Ucc Logic and Ethics Module PDF

UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY
MODULE IN
LOGIC AND ETHICS
MODULE IN ETHICS
Logic and Ethics

WEEK 1. CLASS ORIENTATION AND COURSE INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 4
WEEK 1: MODULE 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 10
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS............................................................................................................... 10
WEEK 2: MODULE 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 16
THE MORAL DILEMMAS ....................................................................................................................................... 16
WEEK 3: MODULE 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 23
FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION FOR MORAL ACTS ETHICS AND CULTURE ................................................................. 23
WEEK 4: MODULE 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 30
HUMAN BEINGS, CULTURE, AND MORAL CHOICES .............................................................................................. 30
WEEK 5: MODULE ................................................................................................................................................ 36
CULTURAL RELATIVISM ........................................................................................................................................ 36
WEEK 6: MODULE 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 42
ETHICS AND CRITICAL THINKING .......................................................................................................................... 42
WEEK 7: MODULE 7 ............................................................................................................................................. 48
FORMATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF SELF .................................................................................................... 48
“UNDERSTANDING THE SELF” .............................................................................................................................. 48
WEEK 7: MODULE 8 ............................................................................................................................................. 52
FORMATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF SELF .................................................................................................... 52
“SELF AND PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS” .................................................................................................................... 52
WEEK 8: MODULE 9 ............................................................................................................................................. 56
FEELINGS AND VALUES ........................................................................................................................................ 56
WEEK 9: MODULE 10 ........................................................................................................................................... 61
SCHELER’S HIERARCHY OF VALUES....................................................................................................................... 61
WEEK 11: MODULE 11.......................................................................................................................................... 68
POLITICS AND SOCIETY ........................................................................................................................................ 68
“ETHICS AND POLITICS” ....................................................................................................................................... 69
WEEK 11: MODULE 12 .......................................................................................................................................... 72
POLITICS AND SOCIETY ........................................................................................................................................ 72
“ETHICS AND SOCIETY” ........................................................................................................................................ 72
WEEK 12: MODULE 13 .......................................................................................................................................... 78
ETHICS AND SCIENCE ........................................................................................................................................... 78
“THE RELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND ETHICS” ................................................................................................ 78
WEEK 12: MODULE 14 .......................................................................................................................................... 82
ETHICS AND SCIENCE ........................................................................................................................................... 82
“UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE” ............................................................................................................................... 82
WEEK 13: MODULE 15 .......................................................................................................................................... 86
ETHICS AND ECONOMY ........................................................................................................................................ 86
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MODULE IN ETHICS
“THE ETHICAL ASPECT OF ECONOMY”.................................................................................................................. 86

WEEK 13: MODULE 16 .......................................................................................................................................... 89
ETHICS AND ECONOMY ........................................................................................................................................ 89
“CAPITALISM AND COMMODIFICATION” ............................................................................................................. 89
WEEK 14: MODULE 17 .......................................................................................................................................... 93
ETHICS AND THE DIGITAL AGE ............................................................................................................................. 93
“DIFFERENT FORM OF CYBER MALPRACTICES” .................................................................................................... 93
WEEK 15: MODULE 18 .......................................................................................................................................... 96
ETHICS AND THE DIGITAL AGE ............................................................................................................................. 96
“LEGAL INTERVENTIONS” ..................................................................................................................................... 96
WEEK 16: MODULE 19 ........................................................................................................................................ 100
GLOBAL ETHICS .................................................................................................................................................. 100
“COMMON HUMANITY” .................................................................................................................................... 100
WEEK 17: MODULE 20 ........................................................................................................................................ 104
GLOBAL ETHICS .................................................................................................................................................. 104
“NARRATIVE AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION” ..................................................................................................... 104
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 1. Class Orientation and Course Introduction
Desired Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:

1. elucidate the significance of following rules and policies;
2. differentiate moral from non-moral standards; and
3. apply moral and non-moral standards to relevant experiences.
ENGAGE
Directions: List down some rules in basketball.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
Knowledge Reservoir
Based on the activity that you have answered, what and why do you think there
are rules set in playing basketball?
Do you think these rules have something to do with conduct and character of the
people involved in basketball game?
ETHICS DEFINED
Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with conduct

and character. It is the systematic study of the principles and methods for distinguishing
what is right or wrong and good or bad. Simply, ethics deals with the question of how
people ought to act, and with the search for a definition of right conduct and the good
life.
The term “ethics” is derived from the Greek “ethos” meaning “custom” or “habit”.
Ethics differs from morals or morality in the sense that ethics denotes the theory of right
action and the greater good, while morals indicate their practice. Ethics encompasses
moral ideals and behaviors, a person’s philosophy of life. Different cultures have distinct
ways of perceiving the world. This difference also affects how ethical problems are
viewed by different cultural communities.
MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned
with or relating to human behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or
right and wrong) behavior.
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they
believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral principles.
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules.
Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and
ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending
on some factors and contexts.
The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them
from non-moral standards:
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MODULE IN ETHICS
A. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,
following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does
not necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.
B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral

standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with
self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal
ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to
devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she probably was not
justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong to
do so. When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty
to exercise civil disobedience.
There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time when
the injustice of an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral
noncooperation (such as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to their
owners).
C. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or

persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One thing
about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or
adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.
D. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the
relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain person
P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do unto others what you
would them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal Principle of
6
MODULE IN ETHICS
Justice, “It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B
to treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there
being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which can be
stated as a reasonable ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability is an
extension of the principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s
value judgments.
E. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a
certain person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
standpoint in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal.
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in

morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties.
F. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.

These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do
not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are
proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is
used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of
satisfaction or of guilt.
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special

purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his
behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the
current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered jeans). (Copyright 2013 by Jensen DG.
Mañebog)
Check Your Understanding
Directions: Identify each item if it belongs to MORAL standards or NON-MORAL

standards.
Moral or Non-Moral
1. Do not destroy school property.
2. Participating in rallies and strikes
3. Wearing fashionable clothes in public
4. Avoiding food prohibited by your religion
5. Respecting others
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MODULE IN ETHICS
EXPLORE
Directions: Identify the moral and non-moral standards in each picture. Then,
write your reason/s for each. Use the table provided for your answers.
MORAL REASONS NON-MORAL REASONS

STANDARDS STANDARDS
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MODULE IN ETHICS
EXPLAIN
Directions: Using the link below, watch the video presentation on YouTube about
moral and non-moral standards. Then, write your thoughts on why there is a need to
distinguish moral standards from the non-moral ones. Use the space provided for your
answers.
https://youtu.be/SVYcETMuJg8
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 1: Module 1
Moral and Non-Moral Standards
Desired Learning Outcomes

1. elucidate the significance of following rules and policies;
2. differentiate moral from non-moral standards; and
3. apply moral and non-moral standards to relevant experiences.
ENGAGE
Directions: List down some rules in basketball.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
Knowledge Reservoir
Based on the activity that you have answered, what and why do you think there
are rules set in playing basketball?
Do you think these rules have something to do with conduct and character of the
people involved in basketball game?
ETHICS DEFINED
Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with conduct

and character. It is the systematic study of the principles and methods for distinguishing
what is right or wrong and good or bad. Simply, ethics deals with the question of how
people ought to act, and with the search for a definition of right conduct and the good
life.
The term “ethics” is derived from the Greek “ethos” meaning “custom” or “habit”.
Ethics differs from morals or morality in the sense that ethics denotes the theory of right
action and the greater good, while morals indicate their practice. Ethics encompasses
ways of perceiving the world. This difference also affects how ethical problems are
viewed by different cultural communities.
MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned
with or relating to human behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or
right and wrong) behavior.
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they
believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral principles.
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules.
Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and
ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending
on some factors and contexts.
The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them
from non-moral standards:
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MODULE IN ETHICS
A. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,
following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does
not necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.
B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral

standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with
self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal
ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to
devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she probably was not
justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong to
do so. When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty
to exercise civil disobedience.
There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time when
the injustice of an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral
noncooperation (such as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to their
owners).
C. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or

persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One thing
about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or
adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.
D. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the
relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain person
P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do unto others what you
would them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal Principle of
12
MODULE IN ETHICS
Justice, “It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B to
treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there
being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which can be
stated as a reasonable ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability is an
extension of the principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s
value judgments.
E. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a
certain person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
standpoint in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal.
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in

morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties.
F. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.

These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do
not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are
proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is
used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of
satisfaction or of guilt.
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special

purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his
behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the
current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered jeans). (Copyright 2013 by Jensen DG.
Mañebog)
Check Your Understanding
Directions: Identify each item if it belongs to MORAL standards or NON-MORAL

standards.
Moral or Non-Moral
1. Do not destroy school property.
2. Participating in rallies and strikes
3. Wearing fashionable clothes in public
4. Avoiding food prohibited by your religion
5. Respecting others
13
MODULE IN ETHICS
EXPLORE
Directions: Identify the moral and non-moral standards in each picture. Then,
write your reason/s for each. Use the table provided for your answers.
MORAL REASONS NON-MORAL REASONS

STANDARDS STANDARDS
14
MODULE IN ETHICS
EXPLAIN
Directions: Using the link below, watch the video presentation on YouTube about
moral and non-moral standards. Then, write your thoughts on why there is a need to
distinguish moral standards from the non-moral ones. Use the space provided for your
answers.
https://youtu.be/SVYcETMuJg8
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 2: Module 2
The Moral Dilemmas
DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. determine the moral dilemmas reflected in various personal and social
experiences;
2. exhibit affirmation or confirmation in deviating from the moral dilemmas
experienced in the society; and
3. suggest constructive ways in coping with the moral dilemmas.
ENGAGE
Directions: Express your thoughts on the given situation below. Write your answer on
the space provided.
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
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MODULE IN ETHICS
EXPLORE
What is a moral dilemma?
A moral dilemma is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more
actions and have moral reasons for choosing each action.
A moral dilemma is a conflict of morals, where you are forced to choose between
two or more options and you have a moral reason to choose and not choose each
option. No matter what choice you make in these situations, you always end up
compromising some moral value.
A moral dilemma is a situation in which a person is torn between right and wrong.
Some examples of moral dilemmas include: The classic “lifeboat dilemma”, where there
are only 10 spaces in the lifeboat, but there are 11 passengers on the sinking ship. A
decision must be made as to who will stay behind.
Moral dilemmas are instances when individuals are confronted with conflicting
answers to the question, “what is right?” Answers to this question come from various
sources. One is personal experience or the things an individual gains every day from
social interactions. Another source – the one pursued by philosophers – is to obtain
moral judgments by applying the principles of morality. In psychology, a moral dilemma
is said to arise when distinct psychological mechanisms for moral judgment yield
conflicting judgments of individual cases. Situations like these can place a person in a
moral conflict, in which several alternative courses of action can have positive and
negative outcomes. Conflict typically involves opposing values, beliefs, and norms.
Thus, conflict is rooted not only in individual behavior but also in different values and
norms of the society.
The English Oxford Dictionary defines moral dilemma as a situation in which a

difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which entails
transgressing a moral principle. In matters of right and wrong, individuals are expected
to have moral principles to guide them in moral decision-making. In philosophy, a moral
dilemma is based on a distinction between what one foresees (or could or should have
foreseen) as a result of his or her voluntary action (free will) and what, in the strict
sense, he or she intends to do.
Moral dilemma relates primarily to the principle of double effect that takes root
in the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas. In his work Summa Theologica, St. Thomas
introduces the principle of double effect in his discussion on the permissibility of self-
defense. He himself holds that killing one’s assailant is justified, provided that one does
not intend to kill him or her. The act of self-defense may have double effect: first, the
saving of one’s own life; second, the slaying of the aggressor. He also argues that since
one’s intention is to save one’s own life, the act is not unlawful. However, St. Thomas
maintains that the permissibility of self-defense is not unconditional. The act of self-
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MODULE IN ETHICS
defense may be rendered unlawful if a man in self-defense shows unnecessary

violence.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
A personal/individual dilemma is an extremely difficult situation for someone to

handle. A classic example is deciding which parent to live with. Another classic example
of a personal dilemma is someone deciding whether to let his or her family starve or
steal bread from someone else.
An organizational dilemma is a problem associated with the way in which a

business organizes itself. It is a complex situation at workplace that the employees and
the managers have to face that result in a conflict of moral imperatives. It is all about
how to reconcile inconsistency between individual needs and aspirations on the one
hand, and the collective purpose of the organization on the other.
Finding a satisfactory system of roles and relationships is an ongoing, universal

struggle. Managers rarely face well – defined problems with clear – cut solutions.
Instead, they confront enduring structural dilemmas, tough trade – offs without easy
answers.
Important Elements in Moral Decision-Making
The New Catholic Encyclopedia lists the principal conditions of the principle of
double effect:
• The act itself must be morally good or at least indifferent.

• The agent may not positively will the bad effect but may permit it. If he or
she could attain the good effect without the bad effect, he or she should
do so. The bad effect is sometimes said to be indirectly voluntary.
• The good effect must flow from the action at least as immediately as the
bad effect. In other words, the good effect must be produced directly by
the action, not by the bad effect. Otherwise, the agent would be using a
bad means to a good end, which is never allowed.
• The good effect must be sufficiently desirable to compensate for the
allowing of the bad effect.
In his book Ethics, Paul Glenn further describes when one performs an act, not
evil in itself, from there flows two effects – one good and one evil. One may perform
such an act when the following essential conditions are fulfilled:
1. The evil effect must not precede the good effect. It is a fundamental
principle of ethics that evil may never be willed directly, whether it be a
means or an end to be achieved. One cannot do evil so good may come
of it. As the saying goes, “the end does not justify the means.”
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MODULE IN ETHICS
1. There must be a reason sufficiently grave calling for the act in its
good effect. If this condition cannot be fulfilled, then there is no adequate
reason for the act at all, and the act is prohibited in view of its evil effect.
The sufficiency of the reason must be determined by the nature,
circumstances, and importance of the act.
2. The intention of the agent (person, doer) must be honest. If the
person really wills the evil effect, then there is no possibility that the act is
acceptable. The direct willing of evil is always against reason and, hence,
against the principles of ethics.
Steps in Solving a Moral Dilemma
Making moral decisions is a rational, step-by-step process that requires the

careful analysis of alternatives and their consequences. Using the principles that govern
moral decisions, the following steps are suggested:
1. Examine the acts in relation to the agent. The immorality of human acts
is determined by examining the acts in themselves in their relation to the
agent (person, doer) who performs them. The agent and the facts
surrounding the act must be assessed.
2. Determine the consequences of the acts. The second step of testing
the morality or immorality of a human act is called consequentialism. The
principle of consequentialism suggests that one must weigh the
consequences of a human act to determine whether it is moral or immoral.
3. Identify the intention of the acts. For St. Thomas, the morality or
immorality of the act resides in the intention of the person. If the agent
intends to cause harmful consequences, then the act is immoral.
4. Decide in accordance to divine and natural laws which govern moral
life. St. Thomas holds that not all aspects of the human person are either
moral or immoral. Nonetheless, he suggests that divine and natural laws
are the criteria by which people can judge the morality or immorality of
their moral decisions especially when they are faced with moral dilemmas.
In pursuit of moral decisions, the human person must discern and make all
the right choices by relating them to divine law and the ultimate good of
humanity.
EXPLAIN
Directions: Identify the type of moral dilemma reflected in each scenario. Justify your
answer.
Mercy Killing:________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
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MODULE IN ETHICS
Live-in Relationship:_________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
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__________________________________________
Padrino System:_____________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
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__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Political Dynasty:____________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Corrupt Politician Helping the Poor:______________

