smallest epesentaivesepmeat ofthe fn fr (Cyanine syd (D) a sagged toe arrangement tubular exchanger, U, based on the tube outside surface area, from Equation (1), is given by hin (dd), a Toa Rhy Bid ay = ay Integration of Equations (1) and (2) for aheat ‘exchanger configuration, when presented in a nondimensional form can be presented in four alternative methods referred to as ¢-NTU, P— NTU, MTD, and y/~P methods, see Section 5.2 ‘The following idealizations are built into the re- sults presented in Table 7. 1) The heat exchanger operates under steady- state conditions (Le., constant flow rate, and thermal history of fluid particles independent of time), 2) Heat losses to the surroundings are negligi- ble. 3) There are no thermal energy sources in the exchanger, 4) In counterflow and parallel-flow exchangers, the temperature of each fluid is uniform over every flow cross section. From the tempera- tue distribution point of view, in crossflow exchangers, each fluid is considered mixed fr unmixed at every cross section depend- ing upon the specifications. For a multipass exchanger, the foregoing statements apply to each pass depending upon the basic flow are rangement of the passes; the fluid is consid- cred mixed or unmixed between passes. 5) Either there are no phase changes (conden- sation or boiling) in the fluid streams flowing. through the exchanger or the phase changes ‘occur under one of the following conditions: (@) Phase change occurs at a constant tem- perature as for a single component fiuid at Constant pressure; the effective specific heat forthe phase-changing fic is infinity in this case, and hence Cinax > 90. (b) The temper- ature of the phase-changing fluid varies li-Heat Exchange 43 “Tbe. in efcieny fr plea md then rome fener i ick Gamay Fla else forma ear" SOOO: Pin, wasy, oof tip fin of rectangular cross section s as 1 0g i m ostsifeas— Bow angular fis heated fom one ide VANARF Pll, wavs, of louver in of triangular ese tion atmly"* foe > 06 + 2287-048 6 y= fans ° ¢ a= Om mlierre fits oine rs ~ Yns706 + ca7125ime* for ## > 2 “Gy tant) for @ 5064 225752y-0465 carly with heat transfer during the condensa- tion or boiling. In this case, the effective spe- cific heat is constant and finite for the phase changing uid, 6) The specific heat of each fluid is constant throughout the exchanger so thatthe heat ca- pacity on cach side is eated as constant. 7) The velocity and temperature atthe entrance of the heat exchanger on each fluid side are uniform, 8) For an extended-susface exchanger, the over- all extended-surface temperature eflective- ness 1p is considered uniform and constant, 9) The overall heat-transfer coefficient bee ween the fluids is constant throughout the exchanger, including the case of phase- changing uid in idealization 5. 10) The heat-ransfer area is distributed uni- formly on each fluid side. Ia a multipass uni, heat-transfer surface area is equal in each pass44 Heat Exchange 11) For aplate-batiled shell-and-tube exchanger, the temperature rise per batile pass is small compared to the overall temperature rise along the exchanger, i., the number of baf- fles is large. 12) The fluid flow rate is uniformly distributed through the exchanger on each fluid side in cach pass, No stratification, flow bypassing, or flow leakages occur in any stream. The flow condition is characterized by the bulk (or mean) velocity at any cross section. 13) Longitudinal heat conduction in the fluid and in the wall is negligible ealizations 1 to 4 are necessary in a theo- retical analysis of steady-state heat exchangers écalization 5 essentially restricts the analysis to single-phase flow on both sides or on one side ‘with a dominating thermal resistance. For (wo- phase flow on both sides, many of the foregoing idealizations are not valid, since mass transfer in phase change resulls in variable properties and variable flow rates of each phase, and the heat-iransfer coefficients vary significantly. AS ‘aresull, the two-phase heat exchanger cannot be analyzed using the theory presented in this sec- tion. The design theory of two-phase exchangers is presented in Section 9 If idealization 6 is not valid, the exchanger is