Direct and Indirect Speech

We may report the words of a speaker in two ways:

i. We may quote his actual words. This is called Direct Speech.
ii. We may report what he said without quoting his exact words. This is called Indirect Speech.
Example:
Direct: He said, “It was raining.”
Indirect: He said that it had been raining.
Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect:
(i). Change of Pronouns:
i. All the first person pronouns of the reported speech change according to the subject of the
reporting speech.
Example: Direct: He says, “I am a good student.”
Indirect: He says that he is a good student.
ii. All the second person pronouns of the reported speech change according to the object of the
reporting speech.
Example: Direct: He says to me, “You are a lazy boy.”
Indirect: He tells me that I am a lazy boy.
iii. The third person pronouns of the reported speech do not change.
Example: Direct: He says, “It is a good house.”
Indirect: He says that it is a good house.
(ii). Change of certain words:
Words expressing nearness in time or place are generally changed into words expressing
distance.
Like: now -- becomes -- then
here -- becomes -- there
ago -- becomes -- before
thus -- becomes -- so
today -- becomes -- that day
tomorrow -- becomes -- the next day
yesterday -- becomes -- the day before
last night -- becomes -- the night before.
Example: Direct: He says, “I am glad to be here this evening.”
Indirect: He says that he is glad to be there that evening.
(iii). Change in Tense:
If the reporting verb is in Present Tense or Future Tense, the tenses of the Direct Speech do not
change.
Example: Direct: He says, “I am unwell.”
Indirect: He says that he is unwell.
Direct: He will say, “I have passed the examination.”
Indirect: He will say that he has passed the examination.
When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, then the Tense of the reported speech changes
according to the following rules:
Present Indefinite becomes Past Indefinite.
Example: Direct: He said, “I write a story.”
Indirect: He said that he wrote a story.
Present Continuous becomes Past Continuous.
Example: Direct: He said, “My master is writing letters.”
Indirect: He said that his master was writing letters.
Present Perfect becomes Past Perfect.
Example: Direct: He said, “The horse has died in the night.”
Indirect: He said that the horse had died in the night.
Present Perfect Continuous becomes Past Perfect Continuous.
Example: Direct: They said, “It has been raining since morning.”
Indirect: They said that it had been raining since morning.
Past Indefinite becomes Past Perfect.
Example: Direct: She said, “Ali told a lie.”
Indirect: She said that Ali had told a lie.
Past Continuous becomes Past Perfect Continuous.
Example: Direct: Ahmed said, “I was singing a song.”
Indirect: Ahmed said that he had been singing a song.
Will becomes Would.
Example: Direct: He said, “Asad will do this work.”
Indirect: He said that Asad would do that work.
Shall becomes Should.
Example: Direct: You said, “I shall give you my pen.”
Indirect: You said that you would give me your pen.
The tense may not change if it is a universal truth.
Example: Direct: The teacher said, “God is one.”
Indirect: The teacher said that God is one.

Interrogative Sentences
If the reported speech begins with Wh words(When, Where, Whom, Whose, Who, Why, What,
Which and How), then the changes will be according to these rules:
i. Said to in reporting speech changes with Asked or Inquired.
ii. Commas are removed & the words that or to are not written in place of commas.
iii. Wh words remain same in the indirect statement.
iv. After Wh words, the question form changes into a simple statement & sign of interrogation is
replaced with full stop in the indirect statement.
Example: Direct: He said to me, “What are you writing?”
Indirect: He asked me what I was writing.
If the reported speech starts with Helping Verb, then the commas are replaced with If or
Whether.
Example: Direct: He said to me, “Are you busy?”
Indirect: He asked me if I was busy.
Modal verbs like can and may in the direct speech change with could and might in the indirect
speech.
Example: Direct: I said to him, “Can you help him?”
Indirect: I asked him whether he could help him.
Direct: He said, “May I come in the class?”
 Indirect: He asked if he might come in the class.