__________________________________________
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__________________________________________
__________________________________________
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EXTEND
Directions: Determine if the statement is TRUE or FALSE. Write your answer on

the blank before each number.
__________1. Moral dilemma involves conflicting judgments.
__________2. One may do evil as long as something good can come out of it.
__________3. It is alright to kill as long as it is self-defense.
__________4. A moral dilemma may not be called a dilemma if there are no conflicting
answers.
__________5. Moral dilemma is also double effect.
__________6. One may perform an evil act when the evil effect does not precede the
good effect.
__________7. If the person does not intend to cause harmful consequences, then the
act is moral.
__________8. The act of self-defense may have double effect.
__________9. If the person really wills the evil effect, then there is no possibility that the
act is acceptable.
__________10. Self-defense is lawful.
EVALUATE
Directions: Using the principles of moral decision-making, answer the following items.
1. A day before the wedding of your friend, you discovered that your friend’s
spouse-to-be is having an affair with an officemate. You caught them sneaking
out of a hotel together. What will you do? Explain your answer.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
2. Your family is vacationing in a private resort. Your son and nephew, both aged 12,
are very excited to swim but there is still no lifeguard around. You warn them to wait
until the lifeguard arrives but they disobey you and rush into the water unsupervised.
Suddenly, you hear them screaming for help and see them both drowning. At that
time, you are the only swimmer who can save them, but you can only save one at a
time. Your nephew does not know how to swim and will likely not survive if not
rescued as soon as possible. Your son is a better swimmer, but only has a 50 percent
chance of holding on long enough for you to rescue him. Who will you choose to save
first? Why?
3. You are an eyewitness to a robbery. A man robbed a rich woman for him to pay for
his son’s crucial operation. You know who committed the crime. If you go to the police
to report the crime, there is the strong possibility that the money will be returned to
the rich woman. What will you do? Will you report the crime and tell the truth to the
police or say nothing since the money will be used for the operation and the son will
be saved? Justify your answer.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 3: Module 3
Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts Ethics and Culture

1. elucidate the essential elements of culture;
2. showcase interest in giving ideas on freedom as foundation for moral acts; and
3. reflect on the specific ways to improve one’s moral culture.
ENGAGE
Directions: Using the graphic organizer, give words that are relevant to freedom. Then,
briefly explain your answer.
FREEDOM
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Directions: Watch the video presentation on YouTube about culture. Then, list down the
important ideas that you learned. Use the space provided for your answer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S258bwp0sJY
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After doing the two activities, what do you think is the connection
between freedom and culture? Can you exercise freedom in your
own culture? Justify your answer. Use the space provided.
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EXPLORE
Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts
Morality is that quality in human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or
evil. Freedom in its widest sense means absence of bond, ties, and restraints. If you are
considering only the free will, then man is free only to choose morally good acts but he can
choose to abuse his free will by doing morally bad acts. The concept of morality implies
freedom to choose; if no freedom is possible then the possibility of a moral choice is null.
Moral freedom is the freedom to choose a set of moral values and to live your life in
accordance with those values. An example of moral freedom is a person choosing to live his
or her life bound by an adherence to virtues such as honesty, loyalty, forgiveness and self-
discipline.
The choice between morality and ethics cannot be made without the unencumbered
freedom to make a choice. The same holds true for all decisions, so the one not free is not
responsible for his/her actions. The one controlling the actions is the one responsible for
them.
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Freedom is a condition in which people have the opportunity to speak, act and pursue
happiness without unnecessary external restrictions. Freedom is important because it leads
to enhanced expressions of creativity and original thought, increased productivity, and an
overall high quality of life.
Some of the main types of human freedom are:

 Freedom of association
 Freedom of belief
 Freedom of speech
 Freedom to express oneself
 Freedom of the press
 Freedom to choose one's state in life
 Freedom of religion
 Freedom of bondage and slavery
Culture and Ethics
The concept of culture is explicitly defined by the British anthropologist Edward B.

Tylor. According to Tylor, culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by an individual as a
member of society. Since then, anthropologists have offered numerous definitions.
According to Daft, culture is a set of common values, norms, beliefs, and ideas shared by
members of the same group. Culture can be considered as the sum total of human
knowledge and the acquired behaviors of humans. Each society has a body of norms
governing its moral and belief systems to which individuals are introduced at birth.
Ethics differs from morals or morality in the sense that ethics denotes the theory of
right action and the greater good, while morals indicate their practice. Ethics encompasses
ways of perceiving the world. This difference also affects how ethical problems are viewed
by different cultural communities.
Culture is a shared way of life of people living together in the same environment.
Cultures are diverse because the origins, beliefs, and ways of life of humans are also
diverse. Within a culture, there are also existing subcultures that have their own beliefs and
value systems.
No culture is perfect. Pride and arrogance often lead people to believe that their
culture is the best, if not better than others. But with humility, respect, and right reason, this
can be easily seen as a misconception. While it is true that some cultures are generally
perceived as more advanced than others, this cannot be the basis in judging whether a
culture is superior or inferior.
Every culture is different from the other just like the idea that no two persons are the
same even if they are identical. Cultures are equal in the sense that all human beings are
equal in dignity as human beings. Since human beings, the authors of cultures are
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imperfect, no culture is perfect. However, since cultures are imperfect, people must strive to
see every culture as valuable as their own.
Human limitations and weaknesses can cause cultures to progress or regress.

Human limitations should not be an obstacle to strive for cultural or moral progress. Different
ethical theories and perspectives may complement each other. What is lacking in one may
be found in another. They are necessary to view the complete picture of morality. Moral
norms are necessary in a culture so that everybody may live peacefully, justly, and happily
with each other. Normal norms are found in every culture but moral perspectives and
practices vary from culture to culture and from individual to individual.
Characteristics of Culture
2. Culture is shared and transmitted. According to Geert Hofstede (2005), culture is a

collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group of
people from another. It is shared by and is transmitted to and among the members of
a social group. Generally, culture is transmitted by means of ideas. The acquired
learning of culture is passed on to succeeding generations primarily through language
and other symbolic means of communication.
3. Culture is learned and acquired. Not all things shared generally by people in a
particular group are cultural. Culture is not automatic. It is acquired through
experiences. No one is born equipped with a particular language, values, or
knowledge.
4. Culture is a social phenomenon. Culture is often perceived as a social

phenomenon. Cultural practices and beliefs are shaped through the interactions of
individuals living in the same social environment. Generally, culture is a product
developed by many persons interacting in a group. It is social due to the natural
tendency of humans to be social whether voluntary or not.
5. Culture gratifies human needs. Patterns of culture exist and persist because they
continue to satisfy human needs. People tend to habitually use systems that satiate
their basic human desires in all aspects of life.
6. Culture is dynamic. It is dynamic and not static. It changes over time. These
changes may come in the form of discoveries, inventions, or cultural adoption.
7. Culture is integrated. Certain features or elements that make up a particular culture

are not random – they are integrated. The components of culture – attitudes, values,
ideals, and moral norms – are integrated into a whole system for individuals in the
same social environment to share.
EXPLAIN
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Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively. Cite specific examples to

support your answer.
1. Why is culture dynamic?

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2. How does culture influence the freedom of a person?

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3. In a diverse culture, how should a person exercise his or her freedom?

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EXTEND
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Directions: Watch the movie “A Clockwork Orange” directed by Stanley Kubrick and
produced by Warner Bros. (1971). Then, make a semantic webbing of the movie using the
example below. Relate the topic to the movie.
A Clockwork Orange
EVALUATE
Read Luke 18:9-14. Relate the message of this inspiring Biblical story to
ethics and culture. Write a short essay. Include your insights.
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WEEK 4: Module 4
Human Beings, Culture, and Moral Choices

1. Explain what it means to be human;
2. Analyze the cultural factors that influence moral choices; and
3. Apply the steps in making good moral choices.
EXPLAIN
Answer the following questions.
1. Which do you prefer, “Sarili bago ang iba” o “Iba bago ang sarili”? Explain your answer.
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2. Why is the family the primary source of morality?

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3. What does the saying “When you are in Rome, live as the Romans do.” mean?
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EXPLORE
What Makes Human Beings Unique?
Charles Darwin realized that human beings to the animal kingdom but are far different from other animals.
Physically, the structure and the capacities of the human body are distinct from those of other animals. The
human body has extraordinary characteristics and functions that are not found in animals. Even Darwin himself
recognized that what makes humans most unique is their most important characteristic which is morality-their
ability of knowing what is good and bad.
Of all creatures, human beings are the only ones who uniquely possess an erect posture and the largest
brain. It is not just the size of the brain but the superiority of human intelligence and consciousness which
makes humans the highest form to concepts, relate complex ideas, analyze, and make decisions and
judgements. Humans possess greater individual creativity, talent, and skills unmatched by any other earthly
creatures.
Human beings are also social beings who have a more complex and sophisticated way of creating formal
organizations and alliances. They have established different institutions like the church and the government.
They build cities and town, and develop new and modern means of transportation and communication. They
have control over themselves and are able to develop new ideas, create great inventions, and plan for the
future.
The uniqueness of human beings lies in their ability to know what is good and bad. They have established
systems and different institutions to continually educate and remind them of what is good. Humans are capable
of choosing what to say and what to do based on moral standards. Only humans have the power to choose
among different alternatives, evaluate their actions, make rules and guidelines, and learn from their mistakes.
Attributes of Human Uniqueness

1. Personhood
Morality is rooted in the personhood of an individual. It is fundamentally anchored on the

understanding of the individual self and the personhood of others. Moral values are born from human
interactions in society.
A person is not born with a complete or perfect personhood, but has all the potentials to become a
unique and special individual. The society, with all the established institutions within it, provides
avenues for one to create what kind of ideal person he or she strongly desires to realize. His or her
choices, decisions and judgements will be essential to his or her self-realization.
The road to self-realization is not an easy path. Along with human potentials for greatness are
human limitations and weaknesses. Often, physical and psycho-emotional desires and needs could
serve as stumbling blocks or stepping stones or the realization of one’s ideal self.
Personhood is such an intricate, mysterious reality that is not exactly the same for all.
Understanding the complexity of one’s own personhood helps to understand others. Morality
recognizes the depth and mystery of personhood that is instrumental to building the ideal society.
2. Family
The family is a product of a particular culture. Since the family is the basic unit of society, it is
therefore, the primary source of morality. Parents are the first teachers of right and wrong. They
approve and disapprove the actions and decisions of their children. They teach and show children the
ideal things that could help them become better individuals and members of their family and society.
They advise and guide them to choose good friends, to have the best education possible, and to
respect the elderly and authorities, and to be a righteous person.
As one grows up, he or she becomes wiser and more independent and spends more time with
friends and less with family. While one may still hold on to certain moral values, he or she may already
have a powerful desire to discover and explore new things. Growing up comes with being more open
to other sources of knowledge, information, and moral values. When one matures, one begins to
question even the principles and ideals that he or she holds dearly from the start.
3. Culture
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Today, culture is influenced largely by mass media. It is seen as an effective channel in the
transmission of cultural messages-whether widely accepted or not-to society.
Those that were considered taboo in the past have become accepted because media proliferates
such images. For instance, same sex marriage has become a topic that call for legitimate discourse
because it is relevant to society. The debate surrounding such issue reflects the different upbringings
and cultural backgrounds of people.
Conflicting moral values from various sources cause confusion, disagreements, and debates.
Behaviors that are acceptable in one group may be scorned or laughed at by another. Cultural values
are constantly being reshaped because of many social factors.
Positively, this is something good because moral values evolve along with society. As society and
culture change and improve, moral values and norms also change and develop. Morality is not
stagnant. It is always in the process of reinvention, but it does not cease to exist. It merges stronger
and more appealing, reaching out, and speaking the language of the modern world.
In the 18th century, the culture of slavery was the norm in America because it was institutionalized.
However, a radical shift was seen, because of its abolition through the Emancipation Proclamation.
Although at present, the remnants of the culture slavery still persist, the abolition of slavery reshaped
cultural values in connection with the concept of enslavement. Culture affects and challenges morality.
Morality becomes broader, deeper, practical, and understandable because of culture. And culture
becomes more civilized, humanized, united, and peaceful because of morality.
Culture and Moral Choices

The survival of human beings depends on how well they interact with each other. Humans cannot live by
hating and hurting each other, therefore, harmonious relationships should be established and maintained. It is
indeed necessary to have moral guidelines that support and strengthen the values of cooperation and love.
Hence, moral standards and the basic moral formation of children should be based on the importance of
establishing healthy relationships with other people.
Most cultures hold on to values that go beyond selfish interests or egocentrism. This means that the benefit
of the whole community is highly significant and more important. Mora values and attitudes of individual
members of the community must be directed towards the common good.
It is within this context that the moral value of individual and group activities is evaluated and judged.
Seemingly, the cultures of Western, advanced, and liberal nations place high value on individualism and
independence. On the other hand, the cultures of developing and conservative nations tend to emphasize duty
to the family, community, and spirituality. For example, independent-minded individuals consider that the
values of justice and fairness should correspond to the amount of efforts one has exerted even if an action
becomes disadvantageous to a less deserving person. However, community-oriented cultures focus more on
equality, regardless of whether one deserves it or not. One’s action is judged to be good or bad depending on
whether or not it causes other people to suffer.
People who do not have permanent residences and often change addresses, tend to have difficulty
developing trust, cooperation, and commitment compared to those who stay in one place. Moral values
promoting cooperation and honesty are always influenced by strict or loose laws. Religion, if understood and
practiced properly, strengthens moral values that promote pro-social behaviors. Economic status, on the other
hand, could influence a person’s values of cooperation, generosity, and honesty if he or she is overtaken by
greed.
ENGAGE
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MODULE IN ETHICS
Name:
Year and Section: Date:
Identification.
1. Physically, their structure and capabilities are distinct from other animals.
2. It is the most unique and most important characteristic of human beings.
3. An intricate, mysterious reality that is not exactly the same with others.
4. They change and develop along with the development of the society and culture.
5. Cultures that are more family- and community-oriented.
6. Characteristics of humans that drive them to form organizations and alliances.
7. It is rooted in the basic personhood of the whole humanity.
8. With all its established institutions, it helps create one’s ideal self.
9. The values that are emphasized by advanced and liberal cultures.
10. Whether one deserves it or not, it is an important value for the community-oriented
cultures.
EXTEND
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Name:
Group Activity.
The class will be divided into five groups. Each group will identify the important cultural values or
practices of Filipinos. Choose three cultural values among those identified. Analyze their pros and
cons according to their effects on the moral life of Filipinos.
EVALUATE
Name:
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Write a story about your family. In your story, include the origin of your family, your province
or hometown, the important traditions in your family, the aspirations and values you learned
from your family, the traits you acquired from your parents, the things that you admire the
most about them, the happiest memories with your family, and the things that you are
grateful for about your parents. Construct your family tress starting from your great
grandparents. How do you feel about the activities? What are the things you learned from the
activities? Write your insights.
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WEEK 5: Module
Cultural Relativism

1. Define cultural relativism;
2. Learn and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism; and
3. Draw moral insights from the challenges of cultural relativism.
EXPLAIN
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of tolerance and acceptance? Explain your answer.
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2. What is the role of globalization in ethics?

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3. What is the necessity of the higher universal standards?