divided into small segments until the specific heats can be treated as constant, Violation of ide- alization Tis treated in Section 1. Tdealization 8 is essential since no information is available on local variations of the heat-iransler coefficient +h. The influences of idealizations 9 and 13 are discussed in Section 5.3; the influences of ide- alizations 10— 12 are covered in [28] Ifany of these idealizations are not valid for a particular exchanger application, the best so- Tation is to work directly with either Equation (1) and (2) or their modified form by including a particular effect, and to integrate them over a small exchanger segment in which all of the idealizations are valid, 5.2. Dimensionless Methods for Exchanger Heat-Transfer Analysis ‘The results of integration of Equations (2) and (2) for exchanger configurations under the ide- alizations made just above can be presented in terms of three dimensionless groups. Based on the choice of the dimensionless groups, four ‘methods have been evolved: ¢-NTU,P-NTU, MTD, and Y~P. The dimensionless groups for ‘each method, their functional relationship, and hhow to compute q are summarized in Table 5 [28]. Therelationships among the dimensionless ‘groups are summarized in Table 6 [28]. A brit description of the dimensionless groups follows fe tor eo tr | (ctr C=C Ct for C= Coe Gon [MTU tor C,= Cay wru,= mu ee toe tr nee peNMy_ tno NTU ~NIUG=C4" tne . oat Muda 1 RR, A a tof RR sro | at mR ew Prk) YT NTU, “inf = R, EE POT ane ‘The heat-exchanger effectiveness © isan ellie ciency factor and has a thermodynamic sigaiti- ‘ance. Iti the ratio of actual heat transfer from the hot othe cold uid in any exchanger config- uation to the thermodynamical limited max- {mum possible heat wansfer {19}. Its also the temperature effectiveness of the Cin uid. Is value ranges from 0 to 1 The mumberoftransfer units NTUis aatio of the overall conductance UA to the smaller heat capacity rate Cig (tinimum of Cy, and C.). It designates the dimensionless “thermal size” of the exchanger. Itmay be interpreted asthe Cosa fluid dimensionless residence time, a tempera: tue ratio, ora modified Stanton number [29]. Its value can range from Oto 20. For most process ‘exchangers, its value ranges from ea. 0.5 to 2. ‘The heat capacity rate ratio C is simply a zatio ofthe smaller to larger heat capacity rates of the two fluids such that C* < 1 ‘The temperature effectiveness or thermal ef fectiveness P of a fluid in an exchanger is theENTU mato Heat Exchange 45 coy NTU method = Cam Tuy—T,) MTD metho Pho a= UAFAT, g= UA Kp iwi Y= 000, fl arrangement) P= 0(P, Ry Now arangerent) F ~ M7 C ar Py andy a find inthe PANTU method ratio of the temperature rise (or drop) of that fluid stream to the inlet temperature difference of two fluid streams P=¢ for the Crim Aud, and P=eC* for the Cyyx fluid. Thus P< de- pending on the value of P for the Cyn Of Crnax side, ‘The heat capacity rate ratio of the two uid streams is designated as R > Ri=Cy/C2; Ry CalCy; and R can range from 0 to 2. ‘The log-mean temperature difference cor rection factor F, also referred to as the ex- ‘changer configuration factor, is a ratio of the ‘tue (actual) mean temperature difference in an exchanger to the log-mean temperature differ- ence (LMTD). The LMTD is defined in Table S for all exchanger configurations except for a ass parallel flow exchanger for which ‘ni Tet and AT2=Ty, Teo. It ‘must be emphasized that F does not represent the cffectiveness or efficiency of an exchanger, ic # = 1 does not mean thatthe exchanger is 100% tlficient. It represents a degree of departure in the true mean temperature difference for a given exchanger from the counterflow log-mean tem- perature difference. The value of F ranges from to 1: its value is maintained approximately at > 0.8 ina good design, ty and Rare defined inthe PANTU method ‘The w factor is the ratio ofthe true mean tem- perature difference in an exchanger to the in- let fluid temperature difference. Its value ranges from 010 1 ‘The results fora variety of configurations for the ©-NTU, P-NTU, MTD, or —Pmethods aze available inthe literature. The results for pro- ‘cess industry configurations ate