Imperative Sentences
Imperative sentences express command, order or request. In these sentences, said to changes
with requested, ordered etc.
Inverted commas are replaced with to in the indirect speech.
Example: Direct: Aslam said to me, “Please help me.”
Indirect: Aslam requested me to help him.
Direct: The Principal said to the peon, “Ring the bell.”
Indirect: The Principal ordered the peon to ring the bell.

Optative Sentences
Optative sentences express pray or wish. In these sentences, said to changes with prayed or
wished. Inverted commas are replaced with that. Sign of exclamation is replaced with full stop.
Example: Direct: My mother said to me, “May you live long!”
Indirect: My mother prayed that I might live long.

Exclamatory Sentences
Exclamatory sentences express the feelings of joy, sorrow or wonder etc. In these sentences,
said changes with exclaimed with joy, sorrow or wonder etc. Inverted commas are replaced with that.
Example: Direct: He said, “Hurrah! I have won the match.”
Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that he had won the match.
Direct: He said, “Alas! My friend has died.”
Indirect: He exclaimed with sorrow that his friend had died.
Direct: They said, “Oh! It is not good.”
Indirect: They exclaimed with wonder that it was not good.

Summary Writing
Summary:
A summary is a brief write up that sums up the whole story or book.

Paragraphs with their Summaries:

Paragraph-I:
For nearly 1400 years Islam, though diverse in sectarian practice and ethnic tradition, has
provided a unifying faith for people stretching from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean and beyond.
Starting in the 1500s, Western ascendancy, which culminated in the colonization, eroded once glorious
Muslim empires and reduced the influence of Islam. After the breakup of the Ottoman Empire
following World War I and the decline of European colonial empires following World War II, Muslim
nations adopted Western idiologies-communism, socialism, secular nationalism, and capitalism. Yet
most Muslims remained poor and powerless. Their governments, secular regimes often backed by the
West, were corrupt and repressive.
Summary:
For almost 1,500 years, Islam has united people globally. Western interference, through
colonization and political ideologies, has not improved Muslims’ lives.
Paragraph-II:
There are times when the night sky glows with bands of color. The bands may begin as cloud
shapes and then spread into a great arc across the entire sky. They may fall in folds like a curtain drawn
across the heavens. The lights usually grow brighter, then suddenly dim. During this time the sky
glows with pale yellow, pink, green, violet, blue, and red. These lights are called the Aurora Borealis.
Some people call them the Northern Lights. Scientists have been watching them for hundreds of years.
They are not quite sure what causes them. In ancient times people were afraid of the Lights. They
imagined that they saw fiery dragons in the sky. Some even concluded that the heavens were on fire.
Summary:
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, are bands of color in the night sky. Ancient people
thought that these lights were dragon on fire, and even modern scientists are not sure what they are.

Modal Verbs
Modal verbs express possibility, ability, permission, advice and obligation in a sentence. Modal
verbs are: Can, Could, May, Might, Should, Ought to, Would, Have to.
Type Modal Examples
Verbs
Ability Can I can swim.
Could I could solve the puzzle.
Permissio Can Can I borrow your umbrella?
n Could Could I open the window?
May May I come in the class?
Advice Should You should try to develop the reading habbit.
Obligation Must I must memorize all of these rules about tenses.
Have to You have to take off your shoes before you get into the mosque.
Ought to You ought to stop smoking.
Possibility May I thought he may be at home.
Might It looks nice but it might be very expensive.
Can It can be very cold here in winter.
Could He wondered whether it could be true.

Phrase, Clause and Sentence

Phrase:
A phrase is a groupe of words which does not give us complete meaning. A phrase does not
include a subject and verb.
Example:
i. In the air.
ii. Along the road.
iii. The long and winding road.

Clause:
Clause is a group of words which forms part of a sentence and contains a subject and predicate.
Example:
i. I eat.
ii. Haroon speaks loudly.
iii. I remember what you said.

Sentence:
A sentence is a group of words that expresses an idea by giving a statement, order, asking
question or exclaiming.
Example:
i. He is a good boy.
ii. Is he a good boy.
iii. What a nice weather!
iv. Do it.

