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Researching the efficacy of online

learning: A collaborative effort amongst
scholars in Asian open universities
a b
Wei-yuan Zhang & Kirk Perris
a
The Open University of Hong Kong , China
b
Hong Kong University , China
Published online: 19 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Wei-yuan Zhang & Kirk Perris (2004) Researching the efficacy of online
learning: A collaborative effort amongst scholars in Asian open universities, Open Learning: The
Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 19:3, 247-264

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 Open Learning, Vol. 19, No. 3, November 2004

Researching the efficacy of online

learning: a collaborative effort
amongst scholars in Asian open
universities
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Wei-yuan Zhanga* and Kirk Perrisb

a
The Open University of Hong Kong, China; bHong Kong University, China

This article reports on a collaborative effort amongst scholars from ODL institutions across Asia
that resulted in an analysis of the status of online learning. Eleven leading open universities
participated in this project, each having representatives join the project team. The exchange
among team members and data collection was conducted solely online and comprised the
following three stages: (1) continuous email exchange; (2) institutional profile survey; and (3)
student perception survey of online learning. Altogether, 1906 students returned valid question-
naires. The results reveal an array of methodologies used to design, implement and deliver online
learning and include the perceptions of users on the advantages, disadvantages and barriers to
learning online from an ODL perspective in Asia.

Keywords: Collaboration; Distance education; Online courses; Open universities;

Web-based instruction

Introduction
Open and distance learning is thriving in Asia. The flexible mode of learning, open
access policies and ability to deliver higher learning to the far reaches of the vast
Asian region have given these institutions the potential for continued growth and
prosperity. Some examples are the Open University of Hong Kong and its expansion
of operations into Mainland China and, on a grander scale, the open universities in
India (IGNOU) and China (RTVUs), boasting student bodies of one million and
three million, respectively. Tam (1999) has also reported that there are a potential
500 million students in Asia seeking higher learning opportunities, suggesting that
distance learning will continue to be a viable option for prospective students seeking
tertiary education. Such figures overwhelmingly support both the credibility of

*Corresponding author. Room A0731, Centre for Research in Distance and Adult Learning, The
Open University of Hong Kong, 30 Good Shepherd Street, Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong
SAR, China. Email: wyzhang@ouhk.edu.hk
ISSN 0268-0513 (print)/ISSN 1469-9958 (online)/04/030247-18
 2004 The Open University
DOI: 10.1080/0268051042000280110
 248 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

distance education and the vested interests of the private and public sectors in this
area.
With such investment in distance education, cautions Daniel (2002), comes
expectation. Distance education has emerged as part of the academic mainstream
(Thompson & Irele, 2003), undoubtedly influenced by its integration with Internet
technologies. As the Internet continues to shape and penetrate all areas of the globe,
purveyors of distance education must also anticipate and adapt to the impact this
will have on the distance education environment.
The Internet market in Asia is growing at an unparalleled rate. The most telling
example is Mainland China, which stands at 68 million Internet users, second only
to the US (SCMP, 2003). Others that are noteworthy include Hong Kong, which
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ranks fifth in the world in percentage of users at 59% and is followed closely by
Korea (54%), Singapore (52%) and Taiwan (52%) (figures accessed from http://cy-
beratlas.internet.com/).
Knowing these opportunities and the parallels that exist with distance education,
administrators and scholars in open and distance learning (ODL) have been con-
tinuously integrating elements of online learning into existing courses and pro-
grammes. In some instances courses have been designed and delivered solely over
the Internet. For our purposes, we use the term ‘online learning’ to refer to any
application that uses computer and Internet technology for purposes of communi-
cation or information retrieval in a particular distance education course. While this
definition is broad, it is indicative of the variation in online learning, as parts of this
investigation will highlight.
In terms of research on online learning, ODL scholars in Asia have provided
descriptive and analytical research predominantly at the institutional level. There are
three main areas where such research has been conducted. The first area focuses
mainly on the reporting of the establishment of online courses or programmes
(Sharma, 2001). The second area is the integration of a particular online learning
platform in a limited number of distance learning courses. Student perceptions are
gathered and inferences made on where continued integration should focus and
what should be considered for those starting their own online initiatives. The
majority of publications in this research area have emerged from the Open Univer-
sity of Hong Kong (Leung et al., 2000; Tsang et al., 2002), Shanghai Television
University (Wang, 2002) and Nanjing Radio and Television University (Wang &
Zhang, 2001). The third and final area, and a promising indicator of the under-
standing and utility of online learning in distance education in Asia, is of discourse
analysis and the development of communities of practice, a well-established research
focus in the west. These publications have stemmed from the OUHK (Tang &
Fung, 2002) and Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University in India
(Deshmukh, 2002).
While the intent of research in ODL is naturally for experience sharing and
knowledge advancement, this avenue often is unidirectional, in that research out-
comes are read by ODL scholars, though there is little follow up or collaboration
emerging from interested parties. In relation to the above literature review, it is
evident that reporting and research on online learning has been exceptionally sparse
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 249

