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PHY 107C (General Physics) For CEE Major
PHY 107C (General Physics) For CEE Major
Reference Books:
1. Kittel, C . : Introduction to Solid State Physics
2. M. Ali Omar: Elementary Solid State Physics: Principle and Application
3. Beiser, A. : Perspective of Modern Physics
4. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. : Physics (Vol. I and II)
5. Halliday, D, Resnick, R and Walker, J: Fundamentals of Physics
6. Sears, Zemansky and Young: University Physics
7. Puri, S.P. : Fundamentals of Vibrations and Waves
8. Zemansky M W and Dittman R H: Heat and Thermodynamics
1. Structure of Matter
(a) Elementary Solid State Physics: Principle and Application - M. Ali Omar
(b) Introduction to Solid State Physics - Kittel, C .
(c) Perspectives of Modern Physics - Beiser, A.
2. Sound Waves
(a) University Physics – Sears, Zemnaski and Young
(b) Fundamental of Vibrations and Waves – Puri, S.P.
3. Electromagnetism
(a) Physics (Vol. I and II) – Halliday, D. and Resnick, R.
(b) Fundamentals of Physics – Halliday, D, Resnick, R and Walker, J
4. Thermodynamics
(a) Heat and Thermodynamics- Zemansky M W and Dittman R H
(b) Heat and Thermodynamics- Brij Lal S.
Sound Waves: Simple harmonic motion, audible, ultrasonic and infrasonic waves,
propagation and velocity of longitudinal waves in gaseous medium, Doppler effect,
interference and diffraction, beats. (10)
Electromagnetism: Coulomb’s law, electric field, Gauss’s law and its applications, electric
potential and potential energy, dielectrics and Gauss’s Law, magnetic field and field strength,
magnetic forces on charge and current, torque on a current loop, Ampere’s Law, Biot-Savart law
and their applications. (8)
Thermodynamics: First law of thermodynamics, isothermal and adiabatic changes, second law of
thermodynamics, reversible and irreversible processes, Carnot’s cycle, entropy and change of
entropy in reversible and irreversible processes, black body radiation, Planck’s law, Wein’s law
and Rayleigh-Jean’s law. (9)
1
Section 1: Structure of Matter
The atoms and molecules in a solid are attached to one another with strong
attractive forces. The solids may be broadly classified as (i) crystalline solids
and (ii) non-crystalline solids.
Solids
The energy released during the formation of an ordered structure (i.e. crystalline
structure) is higher than that released during the formation of a disordered
structure (i.e. non-crystalline or amorphus structure). This means that the
crystalline state is a low-energy state. So, the crystalline state is preferred by
most of the solids.
The crystalline solids may be subdivided into (a) single crystal and (b)
polycrystal.
Most of the metals (e.g., Fe, Cu, Al) and ceramics (e.g., metal oxide like Al2O3)
exhibit polycrystalline structure.
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at all present, extends up to a distance of a few atomic diameters only (say
2×4Å=8 Å). In other words, these solids exhibit “short range order”.
Window glass is the most familiar example of an amorphous material. The basic
ingredient for most glasses is sand (Silica, SiO2). Ordinary window glass is
usually made from a mixture of SiO2, limestone (CaCO3) and Soda ash
(Na2CO3). Quartz glass is made from pure SiO2.
Liquid
(in amorphous state)
Amorphous solid
(example-glass)
A lattice in which all lattce points are equivalent, ie. all atoms in the crystal are
of the same kind, is called a Bravais lattice. Fig. 1.3 shows a Bravais lattice in
two dimensions. Here the lattice sites A, B, C are eqivalent to each other.
A lattice in which some of the lattice points are non-equivalent is called a non-
Bravais lattice. Fig. 1.4 shows a non-Bravais lattice. Here the lattice sites A, B,
C are equivalent to each other, and so are the sites A/, B/, C/ among themselves,
but the two sites A and A/ are not equivalent to each other.
1.4 Basis
A basis is a set of atoms stationed near each site of a Bravais lattice. In Fig. 1.4,
the basis is the two atoms A and A/, or any other equivalent set.
The volume of the parallelepipe (opposite faces are parallel) whose sides are the
basis vectors a , b and c is called a unit cell of the lattice. Fig. 1.5 shows a
unit cell of a lattice in three dimensions. The volume of the unit cell is
V | a b c | . The number of lattice point per unit cell is one in this figure.
c
b
A unit cell having one lattice point is called a primitive unit cell. A primitive
unit cell is a minimum volume cell. In order to exhibit or to understand the
symmetry of the lattice more clearly, we sometimes deal with a unit cell which
is larger (non-primitive unit cell). The concept of primitive and non-primitive
unit cell can be obtained from the two-dimensional Bravis lattice as illustrated
in Fig. 1.6.
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b S2
a
S1
a1 a2
Fig. 1.6: A primitive (area S1) and a nonprimitive (area S2) unit cell.