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EXPLORE
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism adheres to the idea that ethical norms differ from one society or culture to
another. Moral norms are not permanent; they change according to time, place, and circumstances.
Cultural relativism implies that there are no universal norms of morality, that morality is different from
one culture to another. If the plurality of cultures is respected, no culture will be perceived as superior
over the others.
Tolerance means that people should try to understand and respect the beliefs, traditions, and
practices of the cultures of others. Once, a missionary anthropologist said, ‘Take off your shoes
because the ground you are standing is on sacred.’ Another quote bears the essence of cultural
relativism: ‘When you are in Rome, live as the Romans do’. The feeling and attitude of superiority,
intolerance, and impatience towards cultural differences must be avoided and rejected.
Respect and tolerance are highly encouraged in interacting with other cultures. However, this
comes with the risk that even wrong actions can be tolerated and justified, blurring the line between
right and wrong. This can result in utter disregard for the human ability to make intelligence moral
judgements.
It is important to realize that a culture that does not belong to, must be understood from the
cultural perspective it comes from. However, a boundary must also be set in gauging how cultural
practices should be tolerated. If a cultural act causes pain and violence, it becomes a hindrance to
human growth and the welfare of the community; if it leads to poverty and injustice, then it must be
questioned because there is no justification for an action that does not engender respect and
tolerance. Humans are endowed with the natural ability to make rational moral judgements, whether
something is wrong or not. Respect and tolerance do not mean that all ideas and practices, no
matter how harsh they are, will be accepted and supported.
Strengths of Cultural Relativism

1. Cultural relativism helps avoid moral dictatorship.
Dictators control everything and do not respect the opinions or ideas of others. Cultural relativism
respects diversity and the plurality of rich cultural and historical traditions. The behaviors and moral
standards of other cultures are not always in agreement with one’s own. The question is whether it is
right to impose moral standards applicable to all people on the moral dilemmas of people with different
cultural backgrounds.
2. Cultural relativism respects the beliefs of different cultures.
Cultural relativism does not insult or question the ability of other cultures to make
intelligent and sound mora judgement. Moral norms or standards of other cultures have long
been respected and recognized by their own authorities, elders, members. There is no
objective, scientific method or valid system to judge and criticize the moral practices of others
cultures as superior or inferior.
3. Cultural relativism promotes unity and harmony among cultures.
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Cultural relativism counters the attitude of intolerance, arrogance, and dominance. These behaviors
are the source of endless misunderstanding, conflict, and hostility within and among cultures. Cultural
relativism promotes deeper understanding and respect which is the key to better relationships among
diverse cultures.
Problems of Cultural Relativism

1. Tolerance and acceptance of social injustices and inhuman activities
Though it has its own strengths, cultural relativism also has negative implications. It is possible that
it will make people turn a blind eye to the plight of the marginalized in the name of cultural plurality.
The are many cases that the long-held cultural traditions and practices cause the suffering and abuse
of individuals. However, these traditions and practices are passed off as existing in a particular cultural
context that not everyone understands. A rational person will assert that such acts should continue, yet
relativism tends to accept, permit, and tolerate it because of cultural diversity.
2. Rejection of higher universal or common moral standards
Cultural relativism reduces morality to customs, traditions, and cultural preferences. The idea of
good or bad, of wrong or right depends on the accepted practices in one’s culture. Individuals and
groups cannot question the legitimacy or validity of cultural practices simply because it is approved by
the society. However, is it possible to critically evaluate and criticize the quality, essence, and meaning
of morality if objectivity is disregarded? Moral progress cannot be achieved if there are no universal
moral standards with which to judge various cultural preferences and practices.
3. Assumption that knowledge of other culture is impossible

Cultural relativism assumes that it is impossible to fully understand and immerse oneself in a
foreign culture because people come from different cultural backgrounds. Therefore, no one is in the
position to judge or criticize a person from a different culture.
With globalization, the atmosphere of increasing global cooperation and unity requires transparency
and the understanding of foreign cultures. The concern for international human rights, welfare, and
development bridges the diversity and plurality of cultures. The desire and the noble goal to improve
the quality of human life and to attain success and development allow people to interfere when such
issues of abuse, injustice, and violation of human rights occur.
4. Vulnerability to racial discrimination

Cultural relativism rejects a universal sense of humanity by claiming that each culture is unique and
different. The truth is, despite cultural differences, all humans share the same traits as human species.
Generally, all human beings are similar to one other and it is possible to understand and agree on
common moral standards. The idea that there are unique and different cultures could also lead some
people to think that their culture is superior to others or that others can be disparaged and controlled
because they are inferior.
ENGAGE
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Name:
Identification.
1. They are not permanent according to cultural relativism.
2. The attitude of understanding and respecting diverse cultures.

3. It adheres to the idea that ethical norms differ from one society or culture to another.
4. It is though this idea or doctrine that global cooperation and unity are possible.
5. They tend to manipulate and disrespect the opinions of others.
6. Negative attitudes that are often the source of conflict and hostility.
7. A particular ability of a culture that is not doubted or insulted by moral relativists.
8. Negative acts that moral relativism permit and tolerate.
9. Without it, moral progress would not be possible.
10. An attitude that belittle or looks down on other cultures.
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EXTEND
Name:
Group Activity.
Scenario
1. Universalists believe that human rights are universal and applicable to every member of the human race. Should
universal human rights be applied even to cultures that reject them?
2. If every culture is entitled to its own beliefs and culturally accepted practices, will it ever be acceptable to be
intolerant of another person or belief?
3. Does the idea that all cultures and customs should be respected reduce instances of discrimination
based on race and/or culture?
Instructions
• Randomly split students into two groups: Group A and Group B.

• Group A will argue the affirmative side of the questions posed above.
• Group B will argue the negative side of the questions posed above.
EVALUATE
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Name:
1. Attend a cultural event where you may interact with a culture that is different from yours.
2. Develop a visual project that describes:
a. Your feelings about the event
b. What you learned about diversity
c. Whether you tolerate and appreciate diversity
3. Be creative. Share this visual project with the class.
4. Write your insights and reflections below.
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WEEK 6: Module 6
Ethics and Critical Thinking

1. Differentiate critical thinking from ordinary thinking;
2. Identify the nine elements of critical thinking;
3. Apply the said elements in ethical reasoning; and
4. Recognize the importance of critical thinking in ethical reasoning.
EXPLAIN
1. What is critical thinking?

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2. What is the role of critical thinking in ethics?

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3. What is egocentrism and sociocentrism?

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EXPLORE
The media call them “Batang Hamog”. They are young people, practically children in their early
or late teen years, who are usually seen roaming in groups along the thoroughfares of Metro
Manila. The streets are their playground, their comfort zone, their chosen sanctuary. In legal
and social work parlance, they are collectively referred to as children in conflict with the law
(CICL). These renegade juveniles have caught public attention after getting themselves
entangled in increasing instances of harassment, vandalism, and on-road theft. They are also
widely perceived as users of illegal substances particularly solvent or rugby. According to the
reports of the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Council, the number of children in conflict with the
law has reached 11,000 as of 2009. Data from the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
likewise show that on average, 28 children are arrested every day or roughly a child per hour.
Observers, however, think that Batang Hamog should be considered the victims and not the
perpetrators of the crimes attributed to them. Most of them claim they are simply being used as
pawns of sinister elements who want to take advantage of the country’s lenient legal system
towards law offenders who have not yet reached the legal age. Because they are minors, they
are practically untouchable and immune from any criminal prosecution. Section 6 of the
Republic Act 10630 exempts from any legal liability a child fifteen but younger than eighteen
unless proven that they acted with discernment in the commission of a crime. What is relevant
in this particular law is the recognition by the state of the close connection between ethical and
legal responsibilities and the maturity of one’s capacity is under their full control. This notion is
true for children as it is for adults. Ethics, then, is a challenge to act responsibly as it is to think
critically.
The consequential and complementary relation between acting and thinking is difficult to
dispute. Human actions after all derived from decisions, which are themselves outcomes of
thought. The challenge to act ethically is also a challenge to one’s thinking ability, hence the
need to recalibrate the quality of the thinking process. From just thinking to thinking critically,
one is transformed in the process into a mature and ethical individual.
Critical Thinking
The word critical is often used to refer to something alarming or threatening. Consider the situation when
the water level in Angat Dam is described as “critical”. The water level is said to be critical when the dam does
not contain enough water or if there is too much of it. Similarly, a student who finds very slim chances of
passing a particular subject may be advised to do his or her best in the remaining weeks of the semester
because the student is in a rather “critical” situation. This is not, of course, the sense of the tern critical in
relation to the thinking process. The phrase critical thinking is used in this context to refer to the challenge of
making individuals critics of their own thoughts. A critical thinker is someone who has acquired the disposition
and the skills to be his or her own critic. Oftentimes, critical thinking is associated with being critical of other–be
it a person, a situation, or a thing. Being critical of others often suggests a capacity on the other part of the
thinker to examine closely an object at different levels and varying perspectives, but understanding critical
thinking in this manner is not enough.
A person is considered a critical thinker if he or she uncovers many aspects of a given problem. However,
this understanding of critical thinking, while not incorrect, is inadequate. Critical thinking is not confined to the
ability to analyze a given issue. It can be used as a tool that can provide a better understanding of the close
connection between acting and thinking. In their book Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your
Professional and Personal Life, Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2014) defined critical thinking as “that mode of
thinking–about any subject, content, or problem–in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking
by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them”.
In other words, it is not enough to simply display the range of one’s understanding of a particular situation.
Unless one commits himself or herself to the practice of constantly improving the way he or she thinks, one
cannot yet consider himself or herself a critical thinker. Thinking in the ordinary mode–such as when one thinks
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of what to eat or what to include in a schedule for the next day–is described by Paul and Elder as first-order
thinking. It is the kind of thinking that makes people aware of a particular object of thought. Statements such as
“Drug addiction is wrong” and “Murder is against the law” are examples of first-order thinking. The points of
inquiry are not yet the thinker’s own thinking process but the given features of drug addiction and murder.
However, the moment a person turns his or her attention to how he or she is thinking instead of simply what
he or she is thinking, then he or she is ready to engage in second-order thinking. To think about the “how” and
not just the “what” is to engage in reflection, assessment, and interpretation. Therefore, it I not enough to
simply state that “Drug addiction is wrong” or “Murder is illegal”. One must be able to understand as well the
thought processes that lead to this conclusion. The same thinking process occurs when a person wants to
track down a missing personal item such as a purse or a pen. He or she mentally re-traces this missing object
from memory: from the time it is last seen, up to the point when he or she finally realizes that something is
wrong. The purpose of doing so is to enable and how interconnected they are to each other. This happens too
when a person thinks critically–he or she tries to see a specific issue according to its many dimensions, instead
of focusing only on a single aspect. For a moment, one takes his or her mind away from the object of thought
in the hope of finding a new way of looking at the situation. Focusing on the way one thinks allows a person to
expand his or her grasp of what is really at stake. Distancing oneself a bit from the situation help create the
necessary space that will enable and individual to have better insights into the target issue.
Egocentrism and Sociocentrism
A person facing a mirror sees an image of himself or herself. Similarly, when one is thinking critically, he or
she is looking at the elements of his or her own thoughts. While a person in front of a mirror sees his or her
own physical reflection, an individual thinking encounters what is going on inside of his or her own mind. Thus,
when a person thinks critically, he or she needs to see how his or her mind works in terms of its abilities and
incapabilities and how these can be improved to help him or her decide more effectively and act more
appropriately in a given situation. This is probably the reason why philosophers like Plato believed that self-
awareness is key to living a more meaningful life. It is, therefore, inaccurate to conceive critical thinking as a
purely cognitive or intellectual activity, detached from or irrelevant to the realities of life. On the contrary,
thinking may be the most vital of all human activities since an individual’s interaction with and interpretation of
the world, including the values and meanings attached to it, depends on the activity and state of the human
mind. The first step towards gaining mastery over thinking is to be conscious of two basic tendencies that often
hinder people from thinking critically. Paul and elder identified these tendencies as egocentrism and
sociocentrism. Egocentrism is the tendency of an individual to regard his or her own personal opinion, belief, or
conviction as the sole basis for asserting the truth of a claim. Something is true for an egocentric thinker
because he or she thinks it is true. An egocentric thinker neither recognizes nor entertains the opinions of
others particularly those who contradict his or her claim. He or she thinks his or her opinion alone matters and
all other opinions fare less in comparison with his or hers. An egocentric thinker who believes that drug
addiction is wrong may persuade others to prejudge or even persecute all people hooked on illegal drugs. He
or She will argue that all drug addicts deserve to be penalized, or in worse case, liquidated by extrajudicial
means. This shortsighted and restricted view of drug addiction tends to overlook the fact that drug addiction is
the result of complex factors, of which the proliferation of illegal drugs is but one among many. From a different
standpoint, addicts may be considered victims who also need protection against the real perpetrators of the
drug menace.
Egocentrism when applied on a wider context leads to sociocentrism. In this case, an entire community or
social group, rather than an individual, imposes its own worldview on others and compels its adherents to
follow such orientation without question as a means to advance the group’s interests. Sociocentrism may occur
among rival religious groups (e.g., fundamentalist sector among Christian, Islamic, or Jewish communities) and
warring social or political factions (e.g., proponents and opponents of the RH bill). These opposing groups
illustrate how certain groups who feel strongly about their causes are sometimes easily swayed by their
passionate advocacy to the point of becoming intolerant, and sometimes outright hostile, to those whose points
of view are dissimilar to theirs. These rival groups resort to propaganda, emotional warfare, and mutual
shaming rather than engage in a healthy debate. This is exactly what happened at the height of the uproar that
marked the passing of the then proposed Reproductive Health bill in 2012. Members of opposite camps were
just too hasty to trade criticisms and insults instead of putting forward arguments that can help clarify the
issues at stake.
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The practice of critical thinking requires overcoming egocentrism and sociocentrism. Critical thinking begins
as soon as an individual realizes the errors in his or her thought process. Like any other skill, a person’s
advancement or failure in critical thinking highly depends on his or her constant practice of this cognitive
process.
Critical Thinking and Ethics
Aside from overcoming egocentric and sociocentric thinking tendencies, it is also crucial for aspiring critical
thinkers to raise vital questions relevant to the issue at hand. Asking questions is an indispensable task in
critical thinking as well as in ethical reasoning. Questions set the purpose of an inquiry. Raising queries
indicates one wants to know more and does not content himself or herself with the current information about a
case at its face value.
Sometimes, a person also inquires about facts that appear insufficient, doubtful, or outdated. Verification of
facts deserves urgent attention. When confronted with an ethical issue, most people deliver quick judgements
without appropriate and sufficient information validation. Oftentimes, these judgements are based on biased
prejudices that can lead to misunderstanding of a problem and sometimes misunderstanding among the
individuals involved. Such a situation can be avoided if people take time to check facts or information before
issuing any statement. Not only can it spare people from unnecessary emotional stress, it can also afford them
better appreciation of the case at hand and, consequently, better judgement.
Aside from information, facts also reveal assumptions or perspectives which can distort how particular issue
is presented. This is the reason why individuals who have special interests in a given case are not viewed as
credible witnesses in court proceedings. The testimony of a suspect’s kin in a robbery case, for example, may
not be reliable owing to the natural predisposition of the kin to protect the relatives. The court may find his or
her testimony compromised on account of the probable biases regardless of its truth. Perspective pertains to
the way one views or interprets a situation or event. Unlike facts, personal perceptions are not easy to
recognize but can be uncovered given a person’s history, social or family relations, professional and
educational background, as well as psychological profile. A person’s perspective can also be gathered from the
assumptions he or she employs to assert his or her statements. Assumptions are untested claims that are
simply taken to be true without the process of validation. People make assumptions when they cannot test the
available facts because they do not have the means or simply want to avoid doing so. Those who constantly
use their assumptions in ethical judgements are egocentric thinkers. They believe their opinion is enough as a
basis for determining what is right and wrong. Therefore, a critical thinker must be able to check the
interference or the conclusion-making process involved in a given ethical case not to mention the implications
or consequences of a particular moral conclusion. For example, notwithstanding the prohibition of the law, a
government official that accepts a bribe simply because everybody is doing it has a flawed reasoning process.
The concerned government official overlooks the legal provision against bribery and rather than using it as the
premise for his action, he chooses to join others instead in its violation. In this case, the official decides to
adopt a flawed premise, which results in a flawed conclusion in the form of an erroneous action.
A critical thinker must likewise pay attention to the theory or concept underlying an action or a situation. In
most cases, people think of theory as the opposite of or irrelevant to action. The description that something or
someone is too theoretical often suggests that one is either out of touch and unrealistic. Nothing of course is
farther from the truth because theory and reality are one. It is theory that puts names on things around us and,
thanks to these names, our minds are able to know the world as it appears. In ethics, theory is just as
important. A person, for example, who suffers from very oppressive conditions at work will not find the voice to
air his or her predicament unless he or she has a clear notion of justice, rights, and human dignity. Justice,
rights, and human dignity are examples of theories, and an understanding of these theories enables one to
have a better grasp of his or her circumstances. One cannot look at reality without the proper lenses. Theories
provide these instruments. Thus, theories aid in seeing things more clearly in much the same way lenses do to
human sight.
It is in this aspect that philosophy plays a large role in the study of ethics. Philosophy provides a variety of
theoretical tools that are useful in thinking and acting ethically. These tools together with critical thinking will no
doubt enhance the development of ethical consciousness.
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ENGAGE
Name:
Answer these following questions concisely.
1. What is critical thinking?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the role of critical thinking in ethics?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is egocentrism? Elaborate on your answer by citing an example.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is sociocentrism? Elaborate on your answer by citing an example.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. Among the elements of critical thinking, which do you pay more attention to in your own thought
process? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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EXTEND
Finding the Elements
Materials
Individual copies of the article “Children in conflict with law” by Jinky Cabildo and Matthew Reysion-Cruz
(2016) from Inquire.net (https://opinion.inquire.net/95882/children-in-conflict-with-law)
Instructions
Form yourselves into small groups and assign a moderator for each group. Read the article
“Children in conflict with law”. Analyze and discuss how the elements of critical thinking are
applied by the authors to convey the central ethical issue in the article. Using the same elements
of critical thinking, determine a way through which the aforementioned ethical issue may be
resolved.
Then, on a one-fourth sheet of yellow pad, assess your ability to think critically on a scale of
1 to 10 with the latter being the highest. Explain in few sentences how you can improve your
critical thinking skills.
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WEEK 7: Module 7
Formation and Transformation of Self
“Understanding the Self”

