1

Chapter 3
RF & M/W Network
Theory and Analysis
PRESENTED BY:
KOBID KARKEE
KANTIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DHAPAKHEL, LALITPUR
Microwave Network Analysis 2

 A microwave network consists of microwave devices and

components (sources, attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers,
etc.) coupled together by transmission lines or waveguides for
the desired transmission of microwave signals through ports.
 The point of intersection of two or more signals, devices,
components, circuits or modules is called port or simply
junction.
 Circuits operating at low frequencies, for which the circuit
dimensions are small relative to the wavelength, can be treated
as an interconnection of lumped passive or active components
with unique voltages and currents defined at any point in the
circuit.
Microwave Network Analysis 3

 In the case of microwave, the circuit dimensions are small

enough so that there is negligible phase change from one point
in the circuit to another.
 So far we’ve used Maxwell’s equations and transmission line
theory to understand concepts of propagation and impedance.
However we don’t want to build only transmission line, we want
to build filters, amplifiers and oscillators.
 At microwave frequencies, we cannot use the KCL and KVL
techniques of low frequency analysis to determine the transfer
characteristics of a network.
Microwave Network Analysis 4

 Also we don’t want to solve Maxwell's equations for every

network. This gives us more information than is necessary and it
is too hard.
 Subsequently we need another set of techniques for the analysis
of circuits and systems at microwave frequencies, one that
combines circuit analysis with wave theory.
 Two Port Networks 5

 A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network) is a

electrical network or device with two pairs of terminals to
connect to external circuits.
 Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them
satisfy the essential requirement known as the port condition:
the electric current entering one terminal must equal the current
emerging from the other terminal on the same port.
 The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to
other networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs
are taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the
input port and port 2 is considered the output port.
 Two Port Networks 6
 The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit
analysis techniques to isolate portions of larger circuits.
 A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its
properties specified by a matrix of numbers. This allows the
response of the network to signals applied to the ports to be
calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and
currents in the network.
 It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily.
For example, transistors are often regarded as two-ports,
characterized by their h-parameters which are listed by the
manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be
regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain
an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.
 Two Port Networks 7

 Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching

networks, transmission lines, transformers and small-signal
models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model). The
analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth
of reciprocity theorems.
 Two port networks can be describes in many ways:
 Z-parameters:
𝑽𝟏 𝒁𝟏𝟏 𝒁𝟏𝟐 𝑰𝟏
=
𝑽𝟐 𝒁𝟐𝟏 𝒁𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝟐
 Y-Parameters:
𝑰𝟏 𝒀𝟏𝟏 𝒀𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟏
=
𝑰𝟐 𝒀𝟐𝟏 𝒀𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐
 Limitations of ABCD, Y, Z and h-
8
Parameters
 Physical length of the components or devices at low frequencies
are much smaller than the electrical wavelength (λ) of the
signal.
 Therefore the measurable input and output values are voltage
and current analyzed in terms of ABCD, Y, Z and h-parameters
with well-defined termination conditions .
 These parameters are analyzed under short or open circuit
conditions.
 But in microwaves open or short circuit conditions are not
easily achievable and terminating active devices, this way can
damage the devices due to the total reflection of power back
into the devices.
 Limitations of ABCD, Y, Z and h-
9
Parameters
 Open or short circuit conditions often results in oscillation for a wide
range of frequencies for active devices such as the transistor and
negative resistance diode.
 At microwave frequencies, physical length of the component and
devices are comparable or much larger than the electrical wavelength
(λ) of the signal.
 Hence the voltage and current are not well defined at each discrete
point. So a distributive analysis is required.
 Z, Y, ABCD and h-parameters often change the biasing conditions such
as junction capacitances at higher frequencies.
 There’s unavailability of equipment to measure RF/MW total current
and voltage .
 Solutions: 10

 Input-output behavior of network is defined in terms of

normalized power waves.
 Ratio of the power waves is recorded , called scattering
parameters.
 S-parameters are measured based on properly terminated
transmission lines (not open/short circuit conditions)
 S-parameters 11
 The S-parameters are members of a family of similar parameters, other
examples being: Y-parameters, Z-parameters, H-parameters, and
ABCD-parameters. They differ from these, in the sense that S-
parameters do not use open or short circuit conditions to characterize a
linear electrical network; instead, matched loads are used.
 These terminations are much easier to use at high signal frequencies
than open-circuit and short-circuit terminations. Moreover, the
quantities are measured in terms of power.
 Many electrical properties of networks of components
(inductors, capacitors, resistors) may be expressed using S-parameters,
such as gain, return loss, voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR), reflection coefficient and amplifier stability.
 S-parameters 12
 The term 'scattering' is more common to optical engineering than
RF engineering, referring to the effect observed when a plane
electromagnetic wave is incident on an obstruction or passes across
dissimilar dielectric media.
 In the context of S-parameters, scattering refers to the way in
which the traveling currents and voltages in a transmission line are
affected when they meet a discontinuity caused by the insertion of
a network into the transmission line. This is equivalent to the wave
meeting an impedance differing from the line's characteristic
impedance.
 S-parameters 13
 Although applicable at any frequency, S-parameters are mostly
used for networks operating at radio frequency (RF) and microwave
frequencies where signal power and energy considerations are more
easily quantified than currents and voltages.
 S-parameters change with the measurement frequency, so frequency
must be specified for any S-parameter measurements stated, in
addition to the characteristic impedance or system impedance.
 S-parameters are different, and are defined in terms of incident
and reflected waves at ports.
 S-parameters are used primarily at UHF and microwave frequencies
where it becomes difficult to measure voltages and currents
directly.
 S-parameters 14
 Incident and reflected power are easy to measure using directional
couplers.
b1 S11 S12 a1
=
b2 S21 S22 a2
where the ak are the incident waves and the bk are the reflected waves at
port k. It is conventional to define the ak and bk in terms of the square
root of power.
 For reciprocal networks S12 = S21.
 For symmetrical networks S11=S22 .
 For antimetrical networks S11=-S22. For lossless reciprocal networks
𝑆11 = 𝑆22 and 𝑆11 2 + 𝑆22 2 =1.
 15
S-parameters are measured by sending a single frequency signal into the
network or “black box” and detecting what waves exit from each port.