provided in Ta ble 7 for the P-NTU method. Similar zesults for the €-NTU or U—P methods are available in [28] and for the MTD and y—P methods in 0}, In Table 7, those configurations that are stream symmetic are clearly indicated. For a stream symmetsic configuration, reversing the flow direction of one or both fluid streams or interchanging the fluid steams (Le., switching uid I tothe fluid side and luid to uid I side) ‘will not change the expression for Py. For exam- ple, 1-2 shell-and-tube exchangers with shell ‘uid mixed (TEMA E shell) have stream sym- ‘metry. Hence, fluid 1 can flow either in the tubes or on the shellside; its temperature effectiveness 1 is given by Equation (3.1) in Table 7. This is rot tue, for example, for the divided flow 1-2 exchanger with the shell uid mixed (TEMA G shell). Here fluid 1 must be the shellside uid,46 Heat Exchange and Py, NTUy, and Ry refer othe shellside uid For the tube fluid, P, NTU; and R, should then be computed from PrePRy Ry Y/R, NTU= NTU, 4) ‘The relationship between the F factor, P: Rj, and NTU; is presented in Table 6 which is valid forall single-pass and multipass exchang- cers. However, when the exchangers are arranged in series, the F factors of individual exchangers are related to the overall F factor for all exchang- cers combined, as shown in Equation (4.2.4) of Table 7, For a plate exchanger, when the number of thermal plates I is greater than ca. 40, its ef- fectiveness approaches that of aplate exchanger With an infinite number of thermal plates (31). Since most plate exchangers have the number of ‘thermal plates N > 40, the asymptotic tempera- ture effectiveness of single-pass and multipass exchangers are available [32) 5.3. Extensions of the Basic Heat-Transfer Theory ‘A umber of idealizations mentioned in Sec- tion 5.1 have been relaxed and theoretical results are obtained which represent extensions to the basic theory. Two such results are summarized next. The influence of unequal pass areas, shell- side bali passes, and shell fluid bypassing is covered in [28] 5.3.1. Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction Longitudinal wall heat conduction in the oppo- site direction to fluid flow reduces the mean tem- perature difference in the exchanger and the ex- changer effectiveness. This effect is primarily {important for exchangers having asteep temper- ‘ature gradient (A/L) inthe flow direction, Lc exchangers having high eflectiveness (>75 %) per pass and a short flow length Z for the pass ‘The influence of longitudinal conduction is re- ported in the leat exchanger literature in terms ‘of the ¢-NTU method for single-pass counter- flow and single-pass crossflow exchangers with both fluids unmixed. For the single-pass coun- terflow exchanger, the exchanger effectiveness, including the effect of longitudinal conduction, for C*=1 and 0.1 < nohA < 10 is [33]: where A=ky AL Crain and Ay is the total wall ‘ezoss-sectional area for longitudinal conduction. ‘The exchanger ineffectiveness (I~) of Equation (15) is shown in (28), [29]. For 0.8 Nir, Nasa, > Nunta, and Nunra = Nur ‘The heat-iransfer rate in laminar duet flow is very sensitive to the thermal boundary condi- lion. Hence, it is essential to carefully identify the thermal boundary condition in laminar flow. ‘The heat-iransfer rate in urbulent duet low is in- sensitive to the thermal boundary condition for ‘most common fluids (Pr 2 0.7) except for liquid metals (Pr < 0.03). Hence, there is generally no need to identity the thermal boundary condition in turbulent flow forall fluids except liquid met als, 6.2.1. Fully Developed Flows Laminar Flow. Nusselt numbers for fully developed laminar flow are constant, but de- ppend on the flow passage geometry and thermal boundary conditions. The product of the Fan- ning friction factor and the Reynolds number is also constant, but is dependent on the flow passage geometry. Fully developed laminar flow problems are analyzed extensively in [40], [41 most of the analytical solutions are also pre- sented in closed-form equations in [41]. Solu- tions for some technically important flow pas- sages are presented in Table 9, ‘A number of observations may be made from