1. Explain why ethical consciousness always begins with self-awareness;
2. Relate self-cultivation with ethical responsibility;
3. Identify the relevant theoretical implications of ethics centered on self; and
4. Recognize the dynamic tension between formation and transformation in self-cultivation.
EXPLORE
Victoria is a fine arts degree holder. She has always loved the arts but does not see herself
pursuing it as a career. To her family’s and friends’ surprise, Victoria took a job in a luxury cruise
as a cabin stewardess after graduation. She told them she has always been fascinated with
traveling and has always dreamed of working abroad. She saw the opportunity of doing both
things aboard a cruise ship. It was her first job and her first time to leave the country and be away
from home for so long. It could likewise be considered her baptism of fire. From a relatively
sheltered life, Victoria was plunged into a job that required her to make 40 beds a day at a pace
that left very little room for her to catch her breath or take a restroom break. She also met
challenges in adjusting to the totally different social environment aboard a ship. Back home, her
interaction was limited only to her kins and close circle of friends. In the ship, she had to deal with
hundreds of strangers with backgrounds and habits completely different from her provincial
upbringing. It took a while before she could let go of her naïve belief that people who are kind to
her also mean well. She experienced getting the raw end of the deal many times despite efforts
of being considerate and friendly to others. Aboard the ship, Victoria got the chance to confront
who she really was through the different circumstances that tested her resolve to persevere and
also her determination to affirm and re-create herself during this period of transition. Her case
was a long and difficult tale of personal odyssey but it is definitely not hers alone. Millions of
Filipinos who took jobs abroad practically share the same story. Their narrative of survival, self-
preservation, and self-transformation is a story of their continuing struggle to find new reasons to
live and to dream.
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Understanding the Self
The special place of the self in any ethical discourse cannot be overemphasized. Apart from Plato who
introduced the maxim “know thy self”, the Eastern philosophical traditions, such as in China and India, also
place a high regard for understanding the self. Reference to “self” has evolved throughout history. It was
psuche for the Greeks, anima or soul for the medieval masters, and mind for the modern thinkers. In the past,
the task of examining and explaining the structure, activity, and complexity of the self belonged to the
philosophers. Their approach, however, while significantly influential, was rather abstract and quite limited in
its appreciation of the complex workings of human nature. With the birth of the modern sciences, a new
discipline dedicated to the empirical and experimental study of the self as embodied by the human mind
emerged. From the Greek term psuche, proponents of this new science now call this undertaking psychology.
The study of the self and all its components–emotions, intelligence, aptitude, stress level, and mental
health, among others–has been the main concern of psychology ever since. At present, people have learned
to accept the self as an entity that can be observed and examined. Most schools, for instance, screen
prospective students using admission tests along with a series of psychological examinations and interviews.
The results of these examinations and interviews between the student and the school counselor are updated
at each stage. In doing so, school counselor are updated at each stage. In doing so, schools are able to
determine not just the psychological profile of its enrollees but also the programs and services suited for their
students who are in their precarious adolescent stage.
The variety of theories and experiments proposed by several psychologists over the years proves how
complex the self can be as an object of study. Probably, one of the most controversial assumptions about the
self was made by Sigmund Freud. He postulated that what people always thought of as self might not be what
it is. Human behavior, emotions, and thoughts that comprise the self are but masks of that part of the human
person which always remain hidden and unknown. That hidden and unknown dimension that underlies human
personality is what Freud referred to as the unconscious. Every now and then, however, the unconscious may
manifest itself through instincts, impulses, mannerisms, random expressions, or the proverbial slip of the
tongue. If one subscribes to Freud, Victoria’s predicament narrated in the introduction was a product of her
perception that she was the person she thought she knew before boarding the ship. She did not realize that
her concept of self, one that is already made and intact is a work of fiction according to Freud’s point of view.
Therefore, she should not trouble herself anymore about reconciling who she was before and after her cruise
stint.
Sigmund Freud
For Freud, this conflict itself is what makes Victoria who she is. The internal struggle of knowing who one
really is a burden from which he or she cannot escape.
Freud’s concept of the self attracted disciples and detractors alike. Many found his theory outrageous.
However, a number saw in it a good starting point for re-thinking traditional notions about the self. People are
accustomed to thinking that the self is something which can be placed under their control. It turns out that this
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is a bubble. It took a Freud to disclose to the world that what appears as self is but the tip of the iceberg–the
rest of who people actually are is an uncharted territory.
Another equally interesting theory concerning the self came from another psychologist named Jean Piaget.
As a psychologist, Piaget focused on the human subject’s cognitive development or the development of his or
her ability to know. Piaget theorized that the human ability to know evolves in stages and has distinct
peculiarities appropriate for each particular stage. This is different from the notion of pre-modern thinkers who
presumed that the human ability to know is good to go right from the start. Pre-modern thinkers took for
granted that the human person, along with all his or her abilities, is subject to a developmental process. This
development is always from simple to complex, from the very few to a multiple.
Jean Piaget at the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor
Piaget’s theory, while centered on knowing, has important implications for understanding the self. It
suggests that self-knowledge happens as a process and is integral to the history of a person. An individual like
Victoria is not expected to know herself right away. She needs to acquire first the necessary capacities for her
to gain insights about herself, capacities that are likewise evolving. For Piaget, what she underwent is not a
crisis but is a normal course of human development. There is no shortcut to maturity; neither does it happen
overnight: it is a process that unfolds through time. The mature person is the individual who can bear with
himself or herself as he or she undergoes the whole experience.
One psychologist whose theory is directly and closely related with ethics is Lawrence Kohlberg. While
Piaget highlighted a person’s cognitive development, Kohlberg concentrated on a person’s moral
development. One may find Piaget’s influence on Kohlberg as evidenced in the latter’s articulation of a
person’s moral growth. Like Piaget, he believed that a person proceeds to moral maturity in gradual stages, In
other words, one does not become a moral person at once. The moral quality of a person depends on the
quality of his or her moral reasoning which itself undergoes transformation. Therefore, one is not expected to
resolve a particular dilemma if it involves a level of complexity that is not appropriate for his or her moral stage.
Another crucial insight from Kohlberg is that moral reasoning can be shaped by education. In Kohlberg’s
theory, one can find balance between nature and nurture, between reality and possibility. In Victoria’s case,
Kohlberg would probably state that her dilemma should not be a cause of worry for it is well within the
appropriate stage, the conventional stage–the point in which one struggles to fit in a larger community. The
main issue for a person introduced to a new social environment is accord and conformity. A person in
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Victoria’s situation, for instance, is tasked to decide the limit and extent of what one can retain and what one is
willing to compromise.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is also influenced by the work of the formidable figure in
psychology George Herbert Mead. Mead Studied psychology and sociology, and traces of these disciplines
are notable in his work. Social experience is central to Mead’s concept of the development of the self. For him,
the self does not mature on its own. It requires an environment where interactions with other selves are
possible, particularly, interactions that allow shared meanings. Immersion in such a world enables the self to
create itself and, in doing so, motivates an individual to shape his or her world for the better. Following Mead’s
theory of moral development, Victoria’s new environmental aboard a ship does not negate her process of
growth. In fact, her experience is a further extension of a widening environment that can provide her the
impetus to assert and create who she is. Life on the ship revolves around a rather artificial environment. It then
depends on the ability of an individual like Victoria to act constructively in the midst of what seems to be a
fantasy world.
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WEEK 7: Module 8
Formation and Transformation of Self
“Self and Philosophical Ethics”

1. Explain why ethical consciousness always begins with self-awareness;
2. Relate self-cultivation with ethical responsibility;
3. Identify the relevant theoretical implications of ethics centered on self; and
4. Recognize the dynamic tension between formation and transformation in self-cultivation.
EXPLORE
As previously pointed out, theorizing about the self was once the task of philosophers. With the advent of
modern sciences, this job is now dominated by psychologists who have further developed the study of the self
using quantitative techniques and experimental approaches. Despite the different methods applied by
psychologists, the contributions of the early philosophers in the study of the self cannot be dismissed because
they provided the foundations of understanding the intricacies of human nature. The prime interest of
philosophy on the self is driven not so much by the scientific interest to explain but by the philosophic desire to
inquire. One must, therefore, be able to distinguish explanation from inquiry to appreciate the crucial difference
between psychology and philosophy. To explain is to narrow down or to reduce the scope of complexity. To
inquire is to confront complexity head-on and to identify what makes it difficult even without the certainty of an
answer. A crisis in gender identity, for example, may be approached by a psychologist from a clinical point of
view, with test findings and a possible list of proposed intervention measures. For a philosopher, the same
problem may be viewed as an instance of a problem of recognition. People suffer from crisis of identity, gender
or otherwise, probably because the prevailing social conditions do not provide a space where they can be
respected or recognized for who they really are. Clearly, there is disparity in focus but it does not mean the two
cannot work together. A good example of this disciplinal crossover is Mead’s work, which influenced Lawrence
Kohlberg as pointed out earlier, and also philosopher Axel Honneth, a major proponent of the theory of
recognition. For Honneth, recognition is an essential requirement of self-realization. An individual can develop
into the person he or she wants to be only in an atmosphere that allows him or her to experience self-
confidence, self-respect, and self-esteem. Self-confidence, according to Honneth, is attained within the sphere
of love. Honneth used the term love to refer to an individual’s primary relationships which include family,
friends, and romantic connections. Self-confidence is developed within this sphere when physical as well as
emotional needs are met. Physical violence, however, can hinder self-confidence. The second sphere is the
sphere of rights. In this sphere, recognition can be achieved if everyone who bears the same rights are
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perceived and treated as equals. Self-respect is cultivated when a person experiences recognition within the
sphere of rights. The opposite happens when one is deprived of the rights all other members enjoy in a given
society. In the third sphere of solidarity, recognition happens when the skills and abilities of an individual are
acknowledged. Acknowledgement is essential for an individual to become fully individuated in this sphere. The
result of recognition in the third sphere is self-esteem. In other words, it is only in the sphere of solidarity where
one is recognized as a self or as an individual capable of making a difference.
Honneth’s theory of recognition, shows what formation and transformation of the self entail. The formation
of self is never a handiwork of only a single person much less by the same person. The three different spheres
cited by Honneth are the conditions that make such formation possible. In all the three spheres, Honneth
underscored the indispensable role of social relations in any endeavor of formation and transformation. More
than that, Honneth explicity suggested how formation and transformation are initiated by the act of recognition.
Without recognition, therefore, the self may simply descend into a vacuum. One can imagine the innocent
young in the streets who are thrown into child labor and prostitution and are scared for life without their
immediate family members and relatives to stand up for them. There are other social groups–members of the
lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community; wage earners constantly disadvantaged by the practice
of “endo” (end of contract or labor-only contracting); or the overseas Filipino workers (OFWs)–who suffer from
perennial exclusion, with their rights outrightly ignored by a system that does not work (or is rigged not to work)
in their favor. What also comes to mind are those individuals who cannot make their voices heard or their
presence noticed because their conditions prevent them from becoming who they wish to be.
The main interest of philosophy on the formation and transformation of self is essentially ethical. Philosophy
does not treat the self as an isolated entity and definitely not as an object of scientific study. For philosophy,
the self is not a static specimen as an individual is a responsible participant who can shape his or her world
into a place conducive for life.
ENGAGE
Name:
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Answer these following questions concisely.
1. What makes the self a primary concern of almost all ethical traditions?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. How did psychology change the present approach to understanding the self?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the unconscious? How does the unconscious help us determine who we are?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. How are the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg similar and different?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. How did Honneth succeed in combining psychology and philosophy in his recognition?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the relationship of ethics with the formation and transformation of the self?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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EXTEND
Map of Life
Materials
Oslo paper, colored pencil or crayons, ballpen
Instructions
Illustrate your life story by drawing a “map of life”, starting from the point of origin (birth)
up to a projected destination. Like any map, it should include major “landmarks” (highlights
of your life story) as you deem appropriate. You may use symbolic descriptions (“rough
roads” for difficulties; “bridge” for life transitions; “forked roads” for dilemmas; “potholes” or
“humps” for major errors, etc.) to make your map more interesting.
After drawing your map of life, discuss with your seatmate your answers to the following questions:
• Which part of your map of life helps you most to know yourself?
• Which among the theories discussed in the chapter is most useful for you
to understand the challenges in improving your ethical consciousness?
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WEEK 8: Module 9
Feelings and Values

1. Define feelings;
2. Describe the Filipino hierarchy of values; and
3. Discuss the importance of feelings and values in ethics.
EXPLAIN
1. How can feelings and values affect the moral lives of people?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Why are values considered important to human life?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. How did Thomas Quintin Donato Andres develop his hierarchy of Filipino values.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
EXPLORE
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Immanuel Kant’s View of Feelings
Feelings are easy to describe. However, formally defining the concept of feelings in the context of
moral philosophy has proved to be an elusive and difficult task. The challenge to philosophers has been
to identify the most important feelings are related to morality. Immanuel Kant is one of the first
philosophers who explored the nature of feelings and attempted to explain the relationship between
feelings and morality. According to his theory of moral feeling, when people make moral decisions, feeling
come into play, organizing them into inclinations, affects, passions, and desires.
Kant defines moral feeling as “the susceptibility to feel pleasure or displeasure merely from being
aware that actions are consistent or contrary to the law of duty” (Borges, 2013)
Susceptibility to sensible pleasure and pain, then, is a condition at the deepest root of human
experience. Moral feeling can be perceived to be the representation of moral law; consequently, it is not
an incentive to act morally. However, Kant is ambiguous in his claim that moral feeling is not necessarily
associated with moral goodness, but a susceptibility on the part of free choice to be moved by pure
practical reason. He also asserts that no human being is entirely without moral feeling. Here, moral
feeling’s practical function is the ground of judgement and a motive to action. The way an individual
responds to a situation could be based on feelings.
Furthermore, Kant explains that the universality of moral feelings can only be guaranteed through a
priori and rational origin. Rather than a basic feeling or a feeling directly from sensory stimulation, he
believes that moral feeling is derived from rational law. This view is summarized in Kant’s statement,
“Inner sense, if it refers to the logical law of demonstration, is the secretive nature of moral law”. His view
suggests that moral feelings is a product of people’s thoughts and reasonings–their cognitions. The basic
premise is that the mental abilities such as judgement and decision-making are important determinants of
moral feelings.
Meaning and Theory of Values
Values determine behaviors. They influence decision-making. Common sources of values are one’s
personal experiences and relationships with others. Major influences in values formation are one’s family,
peers, education, and the media.
Axiology is the study of values. Generally, values are things considered important in life. Values are
beliefs that influence people’s behaviors and decision-making. For instance, if people believe that telling
the truth is very important, they will try to be truthful when they deal with other people (Brown & Crace,
1996). Values can refer to objects, people, places, and behaviors. In ethics, the degree of importance of
things can influence many specific attitudes, decisions, and moral behaviors. Values are a culture’s
standard for discerning what is good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly, desirable and
undesirable, and what ought to perform and not to perform. Values are especially useful in situations
where they can serve as basis on how to make decisions and thus, can provide peace, order, and
cohesion in society.
An important theory of values has been developed by philosopher Max Scheler. For Scheler, values
are the international objects of feelings, qualities given originally in the “feeling of something”. He
constantly stresses the objectivity, immunatibility, and eternal characteristics of values that are “prioristic”
in character. In other words, the prioristic character of values is ordered in rank, from the lowest to the
highest. Scheler’s hierarchy of values will be discussed in depth in Module 7.
Filipino Values
Filipinos strive to obtain fulfillment not only individually but also collectively, particularly for their
families. An important theorization on Filipino values is developed by Thomas Quintin Donato Andres
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(1980) in which he arranged Filipino values in a hierarchy, from the basic level at the bottom to the higher
level of values at the top:
Self-
esteem
Social Mobility
Social Acceptance
Debt of Gratitude
Closeness in the Family
Thomas Andres’ Hierarchy of Filipino Values
1. Closeness in the Family

The basic and most important unit in Philippine society is the family. Filipinos
emphasize the importance of close family ties which remain even throughout adulthood.
2. Debt of Gratitude
This value called utang-na-loob in Filipino reflects the value of reciprocity among Filipinos. It
refers to the value in which one remembers the favor other people has given to him or her and for
him or her it in some form or another in the future.
3. Social Acceptance
Among Filipinos, social approval, social acceptance, and the sense of belongness are
essential to enable them to function in society.
4. Social Mobility
Filipinos work hard for the comfort of their families. Some Filipinos even as domestic helpers
just so they can provide for their loved ones.
5. Self-esteem
This is the value of the highest level among Filipinos. It refers to the high regard for amor
proprio (self-esteem) or the strong desire to be respected.
ENGAGE
Name:
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Identification.
1. It refers to the strong desire to be respected.
2. The study of values.

