Chapter 5

Microwave
Generators
PRESENTED BY:
KOBID KARKEE
KANTIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DHAPAKHEL, LALITPUR
 2
Conventional Tubes at Microwaves
 The conventional tubes (triodes, pentodes) at microwave
frequencies become less effective when used as an oscillator
or amplifier.
 An amplifier requires greater amount of driving power so
the gain falls to unity or even less.
 Similarly the output of oscillator drops rapidly with increase
in frequency.
 There are many factors which deteriorate the performance
of microwave tubes at ultra high frequency.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 3
Microwaves
 The factors contributing to reduction of output at high
frequencies are:
1. Circuit reactances
 Inter-electrode capacitance

 Lead inductance

2. Transit time effect

3. Cathode emission
4. Power loss due to skin effect, radiation, dielectric loss.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 4
Microwaves
Inter-electrode capacitance:
 Plays an important role in the
operation of tubes at microwave
frequency.
 It is due to active parts of tube
structure, i.e., between the leads.
 As frequency increases, reactance of
Cgp, Cgk and Cpk decreases and begins
to short circuit the input and output
voltages.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 5
Microwaves
 This leads to reduction in
amplification.
 These capacitances must be
minimized.
 It can be achieved by increasing
the distance between the
electrodes or reducing the area
of electrodes.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 6
Microwaves
Lead Inductance:
 The leads have small but finite
inductance.
 When the frequency increases the
reactance of this becomes
appreciable.
 They limit the performance of the
tube by providing degenerative
feedback.
 They can be minimized by using short
lead tube.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at
7
Microwaves
Transit Time Effect:
 The time taken by an electron to travel from the cathode to
anode plate of an electron tube is called transit time.
 The transit time is insignificant at low frequencies so that it is
generally not considered to be a hindering factor.
 However, at high frequencies, transit time becomes an
appreciable portion of a signal cycle and begins to hinder
efficiency.
 For example, a transit time of 1 nanosecond, which is not
unusual, is only 0.001 cycle at a frequency of 1 megahertz.
 The same transit time becomes equal to the time required for
an entire cycle at 1,000 megahertz.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 8
Microwaves
 Transit time depends on electrode spacing and existing voltage
potentials.
 Transit times in excess of 0.1 cycle cause a significant decrease
in tube efficiency.
 This decrease in efficiency is caused, in part, by a phase shift
between plate current and grid voltage.
 To minimize the effect of transit time, the distance between
electrodes is to be reduced and higher voltage must be applied.
 Compromise between inter- electrode capacitance and transit
time.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 9
Microwaves
Cathode Emission:
 High cathode emission can be achieved by increasing area
of cathode, increasing cathode filament voltage and higher
filament temperature.
 But increasing area of cathode increases the inter-electrode
capacitances.
 Also the cathode voltage and temperature cannot be
increased beyond a limit.
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes at 10
Microwaves
Power Losses:
 The power losses associated with a tube and circuit
increases with frequency.
 At UHF, current flows in the surface layer due to skin effect.
 The associated resistance and losses increase as square root
of frequency.
 The loss in glass tubes are dielectric losses.
 Velocity Modulation 11
 Velocity modulation is defined as that variation in the
velocity of a beam of electrons caused by the alternate
speeding up and slowing down of the electrons in the
beam.
 The electron beam passes through a pair of closely spaced
grids, called BUNCHER GRIDS.
Polarity of AC voltage
Buncher grids
Electron Beam via Buncher Grids 12
 Microwave Tubes 13

1. Linear Beam Tube 2. Cross Field Tubes

a) Klystron a. Cyclotron-frequency
i. Two Cavity Klystron Magnetron
ii. Multicavity Klystron b. Negative Resistance
iii. Reflex Klystron Magnetron
b) Travelling Wave Tube c. Travelling Wave
(TWT) Magnetron
i. TWT Amplifier i. Magnetron Oscillator
ii. Backward Wave Oscillator ii. Crossfield Amplifier
 Two Cavity Klystron 14

 For the generation and amplification of Microwaves, there

is a need of some special tubes called as Microwave tubes.
 Of them all, Klystron is an important one.
 The essential elements of Klystron are electron beams and
cavity resonators.
 Electron beams are produced from a source and the cavity
resonators are employed to amplify the signals.
 A collector is present at the end to collect the electrons.
 The whole set up is as shown in the following figure.
 Two Cavity Klystron 15