The unit cell S1 formed by the basis vectors a1 and a 2 is a primitive unit cell
and the cell S2 formed by the vectors a and b is a non-primitive unit cell. In
the former case the number of lattice point per unit cell is one, while in the latter
case, the number of lattice point per unit cell is two. Unit cells of triclinic (
a b c; 90o ), simple monoclinic ( a b c; 90o ),
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1.7 Bravis Lattice in Two Dimensions
There are five Bravais lattices or nets in two dimensions. These are oblique,
square, hexagonal, simple rectangular, centered (body-centered) rectangular
lattices. These lattices are summarized in the following table.
Square Square | a || b |, 90o a
b
Hexagonal 60o rhombus | a || b |, 120o a
b o
=120
Simple Rectangle | a || b |, 90o a
rectangular
b
9
Centered Rectangle | a || b |, 90o a
rectangular
b
a
b
1.8 The Fourteen Bravais Lattices and the Seven Crystal Systems
There are only fourteen different Bravais latteces in three dimensions due to the
consequence of the translational-symmetry condition demanded of a lattice. To
understand the fact of reeducing the number of Bravais lattices, let us consider
the two-dimensional case of a regular pentagon. It can be drawn as an isolated
figure (like ), but one cannot place many such pentagons side by side so that
they fit tightly to fill the area of a plane with a connected array of
pentagons.(Fig. 1.7)
Fig. 1.7: A regular array of pentagons. The area of the plane cannot be filled
completely by the pentagons.
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The fourteen Bravais lattices are grouped into seven crystal systems according
to the type of cells as listed in Table 1.2.
The cell of each system is a parallelepiped whose sides are the bases a , b & c .
The opposite angles are called α, β and γ. The cells in Table 1.2 are conventional
unit cells.
Table 1.2: Fourteen Bravais lattices grouped into seven crystal systems.
b
O a L
2. Monoclinic Simple(P)
| a || b || c |
Base-centered (C) 90o
c
b
a
(P) (C)
3. Orthorhombic Simple(P)
| a || b || c |
Base-centered (C) 90o
c
b
Body-centered(I) a
(P) (C)
Face-centered(F)
c
b
a
(I) (F)
5. Cubic Simple(P)
| a || b || c |
Body-centered(I) 90o
c b
Face-centered(F)
a
(P) (I)
(F)
6. Trigonal Simple(P)
| a || b || c |
(Rhombohedral)
120o ,
90o
c
b
a
7. Hexagonal Simple(P)
| a || b || c |
120o
90o
c
b
a
(P) shaded cell
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Important notes-
A simple lattice has points only at the corners of the unit cell.
A body-centered lattice has one additional point at the center of the unit
cell.
A face-centered lattice has six additional points, one on each face of the
unit cell.
In all the nonsimple lattices the unit cells are nonprimitive.
1.9 Index System for Crystal Planes
The orientation of a crystal plane can be determined by three points in the plane,
provided they are not collinear. If these points lay on the respective crystal
axes(X, Y, Z axes), the plane can be specified by giving the coordinates of the
points in terms of the lattice constants a, b, c.
(a) To determine the indices for the plane P as shown in Fig. 1.8, let us find its
intercepts with the axes along the basis vectors a , b and c .Let these intercepts
be x, y and z (x, y and z may be integer or fractional multiple of a, b and c,
respectively).
Plane P
c
a b
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(c) Then we reduce this set to a similar one having the smallest integers by
an bn cn
multiplying by a common factor (say, n) like , ,
x y z
This set is called the Miller indices of the plane and is indicated by (h k l ) .
Example
3
Suppose the intercepts are x 2a, y b, z 1c (Fig. 1.8).
2
x y z 2a 3b 1c 3
Form the set , , , , 2, ,1 and inverting it we find
a b c a 2b c 2
1 2
, ,1 .
2 3
1 2
Multiplying the set , ,1 by the common dinominator of 6 to obtain the set
2 3
(3, 4, 6), which is written as (3 4 6) and is called the Miller indices of the plane.
Important Notes:
The Miller indices are so defined that all equivalent, parallel planes are
represented by the same set of indices.
When a unit cell has rotational symmetry, several non-parallel planes
may be equivalent by virtue of this symmetry. The indices within a curly
bracket like {hkl} represent all the planes equivalent to the plane (hkl)
through rotational symmetry.
For an intercept (of a plane with any axis) at infinite, the corresponding
miller index is zero.
Example-In the cubic system the indices {100} refer to the six planes (100),
(010), (001), ( 1 00), (0 1 0) and (00 1 ).
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Some important planes in a cubic crystal are shown below in Fig. 1.9.
Z
Z
Y
Y
X (010)
(100) X (110)
Z Z
Y Y
X (200) X (111)
The interplanar distance between planes labelled by the same Miller indices
(hkl) is denoted by dhkl. The actual formula of dhkl depends on the crystal
structure. Let us consider the case of an orthorhombic lattice ( | a || b || c | ,
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origin. The distance between these planes, dhkl, is simply the length of the
normal line drawn from the origin to the plane shown.