the results of Table 9 for fully developed laminar flow through straight constant cross-sectional ucts: 1) Flow passage geometty strongly influences the values of Nu and fRe. Rectangular flow [passages which approach a small aspect ratio exhibit the highest Nu and /Re 2) The thermal boundary conditions @), , and @ have a strong influence on the Nusselt number. Depending on the How geomety, j factors for the @ boundary condition may be of the order of 50% greater than that for the @ boundary condition, and about 20% greater than that forthe @ boundary condi-60 Heat Exchange “Teble9, Soins forbear nd ion oily developed ins sm decagh ected 0] itn " ee ee em; cage; a sen os ci zi = Oo ee ee ee 20) ve ee soo 2 stam 036 oss ooo o —— ut 825 8235 7541 24000 0.386 0.674 ott Tigi Bae Sim manag ena wd apg ae * 7RCo) fore and equiatral trangular ehanaels may be ih HO: Ko) for some rectangular and hexsgooal ‘hanes imerpolated sed on the recomended rcs m Ret * 44 for sine and equilateral ianglar chants is oo low (40), so use with suton. for ectangular chm sed con the fired curve dav throug the recommended value [40 1, for hexanal haute interpolated vale 3) AsNu=hDy/k, aconstant Nu implies «con veotive coeflicienth independent of the flow velocity 4) Amincrease in his best achieved by reducing ‘Dy, ot by a change in the type of geometry for a specified fui. 5) Since Re=const., fox WRe x Hv. In this cease, i can be shown that Ap cv ‘Transition Flow. The lower limit ofthe exit ical Reynolds number Reg, at which transition to turbulent flow occurs in smooth passages isa function ofthe passage inlet configuration. With a sharp squareinletconfiguration, Re, isca.10— 15 % lower than that with a rounded inlet con- figuration. The lower limits of Rec, for various passages with a sharp square inet configuration ‘vary from about 2000 to 3100 [42]. The upperlimit of Reer may be taken as 108 for most prac tical purposes. ‘Baar and Sad (42] developed a Fanning friction factor formula for laminar, transition, and turbulent flow regimes in circular passage: {bisis presented in Table 10. The transition flow {data for noncircular passages ate rather sparse; ‘the equation fo the circular ube in Table 10may bbe used to obtain fair estimates off for noncir~ cular flow passages (having no sharp corners) using the hydraulic diameter as the characteris- tic dimension ‘The heat transfer results for transition flow ae rather uncertain in view of the large number ofparameters necessary to characterize the heat- affected transition flow. The following Nusselt umber cortelaion [42] for 0 05) eee ger sme wal dct [A Doct geometry and characterise dinension Recommended corrlations™ relar [| te Rectangular fad, 26 a Equlateral triangular D=2/ha~4n3 Dy Jra= 20a Isosceles triangular sob ai eee > ~nind] : where = 00" — 92 cal ° incor’ + 2Imtan gepaensanons Titon for eorlton For 2500 Re = 10 heee fA ae where A = 00084, B =23<10°%, m= — 2/3 fr 2100 5 Re < 4000 and AM 13810? B~ 01143, m= 12158 for a0 = Re <0" [a] [Nusselt number corration by Gains’ for 2300 = Re = $108 he ~ 10007 Te RA er) se cular duct f and Ni corelations. Predicted f ar wp 10 125% loner and pre- ‘tad ware within + 9% of the mont rela expeinedtal sul 1 faetos: (1) subsite D, fr Dy i theresa dat coraation and calculate f rom the resulting equation. @ Atermativey, aealatef Tom f= (10873-01135), where f the rion fcr for the cla dct sing 2. tm hath cases preted {actors Se wathin 9% ofthe experimental res ‘Noss numbers: (1) With uniform hating at four wal, we ilar duct Nw corcela- tion for an accuracy of 49% for hS= Py 10D aad 10% 2 Re © 10 (2) Wih equal Trang st wo long wall, use cigar dot conlation for an accuracy of 510% fo 05<-r< 10 and 10" < Re < 10% (3) Wah heating atone long wall only se Gault dlc contin to get approximate Nu yalus for 0.5 < P< I and 10" Re = 10 ‘Those calculated values muy be wp to 20% higher tha the etal experiments als te circular duct f and Nu coreations with Dy replaced by D,, Predicted f are within +$3%¢and 11% and precetad Miwitin 9% of he experimental vals for 0< 2.9 < GY, we drclar duct (aad Nu correlations with Dy replaced by Dy: for 2 = G7 eplacéD, by Dy (be above); and for