amongst ODL institutions in the Asian region. Furthermore online learning is still
at a developmental stage in Asia, though there are untold indicators of its expansion
and promise in distance education.
This suggests two important concerns for ODL in Asia; first, there is a lack of
research on online learning and it is restricted mainly to institutional settings in only
a handful of countries or regions, which leads us to the second concern. There is an
absence of collaboration in online learning amongst scholars in open universities
across Asia.
Such gaps signal the need for greater understanding of online learning, both
cross-institutionally and cross-nationally. Institutional investigations are useful for
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understanding phenomena in the environment in which they are situated whereas

broader and comparative investigations can prove more contextual and diverse, and
thus fuel idea generation, further research and academic growth.
The purpose of this study is to contribute new knowledge to the status and
progress of online learning as the result of a collaborative effort among scholars in
selected open universities across the Asian region. Comparative analysis is central to
this investigation, first at the institutional level in terms of the variation in courses
offered and online platforms used. This is followed by a comparative analysis of
student perceptions of online learning from each participating open university. It is
hoped that a collective partnership may form amongst scholars in Asian open
universities continuing or aspiring to engage in online learning to continue the
progress with this mode of learning in distance education.

Methodology
Framework
The study applies a comparative methodology that Cookson has termed, in the
context of distance education, cross-institutional research (2000). This entails
examining distance education practices of two or more institutions and making
comparisons on practice and other aspects that may be influenced by their institu-
tional setting. As detailed below, these institutions are separated by national and/or
cultural boundaries and thus elements particular to the cross-national and cross-cul-
tural setting will apply as well.
The first area of this study focuses on the institutional setting of each participating
open university engaged in online learning. We examined the following three areas:
online courses offered, online learning platform used and instructional design of
online courses. Based on the results of the first survey, an online questionnaire was
designed to explore students’ perceptions of online learning. We surveyed students
on the following topics in this investigation: venue of Internet access for online
learning and perceptions of the advantages, disadvantages and barriers of online
learning.
 250 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

Table 1. Partnership and sample of open universities and online learners

Second survey
First survey (student perception)
Participated open university (institutional profile) Number

Shanghai Television University, China Yes 414

(SHTVU)
Guangzhou Radio & Television University, Yes 248
China (GZRTVU)
Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK) Yes 145
National Open University in Taiwan (NOU, Yes 196
Taiwan)
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Singapore Institute of Management—Open Yes 92

University Centre (SIM: OUC)
Korea National Open University (KNOU) Yes 124
University of Philippines Open University Yes 132
(UPOU)
Open University of Israel (OUI) Yes 405
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open Yes 106
University, India (YCMOU)
Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Yes 44
(IGNOU)
Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Yes 0
Thailand (STOU)
Total 11 open universities 1906

Partnership and sample

Universities for this investigation were required to fulfil the following criteria to
participate: an open university in Asia, engaged in online education for at least one
year, providing online courses to students towards a degree or certificate. Eleven
open universities were selected based on these criteria and each accepted a formal
request by email. One representative from each participating university was invited
to join in this project as an external team member. The obligations for each
representative included providing comments on the suitability of the student ques-
tionnaire, completing a questionnaire on the institutional profile of their university
(with a focus on online learning, delivery, etc), and distributing and collecting
questionnaires from students.
To encourage participation in this study, representatives were granted permission
to use the validated questionnaires for their own research agenda and use of all
results specific to their student sample. Results were analyzed by project leaders.
The sample of open universities and online learners is offered in Table 1.
In total, eleven open universities from nine countries in Asia participated in the
first survey on institutional profiles. Nine of these universities were involved in the
second survey. The number of returned and valid questionnaires from this stage was
1906. The number of returned and valid questionnaires from IGNOU amounted to
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 251