Writing Good Sentences

Here are five simple tips to write good sentences.
(i). Write sentences that have different lengths:
Tyoically English sentences are 15-25 words. Sentences of 10-40 words are the extremes. Your
writing will sound much more professional and mature if you have a variety of sentence lengths. If the
sentences are short then combine a couple of sentences to make a long sentence.
(ii). Start every sentence in a paragraph with a different word:
Your writing will sound much more professional if you pay attention to the first word in each
sentence. No sentence in the same paragraph should start with the same word. Change the order of
sentences if two words are same in a paragraph or make questions or combine the sentences.
(iii). Use Appositives and Adjective phrases to pack information into a sentence:
Appositives are when you have two interchangeable names for one person (example: Ali, my
brother, is a lawyer.). Appositives which are adjective phrases are an easy way to include a lot of
information in a short space. (example: Ali, my youngest and most stylish brother, is a lawyer.).
(iv). Use questions and commands:
Questions and commands are usually short sentences , so they may be helpful to vary the length
and rhythm of your writing. Questions can be used to start a paragraph and introduce the idea that your
paragraph will answer. (example: Do you understand how to write effective sentences now?).
Commands are a great way to conclude your writing and tell your reader what you want them to do.
(example: Be sure to practice these rules in your writing!)
(v). Practice writing every day:
Write a little bit every day. Write assignments and give time to use these rules and revise them.
You can also write conversations or autobiographies etc.

Error-free Writing
Writing is a skill that requires innovative ideas and great command over grammar. But these
are not enough if you do not know how to present your content in the best way.
Here are some tips to present your content in a best possible way:
(i). Always Organize your ideas before you pen them down:
If your ideas are organized then it will help the readers to comprehend/understand and share
your content.
(ii). Analyze your weak points that lead toward making mistakes:
Always analyze the things you might lack while designing the flow of your content.
(iii). Repetition of Keywords:
 You should never use same keywords in the same content repeatively as it leaves bad
impression on your readers.
(iv). Always go for simple & concise sentence making:
Simple sentences keep your reader out from getting confused.
(v). Inculcate the habit of Proofreading after writing:
Proofreading makes you to detect the mistakes and also increases your knowledge.

Combining Sentences
(i). Combining sentences with conjunctions:
Conjunctions usually join two clauses.
Example:
i. Hamza went to the store. Jawad went to the store too.
Hamza and Jawad went to the store.
ii. It was a good idea. It was a dangerous idea.
It was a good but dangerous idea.
(ii). Using the Semicolon:
It is used to combine two sentences that are related to one another in meaning.
Example:
i. The sky is clear. The stars are twinkling.
The sky is clear; the stars are twinkling.
ii. The waves were crashing on the shore. It was a lovely sight.
The waves were crashing on the shore; it was a lovely sight.

Paragraph writing with topic sentence

Paragraph#1:
A good vocabulary is a vital part of an effective communication. A command of many words
will make you a better writer, speaker, listener and reader. In contrast, a poor vocabulary can seriously
slows your reading speed and limits your comprehension. Studies have shown that students with a
strong vocabulary and those who work to improve a limited vocabulary are more succesfull in school.
One research study found that a good vocabulary more than any other factor was common to people
enjoying successful careers.
Topic Sentence: A good vocabulary is a vital part of an effective communication.

Paragraph#2:
Thinking about the 1990s brings back a lot of memories for me about fashion and popular
culture. During the 1990s, I really enjoyed watching Friends on television every Thursday night. I
really wanted Rachel’s haircut—I think every girl wanted Rachel’s haircut back then! Rachel’s haircut
went really well with the Guess Jeans that were so popular in the 1990s. I remember all the
advertisements for Guess and Calvin Klein Jeans that were in each month’s Sassy magazine. I don’t
think Sassy magazine exists anymore, but it was one of the most popular magazines for young women
in the 1990s.
Topic Sentence: Thinking about the 1990s brings back a lot of memories for me about fashion
and popular culture.