Power, voltage and current

can be considered to be in
the form of waves travelling
in both directions.

For a wave incident on Port 1,

some part of this signal
reflects back out of that port
and some portion of the signal
exits other ports.
 16
What does S11 refers to?

S11 refers to the signal

reflected at Port 1 for the
signal incident at Port 1.

Scattering parameter S11

is the ratio of the two
waves b1/a1.
 17
What does S21,S22 and S12 refers to?

S21 refers to the signal

exiting at Port 2 for the
signal incident at Port
1.

Scattering parameter
S21
is the ratio of the two
waves b2/a1.
18
19
Scattering Matrix 20
 Problem arises in measuring currents and voltages at
microwave frequencies.
 However they can be derived from measurable quantities
such as VSWR, reflection coefficient, power, etc.
 The easiest parameters to measure are incident and reflected
power.
 The optimum test conditions are when the two ports are
terminated in matched loads.
 For describing and analyzing a microwave network the input
and output parameters are defined by scattering matrix.
Scattering Matrix 21

 Scattering matrix is also known as S-matrix or S-parameters.

 Scattering matrices are widely used in RF and microwave
frequencies for component modelling, component specifications
and circuit design.
 S-parameters can be measured by network analyzers.
 For a general n-port network, the s-matrix is given in the
following equations:
ai = incident wave voltages at port i
bi = reflected wave voltages at port i
 Properties of S-matrix 22

A generalized n-port has n2 scattering coefficients. While the Sij may be

all independent, in general due to symmetries etc. the number of
independent coefficients is much smaller.
 An n-port is reciprocal when Sij = Sji for all i and j. Most passive
components are reciprocal (resistors, capacitors, transformers, etc.,
except for structures involving magnetized ferrites, plasmas etc.),
active components such as amplifiers are generally non-reciprocal.
 A two-port is symmetric, when it is reciprocal (S21 = S12) and when
the input and output reflection coefficients are equal (S22 = S11).
 For any matched port i, Sii=0.
Properties of S-matrix 23

 For a lossless and reciprocal network

𝑁 𝑁
∗
෍ 𝑆𝑛𝑖 2 = ෍ 𝑆𝑛𝑖. 𝑆𝑛𝑖 =1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
 In general the S-parameters are complex and frequency
dependent.
 Larger networks:
• A Network may have any 24
number of ports.
• The S-matrix for an n-port
network contains n2
coefficients (S-parameters),
each one representing a
possible input-output path.
• The number of rows and
columns in an S-parameters
matrix is equal to the number
of ports.
• For the S-parameter subscripts
“ij”, “j” is the port that is
excited (the input port) and “i”
is the output port.
Two Port Network Analysis 25

General Two port Network

Two port Network with Ports Terminated in Matched Loads

Two Port Network Analysis 26

 Incident and reflected amplitudes at any point gives average power.

 Hence there exists three power components:
 Incident Power (Pi)
 Transmitted Power (Pt)
 Reflected Power (Pr)
 Accordingly network can be analyzed with the reflection coefficient
(Г) which depends upon point of insights.
 When looked towards the input port, reflection coefficient is given
by Гs.
 When looking towards the network from input port, it is given by Гs.
Two Port Network Analysis 27

 When looking towards network from port 2, it is Гout.

 When looking towards the load from network it is ГL.
 The same network can be defined by S-matrix.

where,
S11 = parameter describing input.
S22 = parameter describing output.
S12 and S21 = parameters describing the network.
Two Port Network Analysis 28

 If the output parameters are defined by matrix [b] and input

parameters by matrix [a], then
[b] = [S][a]
 For two port network

 Thus,
Two Port Network Analysis 29
 Hence, from above equations
Two Port Network Analysis 30

 Signal flow diagram

 In other words,
S11 = Return loss at port 1.
S22 = Return loss at port 2.
S12 = Isolation loss.
S21 = Insertion loss.
 Losses in the Network 31
 Consider 2-port network as
shown
Losses in the Network 32
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