only 44, which was determined to be insufficient for comparative purposes. STOU
was unable to survey any students. Thus the total number of returned and usable
valid questionnaires was 1862.
For the second survey, each participating university was requested to sample
students enrolled in courses in the following four areas: science and technology,
humanities, business and administration, and education and languages. Originally a
sample size of 200 students was requested from each university. Most universities
were unable to fulfill this request, though three universities, GZRTVU, SHTVU and
OUI, were able to survey in excess of this number. Amongst 1862 subjects, 48%
were male and 52% were female. In terms of age distribution, 5.5% were from 17-
to 19-years-old, 29% from 20 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 30, 22.3% from 31 to 40,
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while 11.6% were 40 and above. For employment status, 68.8% worked full-time
and 15.8% worked part-time, 10% were unemployed, and 5.3% were school
graduates.

Procedures
This collaborative investigation included the following ten procedures.

Step one: identification and invitation of team members. All prospective representatives
in Asian open universities were sent an email with the research proposal and invited
to participate in the study. Upon acceptance of this email and agreement to
participate, a further email was sent outlining the specific obligations and benefits
for each representative.

Step two: design of the first questionnaire. The first questionnaire was designed by
internal team members and reviewed by external team members for content and
suitability.

Step three: the first survey. All external team members were asked to coordinate with
other scholars and administrators at their respective institution to complete the first
questionnaire (MSWord doc) on the institutional profile.

Step four: design of the second questionnaire. Based on the results from step three,
internal team members designed an online questionnaire on students’ perceptions of
online learning. To accommodate language diversity, four versions were designed
(two Chinese, one English, one Korean).

Step five: validation of questionnaire by experts. The draft questionnaire was reviewed
by nine experts in online education from the United Kingdom, USA, Australia,
Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Four individuals validated the Chinese
version, while five validated the English version. The instrument was subsequently
revised based on experts’ comments.
 252 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

Step six: suitability of questionnaire by external team members. The questionnaire was
sent to invited representatives of participating universities to review for the purpose
of suitability and content.

Step seven: pilot study. In order to understand the suitability of the questionnaire for
subjects in English and Chinese versions a pilot test was conducted with 120
students at the OUHK. The sample included students in one Chinese medium
course and three English medium courses. Minor changes in language were made.

Step eight: establishment of the online questionnaire. The online questionnaire was
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developed using HTML and Microsoft FrontPage. The data was stored on an
OUHK server.

Step nine: main study. All representatives of participating universities were asked to
select student samples using a stratified sampling technique. It was also asked that
students be selected from four discipline areas: science and technology, humanities,
business and administration, and education and languages. The selected students
should have had at least one year of exposure to online learning.

Step ten: data analysis. Data was analyzed in SPSS version 11.0. Institutional results
were sent to the respective team representative.

Results
The main findings of the survey are reported below.

The types of online courses offered

The total number of online courses per open university was broken down into four
disciplines. While team representatives offered a list of course names, at the
discretion of the project leaders, courses were placed in the following five categories:
science and technology, humanities, business and administration, education and
languages, and others. Table 2 highlights these findings.
As would be expected, there is an imbalance in the number of online courses across
the board in Table 2. SHTVU offers a staggering 312 online courses, followed by
the OUHK (N ⫽ 199) and OUI (N ⫽ 173). Also note that there is a high diversity
in the number of online courses offered by discipline. It would be assumed that the
majority of online courses would be in science and technology, followed by business
and administration, due to the high emphasis on computers in these disciplines.
This is generally true for the science and technology discipline (N ⫽ 298). However,
courses in the humanities (N ⫽ 234) outnumbered those in business and administra-
tion (N ⫽ 211). At the lower end of the spectrum there were a total of 105 online
courses in education and languages.
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 253

Table 2. Online courses offered and by discipline

Science & Business & Education &

Technology Humanities Administration Languages Others Total

SHTVU 76 69 122 45 0 312

(02/2003)*
GZRTVU 0 3 2 0 0 5
(06/2002)*
OUHK 59 49 52 20 19 199
(08/2003)*
NOU, Taiwan 0 5 0 1 0 6
(01/2002)*
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SIM:OUC 4 0 0 0 0 4
(01/2002)*
KNOU 9 6 2 7 0 24
(01/2002)*
UPOU 20 16 5 15 0 56
(01/2002)*
OUI (01/2002)* 90 60 15 8 0 173
YCMOU 25 0 3 1 5 34
(07/2003)*
IGNOU 15 26 10 7 11 69
(04/2002)*
STOU 0 0 0 1 0 1
(01/2002)*
Total 298 234 211 105 35 883