GY < 2y = HO ese revlar duct cr rations dry with Dy, Prediced fan Nw ate within 9% and. II % a the experimental values No recommentationscaa be made for ?y > 90" duet lack ‘exponent dateHeat Exchange 63, 1 Facto) Satter Dyn te ser dt comston and cau / thm the sang equation. Acoatly exci] om | Sere J he etn actor for he cei dat ang yn bth ces pete factors are within 35% of the experimental results - eee 008257") Nosslt Numbers: nal the following commendations ve, with a wetted perine ter in Nand Re: Concentric annular Dies a c Aine Nu at the outer val cas be determined fo the cele ‘oneaton iin the ascuacy of abo - ‘et wall (2) atthe ance wall eatingZcoling coodion at the outer wal, “+10% regards ofthe condition at the in- te determined accurately gare the * The fition factor and Nustelt umber coriatons for the cular dt are te mont lable ad wee wih are amount ofthe experimental data within 2% and 10% expecely. The coeaation fr alate duc geometries arent a goed 1s thse for the cular det oman abet as 1 (oof a! fer nein guaton 3) Keo me We seer bo O62 Bip pulatral ang dct eo Sos kaw 7 Canc naar dese rs som on 19 boson Se? es 20 bio ome = aos 05 ote ayo daa bi ou 89672 Hoo oan 24000 tomb ‘The fapp Re factors for four passage geome- tries calculated from the foregoing formulas are ‘compared in [40], [41]. Turbulent Flow. fayp Re for turbulent flow Alepends on Re in addition to 3, 3500 4, and 8 is the tube layout angle. It predicts 89 literature data points ‘within a mean absolute error of 6 %; the range of actual error is from — 16.7 to +19.9%,68 Heat Exchange ‘The design data for a number of augmented circular fins have been summarized in [50] Flat Fins on a Tube Array. Gray and Wess [51] recommend the following hea-transfer cor relation for plain fat fins on staggered tube ar- rays valid for four or more tube rows, vunirn(@) GY" 9 for the number of rows Ny from 1 t0 3, the j factor is lower and is given by 7 where n=0.607 (4 — Ny). Equations (53) and (54) correlated 89 % of the test data for 16 heat exchangers within £ 10% Pressure drop on the fin side in a tube and flat fin exchanger (staggered layout) consists of pressure drop associated with fins and that asso- ciated with tubes, Hence, Grav and Wane [51] defined the tube side effective friction factor f" as a sum of the individual friction factors asso- ciated with the fin and the tube, weighted with respect to surface areas Ae) (,_ 8 5 4) (4) ‘Here fs is the friction factor associated with fins and i the friction factor associated with bare bank of tubes. While f', is obtained from the Zakauskas cortelaion (see Fig. 36) f"¢ was cor- related as renter (1 (= ossanezes# (22) 66 si osoarese™™ (3) Equation (55) correlated 90 % of the data for 19 heat exchangers within + 20 %, The range of di- mensionless variables of Equations (53)~ (55) are: 500-< Reg 24700, 1,97 1 and are exclusively used in plate exchangers, the Nusselt number of Equation (57) is independent of thermal bound- xy conditions in turbulent flow. In the laminar regime, Lévéque’s correlation hhas been proposed for plate exchangers [54] s(n) (E)" Where c4 will depend both on the thermal bound- ary condition and the plate geometry, and is found to have values from 1.2 to 4.5, The de- pendence of the plate length Zin the foregoing ‘equation is not correct and should be replaced by a function of the corrugation pitch, JAcKsox and Taoure [55] proposed a exponent of 0.38 fon the Reynolds number in Equation (59), and this has been confirmed in simulation studies. Friction Factor Correlations. Based on the analogy to packed beds, the Fanning factor is presented in the form foe tf Re (oo Where the first and second terms on the right- hhand side represent the contributions of tar- bulentand laminar effects respectively. This type‘of equation could therefore be expected to cor- relate data in both the laminar and turbulent regimes. For most plate designs. flow is turbulent and the following equation correlates pressure drop data better: yet w ‘where c7 and cg are empirical constants. As an illustration of Equations (60) and (61), the cor- relations for the chevron plate (Fig. 6) with = 30° ate [56] for280.