Simplified Diagram of Two cavity Klystron amplifier

 Two Cavity Klystron 16

 The electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated

towards the first resonator.
 The collector at the end is at the same potential as the
resonator.
 Hence, usually the electrons have a constant speed in the gap
between the cavity resonators.
 Initially, the first cavity resonator is supplied with a weak
high frequency signal, which has to be amplified.
 The signal will initiate an electromagnetic field inside the
cavity.
 Two Cavity Klystron 17

 This signal is passed through a coaxial cable as shown in the

following figure.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 18

 To understand the modulation of the electron beam, entering

the first cavity, let's consider the electric field.
 The electric field on the resonator keeps on changing its
direction of the induced field.
 Depending on this, the electrons coming out of the electron
gun, get their speed controlled.
 As the electrons are negatively charged, they are accelerated
if moved opposite to the direction of the electric field. Also, if
the electrons move in the same direction of the electric field,
they get decelerated.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 19

 This electric field keeps on

changing, therefore the
electrons are accelerated and
decelerated depending upon
the change of the field.
 The figure indicates the
electron flow when the field
is in the opposite direction.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 20

 While moving, these electrons enter the field free space

called as the drift space between the resonators with varying
speeds, which create electron bunches.
 These bunches are created due to the variation in the speed
of travel.
 These bunches enter the second resonator, with a frequency
corresponding to the frequency at which the first resonator
oscillates.
 As all the cavity resonators are identical, the movement of
electrons makes the second resonator to oscillate.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 21

 The following figure shows the formation of electron

bunches.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 22

 The figure shows

the formation of
electron
bunches.
 Working of Two Cavity Klystron 23

 The induced magnetic field in the second resonator induces

some current in the coaxial cable, initiating the output signal.
 The kinetic energy of the electrons in the second cavity is
almost equal to the ones in the first cavity and so no energy is
taken from the cavity.
 The electrons while passing through the second cavity, few of
them are accelerated while bunches of electrons are
decelerated.
 Hence, all the kinetic energy is converted into
electromagnetic energy to produce the output signal.
 Amplification of such two-cavity Klystron is low and hence
multi-cavity Klystrons are used.
 24
Two Cavity Klystron Oscillator
 The two-cavity
amplifier klystron is
readily turned into an
oscillator klystron by
providing
a feedback loop
between the input
and output cavities.
 25
Multicavity Klystron
 In all modern
klystrons, the
number of cavities
exceeds two.
 A larger number of
cavities may be
used to increase the
gain of the klystron,
or to increase the
bandwidth,
efficiency, power
levels, etc. Three-cavity klystron
 26
Multicavity Klystron
 With the signal applied
in the first cavity, we
get weak bunches in
the second cavity.
 These will set up a field
in the third cavity,
which produces more
concentrated bunches
and so on.
 Hence, the
amplification is larger.
Three-cavity klystron
 Reflex Klystron 27

 This microwave generator, is a Klystron that works on

reflections and oscillations in a single cavity, which has a
variable frequency.
 Reflex Klystron consists of an electron gun, a cathode
filament, an anode cavity, and an electrode at the cathode
potential.
 It provides low power and has low efficiency.
 Construction of Reflex Klystron 28

 The electron gun emits the electron beam, which passes

through the gap in the anode cavity.
 These electrons travel towards the Repeller electrode, which
is at high negative potential.
 Due to the high negative field, the electrons repel back to the
anode cavity.
 In their return journey, the electrons give more energy to the
gap and these oscillations are sustained.
 Construction of Reflex Klystron 29
 The constructional
details of this reflex
klystron is as shown in
the following figure.
 It is assumed that
oscillations already
exist in the tube and
they are sustained by
its operation.
 The electrons while
passing through the
anode cavity, gain some
velocity.
 Operation of Reflex Klystron 30
 The operation of Reflex
Klystron is understood by
some assumptions.
 The electron beam is
accelerated towards the
anode cavity.
 Let us assume that a
reference electron er crosses
the anode cavity but has no
extra velocity and it repels
back after reaching the
Repeller electrode, with the
same velocity.
 Operation of Reflex Klystron 31

 Another electron, let's say

ee which has started earlier
than this reference
electron, reaches the
Repeller first, but returns
slowly, reaching at the
same time as the reference
electron.
 Operation of Reflex Klystron 32

 We have another electron,

the late electron el, which
starts later than both er
and ee, however, it moves
with greater velocity while
returning back, reaching at
the same time as er and ee.
 Operation of Reflex Klystron 33

 Now, these three electrons,

namely er, ee and el reach
the gap at the same time,
forming an electron bunch.
This travel time is called as
transit time, which should
have an optimum value.
 Operation of Reflex Klystron 34