3. A value associated with reciprocity in which the Filipino returns the favor he or she
receives.
4. These are things considered important in life.
5. The basic and most essential unit in Philippine society.
6. A value that refers to how Filipinos work hard for the comfort of their families.
7. The highest type of values among Filipinos.
8. Kant believes that moral feeling is derived from this source.
9. A specific value that Filipinos are known for.
10. For him, values are the intentional objects of feelings.
EXTEND
Name:
Answer the Life Values Inventory by Duane Brown and R.Kelly Crace at https://bhmt.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/04/BHMT_CC_Life-Values_Inventory.pdf.
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What do the results reveal you about yourself?
EVALUATE
Name:
Read Lk. 18:18-27 which tells the story of the rich young man who inquires about the conditions
for him to enter the kingdom of God. He always keeps the commandments of God and wants to
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know if there is anything else to be done. He is very rich and Jesus advises him to sell everything
he has and divide the proceeds among the poor. The rich young man could not do it. He values
his financial security too much and could not part with his wealth. Write your reflections on and
insights drawn from the story.
WEEK 9: Module 10
Scheler’s Hierarchy of Values
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1. Define feeling-states and value-modalities;
2. Discuss the four levels of value-modalities in Scheler’s hierarchy; and
3. Reflect on the practicality of feeling-states and value-modalities in daily life.
EXPLAIN
1. What is the difference between feeling-state and value-modality? Explain the correlation of the
two.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the significance of Scheler’s theory of values?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
EXPLORE
Max Ferdinand Scheler
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Max Ferdinand Scheler was a prominent German philosopher known for his
work in phenomenology, philosophical anthropology, and ethics (Frings, 2018).
He was greatly interested in the philosophy of American pragmatism. He was
born on August 22, 1874 in Munich, Germany. He studied philosophy at the
University of Jena (1846-1926) and received a doctoral degree in 1897. He
taught at Jena from 1900 to 1906. From 1907 to 1910, he taught at the
University of Munich. In 1919 he became professor of philosophy and sociology
at the University of Cologne.
Max Ferdinand Scheler
Scheler who was of Jewish heritage openly denounced fascism and national socialism which
prompted the Nazis to suppress the spread of his work from 1933 to 1945. He traveled to many countries
such as India, China, Japan, Russia, and the United States to talk about his academic work but his health
became an obstacle for accepting many other speaking engagements. Scheler died on May 19, 1928 due
to complications of a severe heart attack. After his death, Martin Heidegger and Jose Ortega y Gasset
said that all philosophers were indebted to the seriousness and significance of Scheler’s works. Scheler
was known as “the strongest philosophical force in modern Germany” and “the first man of the
philosophical paradise.”
Feeling-states and Value-modalities
In The Nature of Sympathy and Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Value, Scheler talks
about love, human feelings, and the nature of the person (Davis & Steinbock, 2018). He contends that
reason, consciousness, and ego are characteristics of a human being and the pure form of these
characteristics cannot be found outside of humans. Knowing a human being as an essentially loving
creature, Scheler states the existence of a human is due to his or her heart and not his or her ego, will, or
reason. He considers love as the center of all emotions and goes on to argue that love and feelings have
their own type of logic that is different from the logic of reason. The reality of value precedes knowing.
Values can be felt and organized by means of the hierarchy of the power of reason after they are
experienced.
Considering emotions as inconsistent and insincere at times, Scheler researched on the concept of
value deceptions as seen in his works Ordo Amoris, The Idols of Self-Knowledge, Repentance and Re-
Birth, and Ressentiment. He based his ethics on “pre-rational refereeing,” the person’s first reaction
towards a specific value. When a person prioritizes a value of lower rank to a value of higher rank or
disvalues a value, a disorder of heart” occurs. He asserted as well that values can be better advanced
through aristocracy than a democracy.
From this interest of his, he formulated his theory of value–an enumeration of the four levels of value-
modalities and the feeling-states that are incorporated therein. Feeling-states refer to specific values or
elements that one may give importance to. It may be pleasure, strength, joy, or holiness. Upon knowing
what is really valuable for one, his or her value-modality, or level hierarchy of value, is determined.
Scheler’s ethics is centered on his theory of value (Dunlop, 2013). In his two major works, The Nature
of Sympathy and Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Value, he pointed out that moral values
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of good and evil are solely related to persons, not objects. The variety of values can be experienced in
different orders based on love. Acknowledging these values as objective and unchanging, Scheler divided
these value-modalities in a hierarchy of levels:
1. Sensory Value-Modality
The feeling-states incorporated in this value-modality are of the lowest level of value. These
values range from agreeable to disagreeable. People who conform to these values primarily
consider whether something leads to pleasure or pain. They agree on what gives them pleasure
and disagree on what gives them pain. Hence, this feeling-state relates to hedonistic and
utilitarian values. Pleasure-seekers hold this particular value-modality.
In this value-modality, Scheler examines the endurance of values in a specific timeframe and
asserts that the lifetime of values can be easily imparted. For instance, Scheler explains: “If I
affirm my love for someone, I do not qualify my testament by saying ‘I love you now’ or otherwise
indicate that this love is momentary. Rather, the notion of duration is conveyed in the affirmation
itself. And if I find at some point that this love is gone, I must conclude that I misunderstood and
misstated my original sentiment, that I never really loved this person.” In other worlds, Scheler
illustrates that a person is naturally bound to values that are persistent and do not fade away as
time passes by.
2. Vital Value-Modality
All modes of feelings in life are included in this level. These values are higher than the values
of pleasure. This value-modality pertains to the recognition of health and sickness, strength and
weakness, and excellence and flaw. Emotional reactions are also included in this category such
as “being happy about something” or being annoyed at something.” It is important to mention that
the specific character of this modality relates life to a genuine essence and not an empirical
generic conception. Those who conform to this value are already aware of the vital value of this
modality. A hero embodies this feeling-state. It means that a hero possesses higher values than a
pleasure-seeker.
3. Spiritual Value-Modality
The feeling-states relative to this value-modality are connected to spiritual feelings, more
specifically, love and hatred, beauty and ugliness, joy and sorrow, delight and disgust, and
reverence and contempt. They may also include feelings of pleasure and displeasure, approval
and disapproval, and respect and disrespect.
Scheler says that the higher the value, the less dependent it is to the other values of the same
level of worth. In other words, if a specific value is universal enough, it is not limited to the other
elements. A higher value is an end value solely by its own, not a means to other values. Spiritual
joy and sorrow are the primary values that are correlated to this feeling-state.
The three main types of spiritual values are:

a. Values of “beauty” and “ugliness”, including the whole span of purely aesthetic values;
b. Values of “right” and “wrong;” and
c. Values of the “pure cognition of truth.”
Those who possess these values are considered geniuses (artistic, moral, and philosophical).
4. Value of Holiness Modality
This level includes the highest type of values that appear only on objects given intentionally as
“absolute objects.” By absolute objects, Scheler means every object in the “absolute sphere.”
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Thus, the values connected to these values are those things from sacraments, cults, and other
forms of worship. In this modality, the feelings range from “blissfulness” to “despair,” which are
not dependent on “happiness” or “unhappiness.” The type of persons in this criterion includes the
saints.
After clarifying these criteria, Scheler divides these values into two levels. On the higher level
of this hierarchy, he locates the modality of life such as health, disease, and so on. On the lower
level of this list, he places sensible values such as pleasure, enjoyment, pain, and suffering. It
means that Scheler gives more value to life and he claims that life is more than the combination
of joy and sadness. He also maintains that the lower values such as pleasures and sufferings are
only derivatives.
Value of
Holiness
Modality
Spiritual Value of Modality
Vital Value-Modality
Sensory Value-Modality
ENGAGE
Name:
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Identification.
1. The center of Scheler’s ethics.

2. The lowest type of values that are objects of sensory feelings, and their corresponding
subjective states includes pleasure and pain.
3. The highest type of values that appear only on objects given intentionally as absolute
objects.
4. All modes of feelings in life are included in this level.
5. It refers to values connected to the general well-being.
6. Scheler considers this ideal/concept as the center of all emotions.

7. Scheler said the existence of a human being is due to this body organ and not his or
her ego, will, or reason.
8. Pleasure-seekers are found in this level.
9. Saints are found in this level.
10. The feeling-states that belong to this value-modality are connected to spiritual
feelings.
EXTEND
Name:
Enumerate the four value-modalities (hierarchy of values) of Scheler and provide a practical
example showing the manifestation of each reality.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
EVALUATE
Name:
Reflect on the feeling-state and value-modality in which you belong at this point in your life. What
changes are you willing to make? Why?
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WEEK 11: Module 11

Politics and Society
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“Ethics and Politics”

1. Explain the concept of politics;
2. Determine the relationship of ethics and politics;
3. Examine the political dimension of becoming human; and
4. Assess the importance of citizenship education.
EXPLORE
In August 2013, thousands of protesters trooped to Luneta on the heels of the news exposing
multi-billion pork barrel scandal that involved a number of former and active members of the
Philippine Congress. Organizers of the event called it “Million People March” even though the
estimated crowd turnout was hundreds of thousands less than a million. This protest action was
phenomenal because it was conceived, organized, and hatched in the digital sphere. The online
news magazine Rappler hailed it as the “first social media organized protest.” Nowadays, protest
rallies and other sorts of political action need not only be “social;” to be effective, they must also
be “viral.” The social media have created a new space for people to converge, engage, and
challenge each other’s views. The term “netizens” underscores the importance of this emerging
trend. Netizens are the individuals who use the social media as a new arena not only to express
political views but also to pursue other political aims. What is significant in this continuous
evolution of how the notion of “public” is configured and understood. Apparently, one can no
longer think of the “public” as an assembly or as a place that accommodates such assembly in
purely physical terms. The internet and computer technology have radically altered how people
conduct their exchange and interaction with others. They have transposed the engagement from
actual to virtual. The full consequence of this transition may remain indeterminate at the moment.
What is certain is that this phenomenon is something that can no longer be ignored.
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Ethics and Politics
Mention the word “politics” and the average Filipino will automatically think of government officials,
politicians, or elections. While there is nothing wrong in this association of politics, this perception,
however, gives an incomplete picture of what politics truly involves. Politics is rarely identified with
citizenship. This is rather ironic considering that politics is derived from the Greek world polis or city-states
which means a political community whose membership is restricted mainly to its citizens. Aristotle
described human beings as political animals. He meant that every human being is always born into a
community that requires interaction with fellow human agents to achieve personal fulfillment. No human
can afford to live on his or her own; the individual’s existence points to his or her dependence and
interdependence on others, according to Aristotle. Aristotle also said that only beasts or gods are capable
of a solitary life, and humans are neither beasts or nor gods.
The earliest and most coherent philosophical depiction of ethics and politics was introduced by
Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics and Politics. Aristotle himself suggested that the book Nicomachean
Ethics be read ahead of the other because the former was considered preparatory for the Politics, and
neither will make sense unless taken up is this prescribed order. Aristotle was not alone in conceiving the
harmony between ethics and politics. His mentor, Plato, explored the same theme in his book Republic
and so did the late ancient thinkers like Cicero and Seneca, and the modern philosophers such as Jean-
Jacques Rousseau, Baruch Spinoza, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The same philosophical
thought later inspired the radical political theories of Karl Marx.
What does it mean when one says there is a close connection between ethics and politics? Ethics is
taken up in school to help students understand themselves and to guide them how to live their lives well.
A well-lived life is a life fulfilled. Each fulfillment, however, is an outcome not of individual efforts but of
cooperative activities with other human persons. The means to achieve and sustain this cooperation is
the main task of politics. When Aristotle suggested that humans are essentially political, he underscored a
fundamental aspect of human experience: association and cooperation with others. Attaining happiness is
a group effort and is never a private enterprise. Being political is not simply engaging in government work
or assuming public office. It is connecting with others in pursuit of solidarity, an indispensable ingredient
of one’s humanity. The Million People March event was a political exercise because the participants
decided to stand together against corruption in the government. Protest was the theme of the said
assembly but the most political aspect of the gathering was the solidarity behind a common stand.
Solidarity connotes inclusion, participation, and recognition. Inclusion takes place when there is room
for everyone regardless of religion, cultural background, socio-economic status, or educational and
professional attainment. The opposite of solidarity is discrimination or the disqualification of an individual
from exercising his or her rights for failing to meet some imposed criteria. The prohibition against the right
of women to vote in the 1930s is a case in point. Women were prevented from exercising the right of
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suffrage because they were perceived inferior to men, and were, therefore, incapable of genuine political
engagement. This view on women has long been rectified. Nowadays, Filipino women enjoy relatively
inclusive presence in Philippine politics. In fact, the Philippines has consistently maintained high positive
scores in the Global Gender Gap study conducted annually by the World Economic Forum.
Participation is the consequence of inclusion. People are motivated to participate in social

transformation when given to the opportunity. This is driving force behind social entrepreneurship–formula
used by successful poverty-alleviation initiatives, such as Gawad Kalinga, which empower people. These
initiatives help by transforming individuals from passive recipients of charity to active participants of the
enterprise. Gawad Kalinga, commonly known as GK today, is an advocacy organization initially
established to offer socialized housing programs for depressed communities. It has now expanded into a
well-respected institution which currently provides organized care to roughly five million families in various
parts of the country. GK considers its beneficiaries as partners, and continues to practice and sustain this
rationale in all its communities.
As noted in the previous chapter, inclusion and participation are not possible unless recognition exists
in the very first place. A space is inclusive of different people and is conductive to empowerment if each
individual at the outset is recognized worthy of respect and is identified capable of transforming his or her
situation. The shift in semantics, for example, from disabled persons to persons with disability to
differently-abled persons is rather biased toward the disability as if the disability defines the person. The
succeeding terms avoid this bias by placing the emphasis more on the person rather than on his or her
deficiency. In its current form, the reference is enhanced because it suggests the commonality of all
individuals despite the different ranges of abilities due to their handicaps.
While the government plays a significant role in politics, it is, however, wrong to think that all political
tasks belong to the government alone. A political system in which politics is monopolized by the
government is called dictatorial or tyrannical, similar to communist North Korea and the Philippines during
the one-man rule of Ferdinand Marcos. Citizens do not enjoy their full civil and political liberties under a
dictatorship; instead, the government arrogates that a government be taken over by a few individuals
whose only interest is to advance their own agenda. Political theorists call this type of government
aristocracy. Aristocracy emerges when the political institutions of a given society are dysfunctional making
it easy for a few enterprising individuals to use the loopholes in the system in favor of the select few. The
consequence of such control to the socio-political life of the citizens can be as disastrous as that of the
tyrannical rule. History shows that citizens have greater chances of attaining well-being when people are
in charge of their own affairs, when people organize their lives according to their own will. Self-rule or
sovereignty is the ultimate expression of freedom–the very lifeblood of politics.
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WEEK 11: Module 12