Z
Normal
N
z O
d hkl =x co s
x
P ( hkl ) plane P
O
x x sin
y
L
M Y Normal
L
X
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.10: (a) (hkl) plane and (b) interplanar distance dhkl.
We define the angles which the normal line makes with the axes as α, β and γ
(Fig. 1.10), and the intercepts of the plane (hkl) with the axes as x, y and z. Then
we can write,
cos2α+cos2β+cos2γ= 1 .......................(1.2)
2 2 2
d d d
or, hkl hkl hkl 1
x y z
1
or, d hkl 2 2
2 2
1 1 1
x y z
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1
or, d hkl .............(1.3)
2 2 2
1 1 1
x y z
x, y and z are related to the Miller indices h, k and l by the following relations
a b c
h n ,k n , l n
x y z
a b c
or, x n , y n , z n .................(1.4)
h k l
where n is the common factor used to reduce the indices to the smallest integers.
1
d hkl 1
h2 k2 l2 2
2
2
2
( na ) ( nb ) ( nc )
n
= 1
.................(1.5)
h2 k 2 l 2 2
a2 b2 c2
For the cubic lattice we have a=b=c, so the above expression reduces to
na
d hkl .................(1.6)
h2 k 2 l 2
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1.12 Formation of fcc and hcp Structures
There are two ways of arranging equivalent spheres to minimize the interstitial
volume. One way leads to a structure with cubic symmetry and it is the face-
centered cubic and the other with hexagonal symmetry and is called the
hexagonal close-packed structure.
Spheres may be arranged in a single close packed layer by placing each sphere
in contact with six others (Fig. 1.11). A second similar layer may be placed on
top of this by placing each sphere in contact with three spheres of the bottom
layer (with centers of spheres over the points marked B). A third layer can be
added in two ways; in the cubic (fcc) structure, the spheres in the third layer are
placed over the holes in the first layer not occupied by second layer (over points
C); in the hexagonal close-packed structure, the spheres in the third layer are
places directly over the spheres of the first layer (over points A) and the packing
sequence is ABABAB.....
.A .A .A .A .A .A
*C *C *C *C
+B +B +B +B +B +B
.A .A .A .A .A
*C *C *C *C *C *C
+B +B +B +B +B
.A .A .A .A .A .A
Packing fraction is defined as the fraction of the total volume of the unit cell
filled by the atom(s).
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1.13.1 Packing Fraction of hcp Structure
LMNO is the base of hexagonal close-packed unit cell (Fig. 1.12) with
LO=LM=a=2R (a=b≠c). The sphere in the next layer has its center F vertically
above E and it touches the three spheres whose centers are at L, M and O (Fig.
1.13).
c
F (2/3, 1/3, 1/2)
O b
a N
L M
O R R F
N
G c/2
E E
L
L M
We can write
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(LM)2 =(LG)2 +(MG)2
2
2 a
2
or, a = (LG) +
2
2 a2 3 3
or, LG= a = a= a
4 4 2
2 3 a
LE= a=
3 2 3
From Fig. 4.13 we can write
2
c 2 a 2 a2 2
EF= a a a
2 3 3 3
c 2 2
or, 1.633 ........................................................(1.8)
a 3
a
O N
a
X
L M
a /2
From Fig. 1.14, the area of the base of hcp unit cell is
2
2 a 3 2
Xa= a a = a .
2 2
The unit cell of a simple-cubic crystal is shown in Fig. 1.15. Each atom has six
neighbouring atoms in this structure. The upper plane of the real structure of the
unit cell is shown in Fig. 1.16. Let the radius of each atom is R.
R R
Fig. 1.16: The upper plane of the unit cell unit cell of sc structure.
So, a=R+R=2R
4
1 R 3
Volume occupied by atom(s) 3
Packing fraction= = 3 0.52 .
Volume of the unit cell 8R
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1.13.3 Packing Fraction of Body-centered Cubic (bcc) Structure
All metallic elements (e.g., Li, Na, K, Cr, Mo, W, etc.) crystallize in the body-
centered cubic structure. The unit cell of bcc structure is shown in Fig. 1.17.
The structure is not a close-packed one because each atom has only eight
neighbours.
C
a
B
a
A a D
In the bcc structure, the number of atoms in the unit cell is (1/8) 8+1=2.
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3
3 4R
So the volume of the unit cell is a
3
4
2 R 3
Volume occupied by atom(s) 3 3
Packing fraction = = 3
= =0.68
Volume of the unit cell 4R 8
3
The unit cell of face-centered cubic structure is shown in Fig. 1.18. The face-
centered cubic structure is a close-packed structure, each atom has 12 nearest
neighbour atoms. In the real structure, the atoms are in contact along the
diagonal of the faces. Let R be the radius of sphere (atom). So the diagonal AB
of the face can be written as AB=R+2R+R=4R (Fig. 1.19).
C B
a
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Now, the number of atoms in one unit cell is
1 1
6 8 4
2 8
4R
Or, a =
2
3
3 4R
Hence, the volume of the unit cell is a
2
4
4 R 3
3 2
Packing fraction = 3
= =0.74
4R 6
2
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