 The anode cavity accelerates the electrons while going and

gains their energy by retarding them during the return journey.
 When the gap voltage is at maximum positive, this lets the
maximum negative electrons to retard.
 The optimum transit time is represented as
3
𝑇=𝑛+ , where n is an integer
4
 This transit time depends upon the Repeller and anode
voltages.
 Applications of Reflex Klystron 35

Reflex Klystron is used in applications where variable frequency

is desirable, such as −
 Radio receivers
 Portable microwave links
 Parametric amplifiers
 Local oscillators of microwave receivers
 As a signal source where variable frequency is desirable in
microwave generators.
 Travelling Wave Tube 36

 Travelling wave tubes are broadband microwave devices which

have no cavity resonators like Klystrons.
 Amplification is done through the prolonged interaction
between an electron beam and Radio Frequency (RF) field.
 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) is the most versatile microwave RF
power amplifiers.
 The main virtue of the TWT is its extremely wide band width of
operation.
Construction of Travelling Wave Tube 37
Construction of Travelling Wave Tube 38

 Travelling wave tube is a cylindrical structure which contains

an electron gun from a cathode tube.
 It has anode plates, helix and a collector. RF input is sent to
one end of the helix and the output is drawn from the other
end of the helix.
 An electron gun focusses an electron beam with the velocity
of light.
 A magnetic field guides the beam to focus, without scattering.
The RF field also propagates with the velocity of light which is
retarded by a helix.
Construction of Travelling Wave Tube 39

 Helix acts as a slow wave structure.

 Applied RF field propagated in helix, produces an electric
field at the center of the helix.
 The resultant electric field due to applied RF signal, travels
with the velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of helix pitch
to helix circumference.
 The velocity of electron beam, travelling through the helix,
induces energy to the RF waves on the helix.
Construction of Travelling Wave Tube 40

 Thus, the amplified output is obtained at the output of TWT.

 The axial phase velocity Vp is represented as
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑽𝑷 = 𝑽𝑪
𝟐𝝅𝒓
where r is the radius of the helix.
 As the helix provides least change in Vp phase velocity, it is
preferred over other slow wave structures for TWT.
 Construction of Travelling Wave Tube 41

 In TWT, the electron

gun focuses the
electron beam, in the
gap between the
anode plates, to the
helix, which is then
collected at the
collector.
 The following figure
explains the electrode
arrangements in a
travelling wave tube.
 Operation of Travelling Wave Tube 42

 When RF signal which is to be amplified is applied to the TWT,

its initial velocity is nearly equal to the velocity of light.
 But when the signal propagates around the turns of the helix, it
produces electric field along the axis of the helix.
 This electric field propagates along the axial direction with
phase velocity which is small compared to the velocity of light
by the slowing factor:
𝑽𝑷 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
=
𝑽𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒓
 Operation of Travelling Wave Tube 43

 The axial electric field can now continuously interact with the
electron beam.
 The electron entering the helix at zero field is not affected by the
signal wave.
 Those electron entering the helix at accelerating field are
accelerated and those are at the retarding field are decelerated
thus velocity modulation takes place and this produces bunching
of electron.
 This bunch of electrons travel with the RF field and as
consequence the field continuously acts to increase the
bunching i.e velocity and density modulation occurs
simultaneously in this region.
 Operation of Travelling Wave Tube 44

 Due to the dc voltage applied to TWT, it results into a situation

in which more electrons face the retarding field than the
accelerating field, energy is thus last by the electron beam and
becomes more and more stronger and a longer amplification of
the RF signal occurs at the end of the helix.
 Applications of Travelling Wave Tube 45

 TWT is used in microwave receivers as a low noise RF amplifier.

 TWTs are also used in wide-band communication links and co-
axial cables as repeater amplifiers or intermediate amplifiers to
amplify low signals.
 TWTs have a long tube life, due to which they are used as power
output tubes in communication satellites.
 Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in Troposcatter
links, because of large power and large bandwidths, to scatter
to large distances.
 TWTs are used in high power pulsed radars and ground based
radars.
 The Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) 46

 A backward wave oscillator (BWO) also called carcinotron

(trade name).
 It is a vacuum tube that is used to generate microwaves up to
the terahertz range.
 Belongs to TWT family with a wide electronic tuning range.
 An electron gun generates an electron beam that is
interacting with a slow-wave structure.
 It sustains the oscillations by propagating a travelling wave
backwards against the beam.
 The Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) 47