()* Month and year of data received

Online learning platform used

Other interesting results were found with the online learning platform used. Table
3 details these softwares and their country of origin.
Table 3 shows that the delivery tool of online content and instruction varied
greatly amongst the participating institutions. Only three institutions used commer-
cial platforms: WebCT and Lotus Notes (OUHK); Learning Space (KNOU); First
Class (SIM: OUC). Others favoured designing their own online learning platform
within their country or region (SHTVU, GZRTVU, NOU, Taiwan, IGNOU,
YCMOU, OUI) or purchasing a product from neighbouring regional higher learning
institutions (STOU, UPOU), indicating that such methods were more adaptable or
appropriate to their particular institution. Of the six open universities that designed
their own online learning platforms, four are situated in developing countries
(IGNOU, YCMOU, GZRTVU, SHTVU). With the high cost of purchasing a
commercial online platform, it is sensible that these open universities selected an
alternative that was both cost-effective and presumably more suitable to the local
population. Five institutions used at least two platforms, most likely to accommo-
date varying student needs.
Table 3 below displays the features of online learning platforms.
 254 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

Table 3. Features of online learning platforms

Open Country Platform functions

University Platform of origin

Email

Discussion Board
Chat Room
Whiteboard

Student Grading
Student Tracking
Technical support
Search Tools
Course Content
Student Homepage
Surveys
File Sharing
Customisations
SHTVU SHTVU China ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
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platform
GZRTVU IT School China ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
OUHK WebCT Canada ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Lotus Notes USA
NOU, NOU, Taiwan ✓ ✓ ✓
Taiwan Taiwan
platform
SIM: OUC FirstClass Canada ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
HTML Singapore
software
KNOU Learning USA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Space
GVA Korea
Authorware USA
Course USA
Builder
Self- Korea
developed
homepage
UPOU Integrated Singapore ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Virtual
Learning
Environment
(IVLE)
OUI Open U Israel ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Opus
Public
Domain
Tools
YCMOU Prospectus India ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
IGNOU Virtual India ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Campus
STOU NOLP Thailand ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(National
Science &
Technology
Development
Unit Online
Project)
Course
Development
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 255

Table 4. The instructional design of online courses

Educational theory

SHTVU a. Constructivist learning theories

b. Cognitive learning theories
GZRTVU a. Constructivist learning theories
b. Cognitive learning theories
OUHK a. Constructivist learning theories
b. Moore’s three types of interaction
NOU, Taiwan Intuitive, based on own experience
SIM: OUC No instructional design, currently being planned
KNOU a. Self-directed learning
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b. Problem-based learning
c. Moore’s three types of interaction
UPOU a. Learning style theories
b. Problem-based learning
OUI a. Learning style theories
YCMOU Intuitive, based on own experience
IGNOU a. Structured behaviorist model
b. Constructivist learning theories
STOU a. Self-directed learning

Overall, the course design functions of the platforms are quite sophisticated. Dis-
cussion board and email functions were most common. The next most common
functions were a chat room and technical support. Other popular functions were
student grading and tracking and the ability to customize the online environment. A
whiteboard, characteristically used in mathematics and science courses, was the
function least prevalent in Table 3. In summary it can be said that the main
purposes of these online platforms are to enable student and educator interaction
and to facilitate management and administrative duties.

Instructional design of online courses

While many of these open universities have designed their own online learning
platforms, the accompanying theoretical applications integrated into instructional
design have been adopted from educational theories in the west. Table 4 above
indicates the theoretical underpinning applied to online course design.
Open universities used some variation of instructional method or educational
theory to shape the online learning environment. Most common were constructivist
learning theory, self-directed learning theory and problem-based learning theory.
Each, in some way, structures the learning environment with the student at its
epicenter. While delving into the particulars of each theory is beyond the scope of
this investigation, it provides a glimpse of the considerations made by educators to
customize their own online environments and is suggestive of their understanding
and knowledge of the online medium.
 256 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

Table 5. Study venue of online learning (mean and standard deviation)