< Re<3000 @ 0.898Re-97 for 3000< Re 50000 ; {ose 51.5/Re Avery limited amount of other published cor relations (design data) for plate exchangers are summarized in [3] 63.3, Extended Surface Exchangers ‘Compact exchanger surface basic data are usu- ally presented in terms of j and vs. Re. In these sroups, the hydraulic diameter Dy is used, di- rectly or indiecly, arbitrarily but consistently as a characteristic dimension, Although j and F data are applicable to any geometrically sim ilar surface, as soon as the basic geometry is changed (such as an oifset strip-fin geometry changed from 400 to 600 fins/m), the original j and data are no longer applicable. This is be- ‘cause Dy. is nota universal characteristic dimen- sion. A great varity of compact surface geome tries are available, and generally these diferent ‘geometries wll have different j and data. Such surface basic data have been provided in(39] for ‘over 60 plate-fin surface geometries: plain fins, wavy ins ose strip fins, louver fins, perforated fans, and pin fins. Correlations for offset stip fin geometry are now presented as an illustration Some additional surface basic data are provided in (a7) Offset Strip Fins. This is one of the most ‘widely used enhanced fin geometries in compact hheat exchangers. In addition to the fin spac ing and fin height, the major variables are the fin thickness and fin strip length in the flow di- rection, The situation is complicated by burrs Heat Exchange 69 formed on leading and trailing fin edges during ‘the manufacturing operation, The following multiple regression power-law ccortelations of Josit and Wess [58] are recom- ‘mended for design use. They are based on the test data for 21 test cores with a wide variation in geometrical dimensions of the offset strip fin, Flow visualization measurements of Jost and ‘Wess show that the Reynolds number (GDy/u) at which the wake departs from laminar flow is given by may [ie Di by Sua 812Re* mons ricasaneem (2) Cy ‘The correct exponent on Re is 0.56; the expo- nent in [58] is not correct. ‘The correlations for Re >Re* +1000 are sient em tsane-om (2) (4) re onrer (4) ()"" on ‘The j factor in the transition region between Re* [Re < Re* + 1000 isa log-linear interpola tion between jr, (at Re") and jy (at Re* +1000). ‘A similar method is used for the friction factor. In the above equations, sis the fin pitch, la the strip length, 6 the plate spacing, and é; the fin thickness ‘The correlation predicted 82% of the f data and 91 % of the j data within = 15%. The ge- fomettic parameters of the test arrays on which Equations (64) (67) are based are 0.13 1000 and G > 100 kg/m® sis given by wha 14 (r21) Bal) (4a 20/2 atm 6s) where 2 Opie. ° ed 60, n= exponent in Blasius type equation B= _coellicient as given in Table 15, be 1. Yes of in gon (85) oe omaha 4) oscrem S000 sare? 5 2M > S020? o?°) Finally, the Lockhart—Martinelli_correla- tion [75], more accurate for jl}4,> 1000 and G< 100kghn?s, is given in terms of Apr, oF Apa cby P) 4, BPE «7 where A pis the frictional pressure drop for liquid flowing alone with actual liquid low (and not (otal flow) rate in the total cross-sectional74 Heat Exchange sea of the tube; is the corresponding two- pphase friction multiplier. A py,¢ and y? are de- fined similarly for pas lowing alone. The core- lations for? and 2 are given by [60] 6) eo Ara on (00) ‘and the value of cis dependent on the four pos- sible single-phase regimes for liquid and gas streams in the tube. liquid gas 20 turbulent-turbulent (ut) {0 turbulent-viscous (tv) 12 viscous-turbuleat (vt) 5 viscous—viscous. (vv) en ‘The foregoing correlations for predicting the adiabatic two-phase pressure drop are one of the best accurate correlations which have been re- ported in literature. Usually, the predicted (wo- phase pressure drop will have an uncertainty of ca. 120% under ordinary operating conditions and with ordinary fluids; the error can be as high as +50°% or more for unusual operating condi- tions and fluids, ‘During the condensation process, since mass transfer takes place at the liquid— vapor inter- face, a correction needs to be made to the fore ‘going value of A pr in Equation (76). This cor- rection is done on