 The generated EMW power has its group velocity directed

oppositely to the direction of motion of the electrons.
 The output power is coupled out near the electron gun.
 The Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) 48
 The electron beam (from an electron gun) passes through a
wire helix and generates an electric field that induces voltage
with the helix wire. The resonating electric fields (in and out)
produce microwaves in the direction opposite to the electron
beam.
 The frequency of the radiation is varied by controlling the
beam velocity and the helix potential.
 Magnetrons 49

 Unlike the tubes discussed so far, Magnetrons are the cross-

field tubes in which the electric and magnetic fields cross, i.e.
run perpendicular to each other.
 In TWT, it was observed that electrons when made to interact
with RF, for a longer time, than in Klystron, resulted in higher
efficiency.
 The same technique is followed in Magnetrons.
 Types of Magnetrons 50

 Three types:
1. Negative Resistance Type:
 The negative resistance between two anode segments, is
used.
 They have low efficiency.
 They are used at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
 Types of Magnetrons 51

2. Cyclotron Frequency Magnetrons:

 The synchronism between the electric component and
oscillating electrons is considered.
 Useful for frequencies higher than 100MHz.

3. Travelling Wave or Cavity Type:

 Theinteraction between electrons and rotating EM field is
taken into account.
 High peak power oscillations are provided.
 Useful in radar applications.
 Cavity Magnetron 52

 The Magnetron is called as Cavity Magnetron because the

anode is made into resonant cavities and a permanent magnet
is used to produce a strong magnetic field, where the action of
both of these make the device work.
 Construction of Cavity Magnetron 53

 A thick cylindrical cathode is present at the center and a

cylindrical block of copper, is fixed axially, which acts as an
anode.
 This anode block is made of a number of slots that acts as
resonant anode cavities.
 The space present between the anode and cathode is called as
Interaction space.
 The electric field is present radially while the magnetic field is
present axially in the cavity magnetron.
 Construction of Cavity Magnetron 54

 This magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet, which

is placed such that the magnetic lines are parallel to cathode
and perpendicular to the electric field present between the
anode and the cathode.
 The following figures show the constructional details of a
cavity magnetron and the magnetic lines of flux present,
axially.
Construction of Cavity Magnetron 55
Construction of Cavity Magnetron 56
 Construction of Cavity Magnetron 57

 This Cavity Magnetron has 8 cavities tightly coupled to each

other.
 An N-cavity magnetron has N modes of operations. These
operations depend upon the frequency and the phase of
oscillations.
 The total phase shift around the ring of this cavity resonators
should be 2nπ where n is an integer.
 Construction of Cavity Magnetron 58

 If ϕv represents the relative phase change of the AC electric

field across adjacent cavities, then
𝟐𝝅𝒏
∅𝑽 =
𝑵
Where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ……(±N/2 -1), ±N/2
 Which means that N/2 mode of resonance can exist if N is an
even number.
 Construction of Cavity Magnetron 59

𝑵
 If 𝒏 = , then
𝟐
∅𝑽 = 𝝅
 This mode of resonance is called as π−mode.
 If 𝒏 = 𝟎 , then
∅𝑽 = 𝟎
 This is called as the Zero mode, because there will be no RF
electric field between the anode and the cathode.
 This is also called as Fringing Field and this mode is not used in
magnetrons.
 Operation of Magnetron 60

 In a magnetron, the source of electrons is a heated cathode

located on the axis of an anode structure containing a number
of microwave resonators.
 Electrons leave the cathode and are accelerated toward the
anode, due to the dc field established by the voltage source E.
 The presence of a strong magnetic field B in the region
between cathode and anode produces a force on each electron
which is mutually perpendicular to the dc field and the
electron velocity vectors, thereby causing the electrons to
spiral away from the cathode in paths of varying curvature,
depending upon the initial electron velocity at the time it
leaves the cathode.
61
 Operation of Magnetron 62
 The electron path under the influence of different strength of the
magnetic field

 As this cloud of electrons approaches the anode, it falls under the

influence of the RF fields at the vane tips, and electrons will
either be retarded in velocity, if they happen to face an opposing
RF field, or accelerated if they are in the vicinity of an aiding RF
field.
 Operation of Magnetron 63

 Since the force on an electron due to the magnetic field B is

proportional to the electron velocity through the field, the
retarded velocity electrons will experience less "curling
force" and will therefore drift toward the anode, while the
accelerated velocity electrons will curl back away from the
anode.
 The result is an automatic collection of electron "spokes" as
the cloud nears the anode with each spoke located at a
resonator having an opposing RF field.
 Operation of Magnetron 64
 On the next half cycle of RF oscillation, the RF field pattern
will have reversed polarity and the spoke pattern will rotate
to maintain its presence in an opposing field.

The high-frequency electrical field