Politics and Society
“Ethics and Society”

1. Explain the concept of politics;
2. Determine the relationship of ethics and politics;
3. Examine the political dimension of becoming human; and
4. Assess the importance of citizenship education.
EXPLORE
Ethics and Society
Citizens need a community in which they can be integrated as they pursue their individual as well as
communal well-being. This community is the society, the domain of politics and the center stage of a
citizen’s political life. Therefore, it is important for a given society to foster and secure a way of life that
allows each citizen to experience the freedom of attaining his or her fulfillment whether as an individual or
as a member of a larger community. Democracy, rather than autocracy or tyranny, can better nurture
such kind of a society. The political climate in a given society is as good as the amount of freedom its
citizens enjoy. Freedom is the conditio sine qua non or the condition without which politics is impossible.
German philosopher George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel maintained that one needs to be grafted in a
political community to experience freedom. For Hegel, membership in such community is not an
impediment to freedom but leads to the perfection of freedom. Inclusion in a society entails certain
restrictions, which may be constructed as limitations of one’s freedom. Laws or ethical obligations to the
other members of the community may impose these restrictions. The speed limit enforced along
expressways, for example, is a form of restriction; however, everyone can enjoy greater freedom to travel
because the rule aims to make roads safer. Class schedules also represent a form of restriction. If a cap
on lecture hours is not observed, teachers and students will pass out from fatigue or from sheer boredom.
Hegel’s notion of freedom is different from other theories which consider freedom as the absence of any
form of limitation. For Hegel, however, as long as these limitations are reasonable, freedom is guaranteed
among citizen in a given society.
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At this point, one may ask “How does one become citizen of a society?”
At first glance, this question appears simple. But if one considers the contemporary global context
where mobility, migration, and switching of citizenship have become a norm, this question becomes a
compelling concern. Sen. Grace Poe faced the same dilemma when she ran for presidency inn the 2016
national elections. Her critics were skeptical of her Filipino citizenship after obtaining American citizenship
a few years before the elections. She said she had renounced her U.S citizenship and reclaimed
her Filipino citizenship when she ran for public office. Her critics, however, elevated the matter to the
Supreme Court and argued that her claim to Filipino citizenship does not satisfy the requirements of the
Constitution for aspiring presidents. If a person is not considered a citizen of a given state, then his or her
freedom to do anything, including coting or running for office amounts to practically nothing.
The situation of OFWs, particularly domestic helpers working in Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, or
Singapore, is more complicated than the citizenship status of Sen. Poe. These Filipino workers are
required to surrender their passports upon reporting to their household assignments as a means to keep
their mobility in check and to enforce their subjugation. The employers are aware that OFWs are not
citizens of the country, hence are not subject to any legal rights or privileges. The huge number of cases
of abuse and maltreatment involving OFW in this situation is well documented. Their status as migrant
workers, hence, as non-citizens as no doubt a major ethical problem.
To understand the dynamics between citizenship and society, one needs to explore the definition of a
society as a political organization and as an ethical domain. As a political organization, a society is a
system characterized by formal structures such as institutions, laws and other regulations, shared
processes, and practices; its members possess a constitutionally guaranteed identity. However, viewing
the society merely as a system bound by laws may lead people to overlook the vital ethical issues.
Kutupalong Refugee
Camp in Bangladesh
occupied mostly by
Rohingyas, a Muslim
minority, who have
been denied of
citizenship in Myanmar
from where they have
fled because of
religious persecution
and violence.
This is illustrated by the Rohingya crisis and even by the surge of migrants from Syria across Europe. If
one considers society as a dominion configured for the benefit only of its citizens, then the appropriate
response is to drive away all refugees and migrants seeking sanctuary in another country. There is a
need, therefore, for an alternative view of the society as an ethical domain is to recognize and accept that
all people are bound by a shared humanity despite differences in cultures and ethnicities. This point of
view is beyond the bounds of any legal system but one that lies in a person’s basic sense of ethics. The
notion of the society as an ethical domain also expands our understanding of citizenship into one that has
both national citizenship. Global citizenship, however, is derived from the common human bond. The
United Nation (UN) Declaration of Human Rights is a testament to this fundamental fact. It gives a picture
of a world where each person is family and is, therefore, worthy of respect, care, and recognition. This
basic human impulse have made countries like Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines to be
attentive to the plight of Rohingya refugees. The same, although not without internal struggle, might be
said of Europe’s response to the Syrian migrant crisis. Developing a global mentality, in other words, is
not just a matter of complying with the global standards of science and technology, economics, or
education. It must also induce the adoption of an inclusive attitude to care or the ability to empathize with
other people’s plight. Ethical consciousness cannot be imposed by laws but can be gained through ethical
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education. As pointed out by philosopher Martha Nussbaum, one’s sense of humanity can be taught,
enhanced, and regained through exposure to the humanities like the arts, literature, and philosophy.
These are the very disciplines that comprise what in general may be described as citizenship education.
Ethics, as a distinct study, is also informed by citizenship education as it induces the cultivation of the
students’ creative, imaginative, and critical abilities, the same abilities needed to be fully human and
humane.
The world today is indeed a complex frontier. The human society, in fact, has evolved into an
environment marked by conflicts and various forms of alienation. The task of being political has never
been as urgent as before. Everyone is compelled to be ethically minded and to be more responsive and
reasonable citizens of our localities and of the world.
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ENGAGE
Name:
Answer the following questions concisely.
1. What was your prior understanding of politics? How does it compare with the notion of politics
discussed in the text?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the relationship between ethics and politics based on your own experience or on the
observation of other people? Illustrate your answer by providing a concrete example.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. How would you describe the present state of our society? Give concrete examples to explain your
answer.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you explain Hegel’s concept of freedom as political integration bound with restrictions?
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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the quality or level of your practice of inclusion, participation, and recognition as a citizen with
regard to ethics in politics?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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EXTEND
Front Page
Materials
Front pages of the latest editions of newspapers (print or digital)
Instructions
Form yourselves into small groups. Assign a group moderator. Each group must bring its own
copy of a front page of a newspaper.
Examine the front page for a few minutes and discuss with your groupmates the following:
• Which piece of news is positive or negative? Which of them outweighs the other?
• Are the news stories related to one another?
• Which news story presents an ethical issue?
• What concrete steps can be taken to turn a negative news item into a positive one? Cite
ways to improve the position ones.
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WEEK 12: Module 13

Ethics and Science
“The Relation between Science and Ethics”

1. Explain the positive contributors of science to humanity;
2. Identify the ethical challenges posed by these scientific achievements;
3. Examine the helpful and harmful effects of science;
4. Illustrate why ethics is indispensable in considering the impact of science; and
5. Demonstrate appreciation of the tension between ethics and science.
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EXPLORE
Ross Marklein, PhD, a post-doctoral research fellow at FDA, examines images of stem cell in an FDA
laboratory at the National Institutes of Health campus in Bethesda, Maryland.
Maritess is a young mother of two, gainfully employed in a bank and has been married for almost
a decade. Just before she gave birth to her youngest son, however, Maritess was diagnosed
with a debilitating rare disease. While the cure is available, it can only be obtained by those who
can afford it. Luckily, Maritess has a family with money to spend for her medication. She tried
seeing several doctors in different local hospitals and, at the point, she was advised to seek
treatment abroad. At that time, the phrase “stem cell” was slowly gaining popularity among
patients with sufficient resources for such an expensive therapy. Maritess underwent a stem cell
treatment for her condition.
Stem cell treatment is considered one of the wonders of medical science. The procedure
involves grafting stem cells in the section of a patient’s body where cure is needed. Once
grafted, the stem cells assume life of their own, replacing what was once a malignant body part.
Aside from its curative benefits, stem cell treatment has also been sought by certain people for
aesthetic or anti-aging purposes. In the Philippines, a number of political and entertainment
personalities are known to have availed themselves of these added benefits of stem cell
procedure. However, despite these advantages, the use of stem cell, be it for curative or any
other uses, is not without controversy. For a long time, in fact, certain sectors are skeptical not
so much about the medical utility of stem cell but the ethical implications of its extraction,
preservation, and its eventual utilization. As far as these critics are concerned, the human cost
involved in the whole process should not outweigh the objective of curing an ailment or
enhancing one’s physical body or appearance. If it does, then the stem cell procedure, despite
its many positive consequence, may be construed as a major concern for ethics.
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The Relationship Between Science and Ethics
The contentious relation between science and ethics is part of an old story. The proponents of modern
science maintain that it is an autonomous domain and should, therefore, be free from any external constraints.
Science, they say, can only succeed in its exploration for new forms of knowledge if it remains unhindered and
unburdened by any obligation to abide by any rule or regulation except those it imposes upon itself. They
believe that science should be the sole determinant of its own value. A value-free science, therefore, is not
necessarily a science immune to any value but one that subscribes to no other value but its own. To remain
productive, science, they say, should be unyielding and boundless in its intellectual pursuits. On this account,
ethical principles are not among the first things considered by scientists.
This common tendency among scientists is amply and graphically demonstrated in the classic novel
Frankenstein authored by Mary Shelley. The novel was named after its protagonist, Dr. Victor Frankenstein, a
young scientist who embarked on an ambitious project of replicating the human form by putting together body
parts in his laboratory. Dr. Frankenstein was the perfect figure of a scientist obsessed with playing God. He
wanted to show the world that he too had creative powers and that nothing could stand in the way between
him and his grand designs. No wonder the complete title of the novel read Frankenstein or The Modern
Prometheus. It was an obvious reference to the Greek mythological character Prometheus, the Titan known to
have tested and defied the omnipotent Zeus. Dr. Frankenstein’s goal was to come up with a specimen that
could rival God’s creation. He spared nothing in order to succeed in this undertaking. When the experiment,
however, failed, Dr. Frankenstein ran away, scared and remorseful after realizing what he had done.
“Frankenstein at work in his laboratory” as it appeared on page 7 of Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus,
1922
As he recalled “I beheld the wretch–the miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of
the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some
inarticulate sounds, while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did not her; one hand was
stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and rushed downstairs. I took refuge in the courtyard
belonging to the house which I inhabited, where I remained during the rest of the night, walking up and down in
the greatest agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it were to announce the
approach of the demonical corpse to which I had so miserably given life.”
The fate of Dr. Frankenstein with his failed experiment is a grim reminder of what happens to science when
separated from basic ethical considerations. It was almost the same experience confronted by Julius Robert
Oppenheimer, the American physicist credited for the creation and consequent deployment of the atomic
bomb that leveled Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. As a scientist, Oppenheimer believed in the
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science. He also thought that ethical matters should be left to the government and not to the scientists
themselves. However, after seeing how Hiroshima and Nagasaki were utterly destroyed by the bombs he
himself helped create, Oppenheimer became a global activist campaigning for control of the use of nuclear
bombs. He expressed his remorse by admitting to former U.S. President Harry Truman that he had blood in his
hands.
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WEEK 12: Module 14

Ethics and Science
“Understanding Science”

1. Explain the positive contributors of science to humanity;
2. Identify the ethical challenges posed by these scientific achievements;
3. Examine the helpful and harmful effects of science;
4. Illustrate why ethics is indispensable in considering the impact of science; and
5. Demonstrate appreciation of the tension between ethics and science.
EXPLORE
Understanding Science
This is not to suggest that science, as an intellectual enterprise, can only succeed if it makes
ethical imperatives a primary concern. Scientists are not ethicists nor science a subsidiary discipline
of ethics. It should be emphasized that science and ethics are two different spheres and can only
be effective if they operate as such. The aim is not to fuse the two but to establish a link through
which one can be more sensitive with the other. In this context, it appears that the real cause of
tension is not science itself but a particular attitude engendered by science. Scholars call this
attitude scientism. To paraphrase Mikael Stenmark, author of the book, Scientism: Science, Ethics
and Religion, scientism is a view which grants science the privilege or the only reliable means of
knowing and interacting with reality. Scientism sustains the common modern belief, which pits
science and moral values in poles apart from each other. By putting an unbridgeable gap between
science and ethics, scientism transforms science into an unassailable domain, immune to any
criticism or correction from anyone outside the community of science practitioners. If scientism is
right, then ethics definitely has no place in any scientific enterprise. But scientism is not science and
because they are two different things, there is reason to believe that ethics will be an abiding
consideration in any scientific endeavor. The function of ethics when it forays into the activities of
science is not really to intrude or interfere with its explorations but mainly to underscore the larger
context of humane considerations which even science cannot afford to ignore. Hence, one can find
a scientist like the famous Albert Einstein who devoted himself to science and the ethical
fundamentals that characterize the intellectual commitments of a scientist like himself. This is
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evidently shown in a letter in which Einstein explained his limited participation in the development of
the atomic bomb which destroyed Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Einstein wrote in the said letter: “I was
well aware of the dreadful danger for all mankind, if these experiments would succeed… As long,
however, as nations are ready to abolish war by common action and to solve their conflicts in a
peaceful way on a legal basis, they feel compelled to prepare for war. They feel, moreover,
compelled to prepare the most abominable means, in order not to be left behind in the general
armaments race. Such procedure leads inevitable to war, which, in turn, under today’s conditions,
there is no hope in combating the production of specific weapons or means of destruction. Only
radical abolition of war and of danger of war can help. Toward this goal one should strive; in fact,
nobody should allow himself to be forced into actions contrary to this goal. This is a harsh demand
for anyone who is aware of his social inter-relatedness; but it can be followed.”
Science, therefore, as a field-of human enterprise, cannot renege on its humane commitments.
It is important to remember, both by the doers and users of science, that the instrumental function
of science simply cannot outweigh the fundamental values from which even science itself acquires
its relevance and integrity. Science’s pursuit of new forms of knowledge and new experimental
ventures should be encouraged, but such pursuit is always contingent upon the basic ethical norms
to ensure that humanity’s good is not compromised in the name of progress.
The emphasis on the humane dimension of science as articulated by Einstein is also the same
reason that compels some sectors to be very critical of the issue of stem cell research. It is true that
increased research on stem cell and its utility can lead to a better understanding of its curative
effects. Nonetheless, carrying out such research without regard for ethics also entails
consequences which can undermine the prospective benefits of the medical use of stem cell. Some
of the ailments for which stem cell promises cure include Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and spinal
cord injury besides other major illnesses. The contention against stem cell is not directed to its
therapeutic prospects but to the process by which stem cells are harvested. The extraction of stem
cells involve the destruction of blastocyst, a bundle of 180 to 200 cells, found in the human embryo.
Some sectors believe that the embryo while not yet a fully developed human person is morally
equivalent to a human; hence, destroying the human embryo is tantamount to an outright taking of
an innocent life. Proponents of stem cell research, however, downplay this argument and consider
it as a product of misunderstanding as to how stem cells are obtained. They deny the claim that
stem cells can only be successfully acquired at the cost of human life. Stem cells can be made
available either through cloning or cultivation in fertility clinics. The question concerning the viability
vis-á-vis the ethical quality of stem cell research remains a compelling topic for debate until today.
People are torn between the urgency of finding a cure for a number of serious illnesses which afflict
many and the equally challenging task of preserving the integrity of human life regardless of its
developmental stage. There is no clear indication that this dilemma will be resolved in the near
future. The crucial task for any student, therefore, is to bear in mind that science and ethics, though
distinct from each other, are not conflicting frontiers. Human civilization depends on science for
pushing the boundaries of progress but such progress also has the potential of undermining the
very core of humanity if certain basic values constitutive of the human person are set aside. Both
science and ethics can effectively achieve their ends only if they are employed in tandem. Once
segregated, either science or ethics may falter and humanity itself will be at the losing end.
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ENGAGE
Name:
1. Besides stem cell research, what are the other breakthroughs in the field of medical science that you can
think of?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What ethical issues are inherent in the achievement of the science breakthroughs you cited?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. If you were a scientist, what sort of invention or project would you undertake for the benefit of humankind?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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4. What are the values that must be emphasized given humanity’s great dependence on science today?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What specific difficult human situation (war, poverty, malnutrition, etc.) can you cite? How can both science
and ethics work hand-in-hand to resolve this predicament?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
EXTEND
Science and Sensibility
Instructions
Form yourselves into groups of at least five members. Read on stem cell research/therapy
and render a digital diagram. Make the diagram as creative and as descriptive as possible. List
the pros and cons of stem cell research/therapy. Present your work to the class and share your
reflection on the ethical issues surrounding stem cell research/therapy.
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WEEK 13: Module 15