Open University Home Work University Public library Internet café

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Overall 3.87 1.1 2.99 1.2 2.41 1.3 1.96 1.1 1.90 1.2
SHTVU 3.58 1.0 3.31 0.9 3.24 1.0 2.43 1.1 2.05 1.2
GZRTVU 3.45 1.1 2.41 1.3 2.83 1.4 2.22 1.0 2.31 1.3
OUHK 3.86 1.1 2.45 1.2 1.73 1.0 1.52 0.9 1.12 0.4
NOU, Taiwan 4.30 1.0 2.93 1.2 2.47 1.4 2.63 1.4 2.00 1.3
SIM: OUC 4.34 0.9 2.63 1.2 1.67 1.0 1.35 0.7 1.18 0.4
KNOU 4.10 0.9 3.51 1.1 2.25 1.3 1.81 1.0 1.66 0.8
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UPOU 4.30 1.1 3.38 1.3 1.67 1.0 1.22 0.6 2.81 1.2
OUI 4.36 0.9 3.03 1.4 1.45 0.9 1.21 0.6 1.08 0.2
YCMOU 2.38 1.2 2.64 0.7 1.37 0.8 1.66 1.1 2.41 1.5

Mean: 5 ⫽ Always, 4 ⫽ often, 3 ⫽ Sometimes, 2 ⫽ Rarely, 1 ⫽ Never.

SD: standard deviation

Internet access of students and e-library

Table 5 indicates that the majority of students accessed the Internet from home,
with one exception being YCMOU, whose students accessed the Internet most
frequently from work (X ⫽ 2.64). Home access was followed by work. Considering
many students study on a part-time basis and/or because of the flexible nature of
distance learning, it is apparent that many students continue to work in some
capacity, as evidenced by a relatively high mean in this category. A telling finding
was the array of means for Internet access at the University. Students at SHTVU
and GZRTVU access the Internet much more frequently at the university than those
in other universities.
An additional finding from examining open university websites, was that only
three participating institutions provided an electronic, or online library (OUHK,
OUI, SIM:OUC).

Students’ perceptions of the advantages to online learning

Students were offered a wide range of items in which to identify generally accepted
characteristics that are attributable to online learning (Khan, 1997). These items
refer to both functional (e.g., time and place dependent) and instructional (interac-
tivity) capabilities of the medium. We list the items hierarchically based on the
overall mean score.
As a whole, students held positive perceptions of the flexibility of the Internet
(X ⫽ 4.17) in their courses along with the abilities of sharing resources with others
(X ⫽ 3.87), sharing ideas and answers with others (X ⫽ 3.85) and the ability to have an
equal opportunity (X ⫽ 3.80) to contribute, due to the democratic nature of the
medium. Thus it can be inferred that the flexibility of access and distribution are of
highest benefit followed by the interactive components supported by the medium.
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Table 6. Advantages of online learning (mean and standard deviation)

Overall SHTVU GZRTVU OUHK NOU, Taiwan SIM: OUC KNOU UPOU OUI YCMOU

Flexibility (e.g. access the Web 4.17 (0.9) 3.68** (1.1) 4.02** (0.7) 4.20 (0.7) 4.46** (0.7) 4.30 (0.7) 4.84** (0.3) 4.59** (0.5) 4.55** (0.6) 3.16** (1.5)
anytime, anyplace)
Sharing resources with others 3.87 (0.9) 3.80 (1.0) 3.94 (0.7) 3.85 (0.6) 4.23** (0.6) 3.92 (0.8) 3.86 (0.9) 3.85 (0.7) 3.88 (0.9) 3.40** (1.1)
(e.g. Web links)
Sharing ideas and answers with 3.85 (0.9) 3.69** (1.0) 3.70** (0.8) 3.90 (0.6) 4.25** (0.6) 3.92 (0.8) 3.88 (0.9) 4.07* (0.8) 4.00** (0.9) 3.18** (1.6)
others
Equality (e.g. opportunity to 3.80 (0.9) 3.71* (1.1) 3.79 (0.8) 3.64 (0.6) 4.03** (0.8) 3.77 (0.7) 4.05** (0.8) 4.05** (0.8) 3.71 (0.9) 3.73 (1.4)
contribute)
Enhancing student to instructor 3.65 (1.0) 3.59 (1.0) 3.49* (0.8) 3.68 (0.8) 3.80* (0.9) 3.40* (1.0) 3.51 (0.9) 3.80 (0.9) 3.70 (0.9) 3.91** (1.4)
communication
Anonymity 3.31 (1.0) 3.55** (1.0) 3.43 (0.8) 3.24 (0.7) 3.88** (0.8) 3.11 (1.0) 2.87** (1.2) 3.23 (0.8) 2.96** (1.1) 3.24 (0.7)