a local basis [76] An, on sent ») where + War vg om ny IX ws re) Ba ‘ Here 7; is the interfacial shear stress, cp is the correction factor for the frictional pressure ‘gradient for the effect of mass transfer tothe va- por=liquid interface, and A. is the change in (quality over surface area AA. 7; is determined using the Martinelli parameter [76] Equations (92) and (93) are solved iteratively to determine A py for each increment A z with an initial assumption that ey is 1, and the sum of these A py increments could result in the total ‘App, for the tube. At high condensing rates, the foregoing cumulative correction ey to py can be as much asa factor of 2 ‘The frictional pressure drop for condensa- tion or boiling must be calculated in a stepwise ‘manner for small increments of Az for which changes in quality, fluid properties, and other conditions are only moderate 7.2.2. Shellside (Tube Bundle) Pressure Drop ‘A review on two-phase pressure drop for hor- izontal and vertical crossflow on the shellside is presented in [77] Cross(low in a baliled hori- zontal heat exchanger with horizontal or vertical baile cuts is referred to as “horizontal cross- flow”. Such flow was investigated by GRANT and CxisHo.M [78] using an air—water system, ‘Their correlation is given by Equation (85), with the values of the parameter B given in Table 16 [631, [78] for the crossflow zone. For the win- dow zone, n=0 for Equation (85) with B=0.25 for vertical up-and-down flow, and B= 2/(T" + 1) for horizontal side-to-side Now. For vertical crossflow (upilow) in a horizon- tal tube bundle, Schrage's correlation is recom- ‘mended for ? in Equation (87) as follows [79) (04a) where cneaFrf#InXu tear ox) Here constants ¢1~¢s are given in Table 17. For slug and spray flows, Equations (94 and b), i.e, the constants ¢,~ cr are valid for Fry> 0.15. For Fr, <0.15, the following correlation can be used (80) 1 = (50) where (Ey) Gow Equation (95 a) is valid for Xxx < 0.2.Table 16 Values 9 Band no Bon 5) oe woe ere tp ft ow wo “able 1. Cot forthe wept on ager ow puters ead with Gran and Col [6] Bow 7.2.3, Other Geometries Information on the two-phase pressure drop in ‘compactheat exchanger surlacesis given in 11} 73. Heat-Transfer Correlations for Condensation ‘The process of converting vapor into liquid by removing heat from a system is defined as con- densation. This occurs when the vapor is cooled below its saturation temperature causing nucle- ation of droplets. Such nucleation may occur ho- mogeneously within the vapor (fog formation) ‘or heterogeneously on the walls of the equip- ‘ment, The latter may be categorized as dropwise or filmwise condensation. A number of different condensation types exist: 1) Film Condensation. The condensate forms a continuous liquid film on the cooled surface. ‘This is the most common type of condensa- tioa in industrial equipment. 2) Dropwise Condensation, Here the conden- sate forms droplets on the cooled surface High heat-wansfer coefficients are obtained with dropwise condensation but itis difficult o maintain in industrial exchangers. Drop- ‘wise condensation occurs only with liquids Heat Exchange 75 having a high surface tension, such as water ‘on specially treated surfaces, Condensation of Vapor Mixtures Forming Immiscible Liquids. Here the condensate consists of a film of one component in which drops of the second component float and/or adhere to the cooled surface Direct Contact Condensation, This occurs when the vapor is brought directly into con- tact with a cold liquid. Homogeneous Condensation. Here the va por condenses in very small droplets forming fog. This occurs when a vapor and a noncon- densable gas are cooled below the saturation temperature, While fogging does occur oc- casionally in industrial exchangers, itis not the desired method to condense the vapor. 