Ethics and Economy
“The Ethical Aspect of Economy”

1. Explain that economics is more than just a profit-making activity;
2. Identify the ethical implications of economic policies and practices;
3. Discuss how labor and economy are not ethically neutral contexts;
4. Examine the role of the state in promoting a healthy ethical climate alongside economic
growth; and
5. Develop awareness of alienation as an ethical fact.
EXPLORE
Tina is a cashier in one of the big malls in the country. Over the last five years, she has worked as
a crew in a fast food restaurant, a sales-lady in a department store, a promotional girl of a cigarette
brand, and a team member in an event-organizing outfit. Her stint as cashier is but one of the many
job experiences listed in her résumé. Despite her extensive experience, Tina cannot find a
permanent work due to the prevailing practice of “endo” by most companies in the Philippines.
Endo is a term familiar to thousands of job seekers in the country. It is an abbreviated form of he
phrase “end of contract” which happens when a contractual employee finishes her employment
term which is usually five months. Reports place the number of Filipino workers who are employed
without regular position at over a million. This represents roughly 29.9 percent of around 4.472
million members of the Filipino workforce. The Labor Code of the Philippines mandates that an
individual may be considered a regular employee once he or she is able to complete the
mandatory probationary period of six months.
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Labor Day protesters calling for the end of contractualization
To avoid being bound by this provision, most companies hire employees on contractual basis but
terminate them before they reach sixth month. The terminated employees are then replaced by another
batch of job hunters who are also poised to suffer the same fate. Different sectors, however, think
differently on the matter of endo. Some say the total ban on endo is an imperative of social justice and,
therefore, has to be pursued. To do so, however, according to the business owners and human source
managers, is tantamount to economic suicide as the regularization of the entire labor force will surely
lead to a massive number of companies closing down given the huge expense that such a move
entails. It is rather ironic, so they claim, that the measure envisioned to fix the labor problem in the
country can also be the very same thing that will cause hundreds of thousands to lose their jobs if the
critics of endo will have their way.
In between these two opposing opinions–the anti-endo and the pro-endo–there are maintaining some
form of legal arrangement that could protect the workers’ basic labor rights while preserving
businesses’ interest to keep them afloat. This might be the inspiration behind Order No. 174 of the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) which seeks to prohibit companies from engaging in
blatant unfair labor contracting but allows them nonetheless to continue employing people on a
contractual basis. Militant groups, however, reject this initiative from DOLE. They consider it as a
watered-down version of the promises made by President Duterte during the campaign. Businessmen,
on the other hand, are of the opinion that the DOLE’s order is a welcome move to evenly balance what
is due to either employees. Despite all these, there remains a strand of public opinion which looks at
endo as yet another item of a long list of campaign promises left unfulfilled; that despite the fierce
rhetorics against contractualization and other unfair labor practices, endo as an employment policy
continues to be enforced by corporate organizations all over the country.
The Ethical Aspect of Economy
Contractualization of labor, which results in the so-called endo, is part of the larger picture introduced
by a capitalist economy. As early as 19th century, an intellectual by the name of Karl Marx had already
pointed out the dehumanizing effect of capitalism. The aggressive rise of capital inflow ushered in the age
of industrialization which made the manufacturing of goods significantly efficient. The installation of
machines in factories as well as the introduction of assembly line-style of production contributed to the
faster and more efficient labor process.
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Workers on the first moving assembly line put together magnetos and flywheels for 1913 Ford autos
(Highland Park, Michigan).
Through these modern technologies, what used to be done manually by a hundred people can now be
easily handled by a single machine for a much shorter time, at a much cheaper cost, and a lot greater in
output volume. The negative consequence, however, of this new manufacturing technique was the further
devaluation of human work and the displacement of the laborer from the whole production scheme. Marx
summed up these disheartening human costs in one word: alienation. Combining what he learned from
earlier thinkers such as Hegel, Marx inherited the theory of dialectics which suggests that the contact of
one thing (thesis) with another different entity (antithesis) will eventually produce a new reality (synthesis),
the combination being different from the two previous forms. From Feuerbach, he learned that the human
person becomes the individual that one wants as a result of interaction with the environment which
includes the socio-political and economic aspects. As Marx explained in “Alienated Labor,” an essay in
the book Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, the human person is a species-being because
he or she possesses the ability to reproduce or objectify himself or herself through the product of labor.
The shoemaker reproduces himself or herself with shoes, the dressmaker with dresses, and the painter
with works of art. With the appearance of capital introduced by modern economy, the results of these
efforts, which were traditionally considered as creative outputs or self-expressions of their makers were
reduced to the level of commodity. Simply stated, the output becomes an item whose primary determinant
is no longer its intrinsic value but the value that it acquires from the economic practice of selling and
buying. Marx did not stop here. In his reading, the human creative activity, his species-being, was not the
only casualty of the modern capitalist economy. The new system, said Marx, detached a person from
both nature and his or her fellow human beings. Everything became a mere means of alienated labor.
This idea suggests that labor has become a sheer mechanical process and the laborer a dispensable cog
of the machine: the laborer can no longer claim what he or she is doing as his or hers. A worker tasked
with checking computer chips before they are installed in cars or smart phones may last a decade doing
this routine, but at the end of the day, he or she knows that his or her job does not speak at all of who he
or she is. Inside the factory, a worker hardly feels his or her humanity. Labor, the kind introduced by
capitalism, has derived workers of such significant experience. One wishes that labor becomes genuinely
liberative so that it is possible for the worker, in the words of Marx, to “become accomplished in any
branch he wishes…and thus makes it possible…to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in
the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner, just as I have a mind,
without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic.”
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WEEK 13: Module 16

Ethics and Economy
“Capitalism and Commodification”

1. Explain that economics is more than just a profit-making activity;
2. Identify the ethical implications of economic policies and practices;
3. Discuss how labor and economy are not ethically neutral contexts;
4. Examine the role of the state in promoting a healthy ethical climate alongside economic
growth; and
5. Develop awareness of alienation as an ethical fact.
EXPLORE
Capitalism as an economic system remains in place up to this day, although reference to it

has evolved significantly. Rather than using the old term capitalisms, what is read more often
in books and other literatures are terms such as global market, market economy, world
market, or globalization to name a few. Regardless of the description, however, the impact of
the system remains the same anywhere. One word than can sum up this consequence of
capitalism is commodification. As the term suggests, commodification happens when
everything becomes a commodity, that is, something that can be purchased and consumed.
When everything becomes a merchandise and when the value of things depends on market
price, commodification is further aggravated. One obvious testament of this state of affairs is
the continuous mushrooming of giant shopping malls in various urban centers. Malls are the
hallowed halls of consumerist culture. People flock to the malls in order to eat, to bond with
friends, to celebrate an anniversary, to do errands, to review for an exam, to experience first
date, to attend a Mass, etc. One cannot run out of examples of activities and experiences
available for a price at any mall. The sad part of the story, however, is that the whole situation
is a trap and most people are not aware they are already caught inside it.
Commodification does not only suggest an increased purchasing power of those who have
money to spend. What makes it especially worrisome is its ability to make money appear as
the main and only standard of value. In a world where money is the primary scale with which
the worth of anything is measured, it is not surprising if consumption becomes the
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predominant interest of practically everyone. The main ethical issue is not so much the act of
spending but the view that makes the fulfillment of basic human desire dependent on what can
be bought.
This reality operates even in the Philippines’ on educational system. Today, more and more
students are brainwashed by the prevailing consumerist culture that the only kind of education
worthy of pursuing is the one that will secure for them better pay when they finish college.
Rather than look at education as a basic need geared towards the fulfillment of their human
potentials, these students only see it as a passport to a future job which promises a hefty
salary. This prevalent tendency is further exacerbated by the aggressive campaign to make
academic curricula more complaint to the corporate needs of business organizations. Because
they have controlled the labor market, business think they have the right to dictate on schools
what and how to teach their students. They do not consider the academe as an autonomous
institution committed to the promotion of human civilization in all its vital aspects. Schools for
them are but training facilities, and education but a process of skills development. It appears
then that the primary aspiration of the average student these days when he or she enrolls in
college is to be skilled for the company that will employ him or her. The thought of becoming
fully human, cultures and intelligent, is secondary only to the prospects of getting the rewards
of a high-paying job.
At this point, one might ask if having more is indeed the only way to become a better
human person. One wonders if one can really call it “progress” when people migrate to
another place for a job they cannot find at home, when students see earning dollars as their
highest priority, when salary rather than character becomes the parameter of what fulfills our
humanity. There is no shame in labor and there is definitely pleasure in taking home a huge
pay, but something is tragically wrong in the picture when the only takeaway of the student
from school is the desire to earn more when he or she should be striving to learn more for a
better way to develop himself or herself as a total human person.
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ENGAGE
Name:
1. How do you characterize the relation between ethics and economy? What is the primary basis of such
relation?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you know any person (family member, relative, or friend) who works as a contractual employee?
Interview him or her and write briefly his or her experience as a contractual employee.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the alienation that Karl Marx refers to? Cite instances or situations that illustrate your understanding
of this concept.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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4. What are some concrete example of the effects of commodification that you see around you?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What aspects of Jessie J’s song “Price Tag” can you relate to the these of commodification and alienation?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
EXTEND
For Sale
Instructions
View the video and study the lyrics of Jessie J’s Price Tag. Then create your own version of
the video featuring socio-economic realities which manifest the negative consequences of
obsessive profit-making.
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WEEK 14: Module 17

Ethics and the Digital Age
“Different Form of Cyber Malpractices”

1. Examine the digital sphere as an emerging context of a new technology and human
interaction;
2. Determine the implications of the digital sphere for the study of ethics;
3. Explain cyberbullying as one of the consequences of the evolution of digital technology;
4. Identify available interventions to combat cyberbullying; and
5. Explore responsible use of digital technology.
EXPLORE
Cyberbullying is a term that has just become popular because the technology that makes this
phenomenon possible became only available in recent years. What makes cyberbullying interesting is the
fact that it is a technology-dependent behavior. This social fact proves that in this so-called digital age,
technology has ceased to be a plain tool of communication or production; it has also transformed itself into
a context of human interaction, or in the case of cyberbullying a dysfunctional interaction. The kind of
connectivity promised by the social media apparently does not always result in people getting apparently
does not always result in people getting close together. In some cases, like those in which cyberbullying is
a central issue, social media can turn into a zone where innocent, defenseless individuals became easy
preys of those who derive aberrant and erroneous pleasure from humiliating or smearing the character of
others.
Young woman crying

as she suffers from
cyber mobbing and
cyberbullying
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A 2016 survey by the non-profit research outfit Stairway Foundation, Inc. found that 80 percent of Filipino
teenagers, with ages ranging from 13 to 16, have become victims of cyberbullying. Sixty percent of
adolescents within the age range of 7 to 12 have also been cyberbullied, the survey reported.
Cyberbullying assumes many forms. The respondents expressed how they experienced humiliation online
through threats; unauthorized editing of their photos; publication of their private conversations; or
impersonation through fake profiles or accounts. The survey also revealed that 3 out of 10 students
suffered humiliation through photo editing; 2 out of 10 got threatened or embarrassed; 1 out of 10
experienced bullying by having their secret conversations leaked to the public; and 2 out of 10 were
impersonated or had experienced getting excluded through fake accounts. One thousand two hundred
sixty-eight school children aged 7 to 12, and 1,143 teenagers aged 13 to 16 took part in the survey. It was
carried out in the National Capital Region; Silang, Cavite; Zamboanga Sibugay; Bayawan City, and
Bacolod City, Negros; Cebu City; and Tuy, Batangas. This survey research conducted by Stairway
Foundation, Inc. is validated by media reports on rising incidents of depression or in extreme cases,
suicide, among teenagers who have been at the receiving end of cyberbullying.
Different Forms of Cyberbullying Malpractices
As stated earlier, cyberbullying comes in many forms. Experts generally consider five dominant
types of cyberbullying. The first of these is harassment. A person who sends malicious messages or threats to
another person and does this repeatedly is guilty of harassment. Cyberstalking is an example of harassment
especially when offensive or rude messages are continuously employed. The second type of cyberbullying is
flaming. It is almost similar to harassment except that in flaming, mutual hostility is displayed and the exchange
is escalated as shown in the heated trade of harsh emails, texts, or even insulting images. The third type is
exclusion which happens when a person is ejected from a community or chat group and has become a target
of demeaning messages even after he or she is excluded. The fourth type is outing. A person is considered by
experts as a victim of outing when very private matters about him or her are leaked online, whether in the form
of a photo, a video, or a mere posted data. The varieties of scandals circulated via social media are graphic
examples of outing. The fifth type of cyberbullying is called masquerading. As the word indicates,
masquerading takes place when a cyber bully assumes a fake identity in order to send malicious messages to
his or her target. Politicians and showbiz personalities, being public figures, are usually the common victims of
masquerading.
Malpractices in the cyberspace, however, are not restricted to cyberbullying alone. Other malpractices
include intellectual property theft, piracy, ripping, digital predation, digital identity theft, phishing, and
misinformation. The most common example of intellectual property theft is plagiarism. A person commits
plagiarism when he or she takes a digital material, oftentimes a narrative material, and passes it off as his or
hers although he or she is not its author. Plagiarism does not distinguish whether the lifted material is a line, a
sentence, a paragraph, a whole page, or an entire chapter. While the length of what is taken matters in
determining the seriousness of a person’s culpability, it does not at all change the complexion of plagiarism as
a violation of the law. It should be emphasized, however, that digital sphere is not the sole domain where
plagiarism can be committed. Not all books, essays, or poems after all are already in digital format. The current
tendency to associate plagiarism with the online environment is but a consequence of the constant habit
among young millennials to source their reading materials digitally. Otherwise, a person who claims authorship
of a fragment of a printed book is as guilty of plagiarism as the next guy who does the same using an e-book.
Plagiarism should be distinguished from copyright infringement, another form of intellectual property theft.
Copyright infringement also concerns authorship but, unlike plagiarism, the point of contention is not
someone’s malicious intent to misrepresent authorship but the failure of an individual to acquire permission to
use a copyrighted material. If a person takes a paragraph from a magazine piece and uses it as if it is his or
her own work, that is plagiarism. If another person, however, uses the same piece as a featured reading in the
book he or she is writing without the author’s or the copyright owner’s explicit approval, then he or she can be
charged with copyright violation. Related to this issue of copyright is yet another king of intellectual property
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theft: piracy. In piracy, the person involved does not the only stop at acquiring a digital material illegally, he
also engages in its unauthorized distribution. Music and movies are the usual items targeted for piracy. The
pirated material is then circulated by having it recorded in various memory devices or making it available
online. While some individuals engage in the distribution of a pirated material, others are content in making the
copyrighted material accessible to the public. Copyrighted matters online are usually off limits unless a person
pays a certain fee. Through ripping, however, the process which allows a hacker to remove a sound or movie
file from its protective environment, a particular digital material becomes readily available to the public free of
charge.
Some cyber malpractices go beyond duplication or dissemination of digital material. A generic term
descriptive of this kind of cyber offenses is digital predation. People who engage in digital predation prey on
certain individuals for soliciting either financial or sexual favors or for just the sheer pleasure of doing so. The
practice of assuming a false digital identity in order to stalk or harass other netizens is an example of this
highly offensive behavior. Along with digital predation, one may include phishing and misinformation among the
prevalent types of cyber malpractices. Phishing involves the use of deception to lure an individual to reveal
vital or highly confidential data about himself or herself such as credit card number, bank details, or social
security number using a misleading email or by enticing the potential victim to register on a bogus web page or
clicking on a phony link. Misinformation, on the other hand, is best illustrated by the proliferation of fake news.
People who engage in this activity will go as far as setting up a web page or producing a streaming video for
the cause of spreading lies online.
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WEEK 15: Module 18