Mean: 5 ⫽ Strongly agree, 4 ⫽ Agree, 3 ⫽ Not sure, 2 ⫽ Disagree, 1 ⫽ Strongly disagree

* P ⬍ .05 (T test with overall mean)
** P ⬍ .01 (T test with overall mean)
Researching the efficacy of online learning
257
 258 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

Students’ perceptions of the disadvantages to online learning

In table 7 below, students were asked to rank their perceptions on items that are
generally considered disadvantageous to learning online.
Students perceived the greatest disadvantages of online learning to be in relation
to their greater comfort with more traditional mediums and their inexperience using
computers: I am more comfortable learning from print material (X ⫽ 3.45); working from
a computer is physically tiring (X ⫽ 3.37); I am more comfortable learning face to face
(X ⫽ 3.36); limited interaction with instructor (3.35); and students (3.20).
Comparatively speaking, OUHK, SIM: OUC and YCMOU each had scores that
were significantly higher from the mean for the first three items. Conversely, KNOU
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and OUI each had scores that were significantly lower for the same three items.
Interestingly, each of these items points to having more comfort learning in more
conventional modes. Another way of looking at this is degree of experience. Of the
five universities mentioned, four are situated in developed countries or regions. It
would be expected that each would have high scores relative to the mean based on
exposure alone. However, one factor may be the cultural context. In Chinese
cultures such as Hong Kong and Singapore there is a dependency on traditional
classroom teaching and didactic instruction. Exploring how students are trained and
the particular aspects of online course design they are subjected to, are areas where
future research should focus. This is also a key example of where cross-national
research is applicable.

Students’ perceptions of barriers to online learning

We differentiate barriers from disadvantages: barriers are obstacles that are typically
beyond a students’ control whereas disadvantages deal with students’ preferences or
inexperience with the medium—such things may change as a student has more
exposure online. As in table 7, table 8 below lists items hierarchically, based on the
overall mean score.
Students mostly cited that the cost of using the Internet (X ⫽ 3.28) was the largest
barrier (note Table 5—the home was the most common setting to access the
Internet). Other significant barriers were having a slow Internet connection (X ⫽ 3.23)
and technical limitations (X ⫽ 3.16).

Discussion
Computers enabling collaboration amongst scholars in distance education
Over the duration of this project, partnerships formed and knowledge was continu-
ously shared and created. The sharing of research instruments amongst team
members was highly valued as they provided a basis for which researchers could
jumpstart their own research initiatives. Further, the data analysis for each particular
institution was distributed to the respective team members, also for their own
research agenda.
Another positive experience was the great reduction in administrative work.
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Table 7. Disadvantages of online learning (mean and standard deviation)

Overall SHTVU GZRTVU OUHK NOU, Taiwan SIM: OUC KNOU UPOU OUI YCMOU

I am more comfortable learning 3.45 (1.0) 3.31** (1.1) 3.52** (0.8) 3.91** (0.8) 3.46 (1.0) 3.82** (0.9) 3.18** (1.1) 3.26 (1.0) 3.26** (1.1) 4.13** (0.9)
from print material
Working from a computer is 3.37 (1.2) 3.47 (1.1) 3.57** (0.9) 3.87** (0.9) 3.67** (1.0) 3.75** (1.0) 3.13** (1.1) 3.08** (1.1) 2.70** (1.2) 4.01** (1.0)
physically tiring
I am more comfortable learning 3.36 (1.1) 3.23* (1.0) 3.55 (0.9) 3.70** (0.9) 3.58** (1.0) 3.69** (1.0) 2.84** (1.1) 3.05** (1.0) 3.17** (1.1) 3.91** (0.9)
face to face
Limited interaction with 3.35 (1.1) 3.31 (1.1) 3.37 (0.8) 3.11* (0.8) 3.50 (1.0) 3.37 (1.1) 3.49 (1.0) 3.48 (1.0) 3.05** (1.1) 4.31** (1.0)
instructor compared to f2f***
Isolation from other students 3.26 (1.1) 3.25 (1.1) 3.19 (1.0) 3.13 (0.9) 3.48** (0.9) 3.47 (1.0) 3.21 (1.0) 3.44 (1.0) 2.92** (1.1) 4.17** (1.1)
Limited interaction with students 3.20 (1.0) 3.17 (1.0) 3.23 (0.8) 3.17 (0.8) 3.42** (1.0) 3.33 (1.0) 3.32 (0.9) 3.41* (1.0) 2.79** (1.1) 3.83** (0.8)
compared to f2f***