3 5 In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a contiguous liquid film. The behavior of this liquid film is governed by the normal fluid dynamic laws with gravity, vapor shear, and surface tension forces, either singly or together, acting to promote the removal of the condensate film, Two major condensation mechanisms are the gravity-coatrelled (vapor space) condensation and vapor shear-conwolled (forced convective) condensation. Resistance to heat tvansfer during condensation is shown in Figure 43, For a pure saturated vapor, the resis- tance at the vapor—liquid interface is small, and ay be neglected for a fist approximation. It ‘can, however, be significant for noncondensable ‘gases or a multicomponent vapor mixture. uid Fi fesistance = Interface | resistance as phase wet AL flow V7 Coolant Wall Lig fim Gas phate Figure 4, Heasranster resistances during condensation 2) Termeratare pole for put saturated vapor.) Temper- ure profile for supeested vapor or neneondensable gas Heat must also be transferred through the condensate liquid film to the wall and then to76 Heat Exchange the coolant. In the case of a pure saturated va- por, this temperature drop across the liquid film represents the prime resistance to heat trans- fer. Techniques that reduce the condensate film thickness or promote a higher “effective” con- ductivity will therefore increase the heat-trans- fercoeflicient on the condensing side. In the case ‘of a vapor containing noncondensables ot with a multicomponent vapor mixture, the gas phase resistance often dominates the overall condens- ing side coefficient; increase in the condensate film coefficient may not promote a comparable increase in overall condensation rate ‘Condensation coefficients can vary signifi- ‘cantly depending on the condensation rates, flow patterns, tube geometry, ete. During the conden- sation process, flow varies from being mostly vapor at the inlet to mostly liquid at the out- Jt in many processes, or from shear-dominated to gravity-dominated flows, and goes through a ‘number of flow regimes, During this process, the condensing heat-iransfer coefficient and temper- ature difference are evaluated as functions of the local quality and other parameters or variables ‘of importance. Subsequent stepwise numerical ‘or graphical integration would then yield the re- quired surface area or the heat duty whichever is unknown, In only a few simple condensers ‘would a single calculation suffice for a design, At high-vapor shear, the condensate layer is turbulent and the heat-ransfer coefficients are independent ofthe tube orientation, Atlow shear rates, gravity controls the effect af tube orienta- tion. At intermediate shear rates where wavy, slug, or bubble-type flow patterns occur, the [o~ calheat-iransfer coefficient can fluctuate widely. ‘Currently, this intermediate region is calculated by prorating the high and low shear coefficients based on a parameter used to define these lim- its on two-phase flow maps. The mast accurate condensation correlations available in the open literature are now summarized, A detailed study ‘on the subject is given in [81-84] 7.3.1. Condensation Inside a Horizontal Tube ‘The ‘wo most common flow patterns during condensation within a horizontal tube are an- nnular (vapor shear-dominated) flow and strat- fied (gravity-dominated) flow. Bresex etal. [85] have provided the following criteria to identify these flow patterns Annularflow 35 15 (951) Stratified Now 55 <0 (08) For intermediate values of j, a linear interpo- lation of the heat-transfer coeficient calculated for annular and statified flows must be used. Here the Wallis parameter j is the dimension- less gas-phase mass velocity defined as — en 7 pie leme . Equation (96) is valid when the Martinelli pa- rameter Xe in Equation (95>) is less than one. For annular flows, the Nusseltype laminar flow models predict heat-transfer coefficients that are too low; hence, turbulent flow models rust be sed to enable belter prediction, The following empirical correlation based on 473 ex- perimental data points for steam, refrigerant, and other organics, predicts condensation coef: ficients with a mean deviation of 15 % [86] Nusa [a + on where p.=p/per is the reduced pressure, and Nu is the Nusselt number assuming that the total flow rate isthe liquid flow rate in the tube, and is calculated from Nuy= 0082 Pop 0 Alternatively, there arc @ number of analyti- cal correlations available for annular flow con-

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