Ethics and the Digital Age
“Legal Interventions”

1. Examine the digital sphere as an emerging context of a new technology and human
interaction;
2. Determine the implications of the digital sphere for the study of ethics;
3. Explain cyberbullying as one of the consequences of the evolution of digital technology;
4. Identify available interventions to combat cyberbullying; and
5. Explore responsible use of digital technology.
EXPLORE
Legal Interventions
With the variety of and the danger posed by the given cyber malpractices, the government
instituted Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, also known as Republic Act 10175. The said
legislation was envisioned to address cyber offenses such as illegal access or hacking, data
interference, device misuse, cybersquatting, and other computer-related offenses such as computer
fraud, cybersex, and child pornography. R.A. 10175 is a major piece of legislation dedicated to
cybercrimes. It is a manifestation of the government’s commitment “to attain free, easy, intelligible
access to exchange and/or delivery of information; and the need to protect and safeguard the
integrity of computer, computer and communications systems, networks, and databases, and the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and data stored therein, from all forms of
misuse, abuse, and illegal access by making punishable under the law such conduct or conducts.”
R.A. 10175 improves on its predecessor law, the Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 or R.A. 8792
which deals mainly with “any kind of electronic data message and electronic document used in the
context of commercial and non-commercial activities to include domestic and international dealings,
transactions, arrangements, agreements, contracts and exchanges and storage of information.” In
other words, the Cybercrime Prevention Act was introduced as an intervention for emerging cyber
offenses which were not covered by the earlier law, the Electronic Commerce Act.
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More recently, a new bill was proposed at the Congress directed mainly to cyberbullying, labeled
as the Anti-Cyberbullying Act of 2015 or House Bill 5718. In the context of the said prospective law,
cyberbullying is defined as “acts of cruelty committed using the Internet or any form of electronic
media or technology that has the effect of stripping one’s dignity or causing reasonable fear or
physical or emotional harm.” The bill likewise identifies specific acts of bullying: “a) repeatedly
sending offensive, rude and insulting message; b) distributing derogatory information about the
victim; c) posting or sending offensive photos of the victim, whether these are digitally altered or not,
or were taken with or without consent, with the intention to humiliate and embarrass the victim; d)
breaking into an email, social networking or any electronic account and using the victim’s virtual
identity to send, upload or distribute embarrassing materials to or about others; e) sharing the
victim’s personal information or any embarrassing information, tricking the victim into revealing
personal or embarrassing information and sharing it to others; and f) repeatedly sending messages
that include threats of harm or engaging in online activities that cause fear on the victim’s safety.”
The enactment of these legislative interventions indicates the seriousness and the pervasive
nature of the illegal activities in the digital world. It is, therefore, not helpful to think of the cyber
space as a morally neutral domain. Recent incidents of cybercrimes affecting individuals and
communities have shown why there should be stronger and clearer ethical and legal norms
governing the conduct of human interaction and other activities in the digital sphere. The
preceeding discussion clearly underscores the relevant role of government laws in nurturing and
sustaining a healthy ethical climate online. While fear of penalty should not be the main motivation
for acting responsibility, laws enacted for the digital sphere send out an important message that
cybercrime will not go unpunished, and that the security of the online public is a to priority of the
government. At the heart of this intricate digital network is the reality of human persons acting and
interacting with one another. For as long there is human presence, within or outside the
cyberspace, ethics will remain a compelling issue to reckon with.
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ENGAGE
Name:
1. Are you a social media user? What are the usual ethical problems that you encounter as a social media
account owner?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What are other examples of cyber malpractice aside from those identified in this chapter?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Are there enough cybercrime laws to ensure a safe and reliable use of the digital domain? Why or why not?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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4. Aside from legislating relevant laws and strictly enforcing the existing ones, what are the other ways by
which the ethical use of digital technology can be assured?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Are you amenable to internet censorship? Why or why not?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
EXTEND
Doing My Share
Instructions
In triads, produce a digital poster or advertisement against cyberbullying. You may use
photos, graphics, or videos for your anti-cyberbullying campaign material. Post it on Facebook
and document the comments it will generate.
Then, form yourselves into groups composed of at least three triads (for a total of nine
members). Share with your groupmates your experiences and insights gained in making your
campaign ads. Be guided by the following questions:
• How would you describe the whole process of creating the ad?
• H ow does your material communicate advocacy against cyberbullying?
• What is the main inspiration behind the campaign material?
• Are there comments generated by the campaign material you posted on Facebook?
What are these comments?
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 16: Module 19

Global Ethics
“Common Humanity”

1. Illustrate the possibility of an ethical system that transcends the boundaries of color, race,
religion, or gender;
2. Articulate the need for an ethical perspective that is attuned to the current highly globalized
social, political, and cultural environments;
3. Discuss common humanity as the fundamental basis of global ethics; and
4. Develop and apply narrative imagination.
EXPLORE
Immediately after the terrorists’ bombing of the twin towers of the World Trade Center on September 11,
2001, popularly know as 9/11, a French national daily Le Monde put up a front page with a poignant and
sympathetic message: “We Are All Americans.” Such declaration was symbolic of the sentiments shared
by the rest of the world in the aftermath of that tragic event. Nearly 3,000 people were killed when Islamic
extremists plunged two commercial planes right through the skyscrapers, setting fire, and eventually
reducing the towers into a heap of melted steel.
In the years that followed, the world would witness many more atrocities perpetuated by those who
committed themselves to sowing the seeds of terror in various parts of the world. Key cities such as
Madrid, Boston, London, Brussels, and Paris are no longer safe havens they used to be, as extremism
continues to spread far and wide across the globe. There is a need, therefore, for a new ethical
consciousness that can look beyond the borders of ethic concerns and can view the plight of other nations
as a condition shared by the same humanity.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
World Trade Center towers in

Manhattan, New York City during the
September 11 terrorist attacks.
The collapsed section of the Pentagon

complex
This emergent situation requires a new understanding of citizenship in which kinship is no longer based
on restricted nationalist affinities but on shared, dynamic human identity. A rather timely demonstration
of this consciousness happened when some European countries opened doors to hundreds of
thousands of refugees fleeing war-stricken countries like Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq. According to the
United Nations High Commissioner for refugees (UNHCR), roughly a million people fled to Europe in
2015. Around 972,500 of these people traveled through the Mediterranean Sea and an estimated 34,000
crossed Bulgaria and Greece by land. As per the UNHCR’s estimates, one out of two people who
crossed the Mediterranean was a Syrian. Afghans accounted for 20 percent of these refugees and Iraqis
around seven percent of these refugees crossed the borders on foot and by boat. A number of them died
in transit and some of those who managed to reach Europe were either reverted or re-routed to other
unfriendly territories. A photo of a child washed up in a Turkish beach served as a grim reminder for
Europe and for the rest of the world of the extremely perilous plight of these refugees. While there were
countries which stuck to their hard-line rejection of the migrants, there were those-like Germany, France,
and Britain–who extended their hands and opened doors to the helpless refugees. Rather than seeing
refugees as intruders or unwelcomed strangers, they choose to recognize their humanity and look at
migrants as fellow human beings worthy of genuine recognition. This gesture once more testifies to the
urgency of appreciating global ethics. It is a call for everyone to rethink the reality of becoming human
and to find a norm for an ethics inclusive of all.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
Alan Kurdi’s lifeless body on a beach
Common Humanity
The idea of global ethics is premised on the universal acknowledgement that all human persons,
regardless of their cultural, religious, economic, or political backgrounds, are sharers of the same human bond.
This important insight, however, is often taken for granted given the influence of modern ethical culture, which
tends to prioritize the value of the individual more than his or her connection with the wider human community.
This sense of oneness may be derived from the recognition of the universality of the human desire to flourish
and be fulfilled. Human flourishing is an individual project whose enactment and fulfillment can only be
achieved within a community where sharing and cooperation are practiced. Becoming human is not a stand-
alone enterprise. The result of the project is always individual but the undertaking itself requires participative
efforts and the recognition of shared goods. The individual becomes the person that he or she wants because
of the presence of others who can affirm, challenge, motivate, or even temper one’s individuality. In this
aspect, one can truly appreciate the value of moral education blended with an exposure to the narratives.
Narratives are important in the sense that they illustrate and instruct the social nature of human flourishing.
Exposure to and healthy appreciation of the narratives are important components of an education that should
not be ignored if students of the present generation want to become the citizens of the world that awaits them.
To be a citizen in the global age requires more than just an affirmation of one’s ethnic origins. It also means
enhancing one’s consciousness of the commonality underlying both national and personal identities, and
improving one’s capabilities as a member of the larger human community within which human flourishing is
possible. Human flourishing is always socially configured. The human person is able to strive for good and
participate in the conduct of certain practices only when he or she inserts himself or herself in a community
whose end he or she shares.
The role of narratives in the way one interacts with others is strongly emphasized by American philosopher
Martha Nussbaum. In her book Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities, Nussbaum argues for
the vital presence of the humanities in the academe. In her account, narratives allow students to nurture an
aptitude she calls narrative imagination. For Nussbaum, narrative imagination is “the ability to think what it
might be like to be in the shoes of a person different from oneself, to be an intelligent reader of that person’s
story, and to understand the emotions and wishes and desires that someone so placed might have. The
cultivation of sympathy has been a key part of the best modern ideas of democratic education, in both Western
and non-Western nations. Much of this cultivation must take place in the family, but schools, and eve colleges
and universities, also play an important role.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
If these academic institutions are to play it well, they must give the humanities and the arts are a central role
in the curriculum “to cultivate a participatory type of education that activates and refines the capacity to see the
world through another person’s eyes.”
Narratives are important in the exercise of moral agency because they help clarify a person’s identity in a
society as well as the unity of individual lives. They are also instructive of the social role one has to play and
the responsibility one has to assume in a particular community in their literary structure, narratives provide the
ethical and social framework that enables one to do things and to be someone. The good that one pursues
cannot be divorced from the pursuit of the common good, which stands to benefit all. Ethical action, therefore,
is both an individual and cooperative undertaking and is always rooted in one’s membership in a social group.
Education for the acquisition of professional skills is useful but without the social and political context for ethical
action, such education is also bound to end nowhere. The academe is tasked to expose students to the ethical
framework of their career practices through the humanistic disciplines, particularly the study of narratives.
Narratives provide students keener appreciation of their social, political, and cultural conditions and allow them
to imagine the possibility of pushing boundaries in their search for individual and common flourishing.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
WEEK 17: Module 20

Global Ethics
“Narrative and Citizenship Education”

1. Illustrate the possibility of an ethical system that transcends the boundaries of color, race,
religion, or gender;
2. Articulate the need for an ethical perspective that is attuned to the current highly globalized
social, political, and cultural environments;
3. Discuss common humanity as the fundamental basis of global ethics; and
4. Develop and apply narrative imagination.
EXPLORE
It becomes clear from the preceding discussion that citizenship in the global, humanistic context may not be
understood purely in ethic terms. Citizenship is also an ethical concept. As suggested by Prof. Randy David of
the University of the Philippines, “citizenship is an understanding that one’s destiny is inextricably linked to the
destiny of one’s society that gives birth in turn to a belief in social hope… Citizenship is a moral practice that
people realize in the collective sphere in their lives.” Besides new technologies, different economic and political
systems, and diverse cultural expressions, globalization also yields a much larger context where citizenship
may be exercised. A humanistic and well-integrated type of education must be promoted in order to help
students see the importance and demands of this emerging sphere of ethical engagement. This humanistic
type of education, however, is becoming more and more difficult to achieve in a culture which crowns individual
success at the expense of the achievement of the essential common good. Nonetheless, an education which
immerses students in the narratives may help form the global Filipino. The skills along which qualify a Filipino
in the labor/job market cannot make the Filipino global because if he or she relies only on them, one ends up
as an instrument of the same system which gives little regard to humanity.
One is not required to travel to places, to migrate to another country, or to find employment abroad to
qualify as a global Filipino. In the ethical context, the Filipino can become global when he or she is empowered
as an ethical agent. In this equation, global does not necessarily mean the opposite of local but its extension.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
The ability to think narratively, to show sympathy for and with others, or to imagine oneself in the shoes of a
suffering fellow begins within the immediate community of an individual. The local and global ethical domains
only vary in external variables but the basic human connections remain the same from society to society and
from culture to culture. This is the fundamental insight behind the monumental document Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. Crafted on December 10, 1948, the said document affirms among others that. “All human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood;” and that “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and
freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction shall be made on the basis of the political,
jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be
independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.”
Global citizenship is ethical citizenship that one acquires through education on narratives. A student reads
works of fiction, mythologies, epics, and novels not just to be familiar with another culture’s literacy tradition but
to find illustrations of similar human conditions shared by all members of the human community. These
narratives afford basic insights into such universal experiences such universal experiences such as love,
triumph, loss, and friendship, among others which could help reader see himself or herself as distinct but not
isolated from others. Read in this manner, the narratives become the textual link between the local and the
global, the past and the present, the individual and the collective. The challenge, particularly for the academe,
is to secure a place for humanistic education in its curricula so a to make students globally competitive and at
the same time ethically sensitive.
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MODULE IN ETHICS
ENGAGE
Name:
1. What is citizenship? How does its relate with ethics?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What is your basic idea of globalization? How do you relate it with the notion of global ethics?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What kinds of narrative are you familiar with? Are these narratives helpful in nurturing your competency in
narrative imagination?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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MODULE IN ETHICS
4. What is your understanding of humanistic education?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What are your insights about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Are the principles stated in this
document observed in the Philippines?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
EXTEND
A Story to Tell
Instructions
Look for news stories, local or foreign, or past or current, which illustrate any of the provisions
of the UN Universal Declaration Human Rights: Then, in groups of at least five members,
discuss among yourselves the stories you have researched. Be guided by the following
questions:
• What story did you find? Which provision of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the story
related to?
• What aspect of this story draws your interest?
• How does this story help you appreciate our common humanity?
Be ready to share your answers/insights with the class.
107

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UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

Logic and Ethics

“THE ETHICAL ASPECT OF ECONOMY”.................................................................................................................. 86

WEEK 1. Class Orientation and Course Introduction

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:

Directions: List down some rules in basketball.

Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with conduct

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

A. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral

C. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or

D. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

E. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in

F. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.

If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special

Check Your Understanding

Directions: Identify each item if it belongs to MORAL standards or NON-MORAL

MORAL REASONS NON-MORAL REASONS

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:

Directions: List down some rules in basketball.

Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy concerned with conduct

MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

A. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral

C. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or

D. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

E. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in

F. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.

If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special

Check Your Understanding

Directions: Identify each item if it belongs to MORAL standards or NON-MORAL

MORAL REASONS NON-MORAL REASONS

DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:

What is a moral dilemma?

The English Oxford Dictionary defines moral dilemma as a situation in which a

defense may be rendered unlawful if a man in self-defense shows unnecessary

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

A personal/individual dilemma is an extremely difficult situation for someone to

An organizational dilemma is a problem associated with the way in which a

Finding a satisfactory system of roles and relationships is an ongoing, universal

Important Elements in Moral Decision-Making

• The act itself must be morally good or at least indifferent.

Steps in Solving a Moral Dilemma

Making moral decisions is a rational, step-by-step process that requires the

Corrupt Politician Helping the Poor:______________

Directions: Determine if the statement is TRUE or FALSE. Write your answer on

__________1. Moral dilemma involves conflicting judgments.

__________3. It is alright to kill as long as it is self-defense.

__________5. Moral dilemma is also double effect.

__________8. The act of self-defense may have double effect.