Mean: 5 ⫽ Strongly agree, 4 ⫽ Agree, 3 ⫽ Not sure, 2 ⫽ Disagree, 1 ⫽ Strongly disagree

* P ⬍ .05 (T test with overall mean)
** P ⬍ .01 (T test with overall mean)
***f2f (face to face)
Researching the efficacy of online learning
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260

Table 8. Barriers of online learning (mean and standard deviation)

Overall SHTVU GZRTVU OUHK NOU, Taiwan SIM: OUC KNOU UPOU OUI YCMOU

Internet costs limit time online 3.28 (1.1) 3.26 (1.0) 3.49** (0.9) 2.95** (1.1) 3.18 (1.1) 3.52 (1.1) 2.14** (0.8) 3.89** (1.0) 3.37 (1.2) 3.40 (1.2)
Slow Internet connection 3.23 (1.1) 3.08** (1.1) 3.51** (0.9) 3.25 (1.1) 3.30 (1.0) 3.61** (1.0) 2.54** (1.1) 3.74** (0.9) 3.31 (1.2) 2.57** (0.5)
Technical limitations (computer 3.16 (1.1) 3.10 (1.1) 3.36** (0.9) 3.02 (1.1) 3.18 (1.0) 3.32 (0.9) 2.62** (1.1) 3.61** (0.9) 2.91** (1.2) 3.83** (1.1)
Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

crashing)
Time consuming to type 3.13 (1.0) 3.25* (1.1) 3.27** (0.9) 3.24 (1.0) 3.25 (1.1) 3.31 (1.0) 2.57** (1.0) 3.20 (1.1) 2.90** (1.0) 3.09 (0.8)
contributions
Expressing opinions online is 2.96 (1.0) 3.26** (1.0) 3.25** (0.7) 3.08 (0.9) 3.10 (0.9) 2.91 (0.8) 2.87 (1.1) 2.59** (0.9) 2.31** (0.9) 3.62** (1.1)
uncommon
Learning methods online are 2.93 (1.1) 3.08** (1.0) 3.26** (0.9) 2.98 (1.0) 2.99 (1.1) 3.02 (0.9) 2.48** (1.1) 2.94 (1.0) 2.34** (1.0) 3.89** (0.7)
unfamiliar
Terminology used online is 2.83 (1.0) 3.13** (1.1) 3.21** (0.8) 3.09** (0.8) 3.17** (1.1) 2.81 (0.8) 2.54** (1.0) 2.81 (0.9) 2.14** (0.9) 2.63* (0.8)
unfamiliar
Low computer skills 2.80 (1.1) 3.11** (1.1) 3.24** (1.0) 2.63 (1.0) 2.98* (1.0) 2.60 (1.0) 2.26** (1.2) 2.61 (1.0) 2.33** (1.3) 3.07* (0.8)

Mean: 5 ⫽ Strongly agree, 4 ⫽ Agree, 3 ⫽ Not sure, 2 ⫽ Disagree, 1 ⫽ Strongly disagree

* P ⬍ .05 (T test with overall mean)
** P ⬍ .01 (T test with overall mean)
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 261

Providing questionnaires online proved exceptionally useful in most cases as stu-

dents needed only to access a website and click the Submit questionnaire button upon
completion. All data was instantly downloaded to an OUHK server, in electronic
format and thus easily transferable into statistical software for analysis. Thus time
and cost were saved as a result of Internet technology.

Emergence of online learning in Asia

Online education in Asia ODL institutions is flourishing. Take for example the
number of online courses offered (N ⫽ 883) in comparison to the number reported
(N ⫽ 632) by Zhang et al. (2002). A breakdown of these figures, revealed a disparity
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in the number of online courses offered by discipline. Not surprisingly science and
technology stood atop this list. Also noteworthy was that the majority of open
universities offered more online courses in humanities than in business and admin-
istration, an unusual finding considering the technological emphasis in the latter
discipline.
In terms of the online learning platform used the majority have been designed by
the local institution and thus likely more suited to the cultural context, and certainly
more cost effective in comparison to purchasing the license of a commercial
platform. Additionally, the online learning platforms are quite sophisticated as
evidenced by the multitude of features they contain, along with the pedagogical
considerations. The majority of institutions claimed to integrate some form of
educational theory into the instructional design. Consistent with online implementa-
tions in others areas of the world, constructivist learning was cited as a foundational
platform by which to guide students learning in this investigation. Other familiar
educational theories listed were self-directed learning and problem-based learning.
Each posits the student as central to the learning environment and the teacher as
facilitator. Following learning patterns of this nature will add further support and
strength to the idea of independent learning, a tenet central to open and distance
learning.
Of the 11 participating open universities several are listed as being situated in
developing countries as defined by the World Bank (www.worldbank.org/data/coun-
tryclass/classgroups.htm). However, it is apparent that they themselves are progress-
ing as well as, if not surpassing, their developed counterparts in Asia (e.g., the
number of online course offered by SHTVU and IGNOU). Such findings are in
stark contrast to the belief that the ‘developing countries of the world are largely
being bypassed by the surging developments in virtual education’ (Farrell, 2001,
p. 141) and thus holding great promise for the future of online learning for the
expansive Asian continent.

Characteristics of online learning in Asia

The results from this investigation also point to a common concern from students
studying in the distance mode; their desire for more conventional forms of interac-
tion. This is likely rooted in the traditional mentality that education is teacher-cen-
 262 Wei-yuan Zhang and K. Perris

tred, especially in Asia. Tam (1999, p. 10) stated that ‘East Asian distance education
is rather slow in making the transition from distance teaching to distance learning’,
implying that students continue to have a high dependency on the teacher figure to
guide their learning. Such sentiments are indeed understandable, especially in the
context of open and distance learning, where students come from all walks of life
and educational background. Most are used to conventional learning and this
tertiary experience is likely to be their first. The combination of learning at a
distance in the tertiary setting signals that students are in need of ample support to
progress and achieve in their studies. The integration of the Internet in their distance
learning courses has the potential to enhance the learning environment for these
individuals.
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Value of online learning

In terms of advantages of online learning, students most valued the flexible nature
of the medium. Other areas were regarding sharing and interactivity. Such features
are influenced by instructional design and student–educator and student–student
communication. It is important for educators to realize the benefits of online
learning and of course, what their students desire. Interaction, or collaboration is an
innate human characteristic and should be encouraged. Designing courses around
online interactivity situates the learner with others to challenge understanding,
defend ideas and access information.
From this investigation we also examined the disadvantages and barriers with this
learning medium. Some students’ preferences for learning with print materials
and/or in a face-to-face environment may indicate inexperience with the medium.
What is emerging is a new form of learning that encompasses both elements of
conventional and distance learning, because of the continuous penetration and
seeming dependency on the Internet. In the meantime, educators must be equipped
to handle the existing obstacles in online learning as it becomes a major component
in distance education courses. Training and support are areas for consideration, as
well as the relevance of the Internet for a particular course and as a means of
assessment. Each is a separate area on its own worthy of further research in online
learning.
Barriers to online learning are likely to diminish in the near future. At the same
time it is important to note, and accept, that there will always be barriers to online
learning just as there are with other modes of learning. For educators it is a matter
of being able to anticipate, adapt and find a workable medium where an effective
learning environment can take shape and blossom.

Conclusions
The outcomes of the current investigation indicate that online learning is undergo-
ing a healthy expansion in Asian open universities. A high number of courses have
been designed and students have generally positive perceptions from their experi-
ences with the medium. While there are many areas where online learning may be
 Researching the efficacy of online learning 263

improved, it is hoped that this investigation may act as a stepping-stone amongst

other ODL scholars to provide more descriptive details of their own online initia-
tives. Ultimately, this will fuel collaborative partnerships amongst scholars in the
expansive Asian region so that knowledge can be shared about online learning and
improve the quality and connectivity of distance education to the masses.

Acknowledgement
This paper represents the research outcomes of the project the perception of distance
educators and learners about web-based instruction in selected Asian open universities,
funded by the Open University of Hong Kong.
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Note
1. This article is based on the paper presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Asian
Association of Open Universities held at Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Bangkok,
Thailand, 12–14 November 2003. Some of the revisions were made based on comments
from the participants, for which the authors are very grateful.

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