Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

DOI 10.1007/s11069-009-9392-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

The Wenchuan Earthquake (May 12, 2008), Sichuan

Province, China, and resulting geohazards

Peng Cui Æ Xiao-Qing Chen Æ Ying-Yan Zhu Æ Feng-Huan Su Æ

Fang-Qiang Wei Æ Yong-Shun Han Æ Hong-Jiang Liu Æ Jian-Qi Zhuang

Received: 15 August 2008 / Accepted: 2 February 2009 / Published online: 29 April 2009
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract On Monday, May 12, 2008, a devastating mega-earthquake of magnitude 8.0

struck the Wenchuan area, northwestern Sichuan Province, China. The focal mechanism of
the earthquake was successive massive rock fracturing 15 km in depth at Yingxiu. Seismic
analysis confirms that the major shock occurred on the Beichuan–Yingxiu Fault and that
aftershocks rapidly extended in a straight northeast–southeast direction along the Long-
menshan Fault zone. Fatalities approaching a total of 15,000 occurred, with a significant
number resulting from four types of seismically triggered geohazards—rock avalanches
and landslides, landslide-dammed lakes (‘‘earthquake lakes’’), and debris flows. China
Geological Survey has identified 4,970 potentially risky sites, 1,701 landslides, 1,844 rock
avalanches, 515 debris flows, and 1,093 unstable slopes. Rock avalanches and landslides
caused many fatalities directly and disrupted the transportation system, extensively dis-
rupting rescue efforts and thereby causing additional fatalities. Landslide-dammed lakes
not only flooded human habitats in upstream areas but also posed threats to potentially
inundated downstream areas with large populations. Debris flows become the most
remarkable geohazards featured by increasing number, high frequency, and low triggering
rainfall. Earthquake-triggered geohazards sequentially induced and transformed to addi-
tional hazards. For example, debris flows occurred on rock avalanches and landslides,
followed by landslide-dammed lakes, and then by additional debris flows and breakouts of
the landslide-dammed lakes and downstream flooding. Earthquake-induced geohazards
occurred mainly along the fault zone and decreased sharply with distance from the fault. It
can be anticipated that post-earthquake geohazards, particularly for debris flows, will
continue for 5–10 years and even for as long as 20 years. An integrated strategy of
continuing emergency response and economic reconstruction is required. The lesson from
Wenchuan Earthquake is that the resulted geohazards may appear in large number in active
fault regions. A plan for geohazard prevention in the earthquake-active mountainous areas
is needed in advance.

P. Cui (&)
X.-Q. Chen
Y.-Y. Zhu
F.-H. Su
F.-Q. Wei
Y.-S. Han
H.-J. Liu
J.-Q. Zhuang
The Key Laboratory of Mountain Hazards and Earth Surface Process, CAS, Chengdu, China
e-mail: pengcui@imde.ac.cn

P. Cui
X.-Q. Chen
Y.-Y. Zhu
F.-H. Su
F.-Q. Wei
Y.-S. Han
H.-J. Liu
J.-Q. Zhuang
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS, Chengdu, China

123
20 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Keywords Wenchuan Earthquake
Geohazards
Avalanches
Landslides

Dammed lakes/Earthquake lakes
Debris-flows

1 Introduction

The devastating Wenchuan Earthquake struck the Wenchuan County, southwest of Sich-
uan Province, China, with a magnitude of 8.0 at 14:28 local time on May 12, 2008. It
affected more than half of China and was felt even in Beijing, the capital of China in the
north, and in Shanghai, the biggest city of China in the east. It brought devastation to seven
provinces or municipalities, including Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Chongqing, Shanxi,
Guizhou and Hubei. The epicenter of the Wenchuan Earthquake was located in Yingxiu
Town (31.00° N, 103.40° E), 75 km west of Chengdu City according to the China Seismic
Monitoring Network (Fig. 1). The main earthquake zone extended from the west edge of
Sichuan Basin to the northeast along the Longmenshan Fault along a length of 300 km,
severely impacting 13 counties of Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi Provinces. Within the zone
of severe shock, housings, roads, hydropower stations, communication facilities, and many
other structures were totally demolished. Large previously populous areas of Beichuan
County, Yingxiu Town, and Xuankou Town actually no longer exist and have become

Fig. 1 Location of the Wenchuan earthquake and the aftershocks

123
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 21

graveyards. The direct economic loss due to the quake is estimated at as much as
150 billion USD. As of July 28, 69,200 people were known to have perished in the
earthquake, 18,195 people are reported missing, 374,216 were injured, 5.36 million
housing units collapsed, and 21.42 million housing units were severely damaged.
Numerous geohazards were triggered by the initial shock, including rock avalanches, rock
flows, landslides, and debris flows. Debris flowed into the Minjiang River and other rivers
in many reaches, creating approximately 33 major natural dams impounding earthquake
lakes. The resulting lakes not only inundated inhabited areas, roads, and farmlands
upstream but also pose a threat to large downstream cities in the event of blockage failures,
particularly if failures occur sequentially. Earthquake lakes are regarded as the most
dangerous geohazard resulting from this event, and mitigation efforts to lower or drain the
lakes or stabilize the blockages are an extreme priority.

2 Geological setting and seismicity characteristics

2.1 Geological setting

The Wenchuan Earthquake occurred along the northeast-orientated Longmenshan Fault.

As a famous active thrust-fault at the conjunction of the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau
and the western margin of the Sichuan Basin, the Longmenshan Fault separates the active
Tibetan Block and the latent Sichuan Basin Block (Densmore et al. 2007). Generally, the
Longmenshan Fault is assumed to have been formed in the Mesozoic; it developed
throughout the Cenozoic with the collision of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate, resulting
in tectonic deformation and rapid uplift of Longmenshan Mountain (Burchfiel et al. 1995;
Meade 2007). The Longmenshan Fault is composed of three branch thrust faults (the Back
fault, the Central fault, and the Front fault) with several overthrusts. The Back fault is a
reverse fault with NE 250–450 orientation, extending from Wenchuan County to Maoxian
County, and is made up of a series of reverse imbricate faults with the same NW incli-
nation. The Central fault is a thrust fault with NE 350–450 orientation, extending from
Yingxiu County to Beichuan County. The Front fault extends from Pengxian County to
Guanxian City with the same behavior as the Back fault. The Central fault and the Front
fault both exhibit dextral strike-slip movements along the Longmenshan Fault zone,
distributed continuously along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau for 200 km
(Densmore et al. 2007). The two above-mentioned faults have had higher slip rates
(1–10 mm/yr) than throw rates (\1 mm/yr) since the Epipleistocene.

2.2 Seismicity characteristics

2.2.1 Main shock

The Wenchuan Earthquake occurred along the Longmenshan Fault zone that is deforming
as a result of the collision between two tectonics plates, the Indian plate and the Eurasian
plate. The Indian plate pushes into the Eurasian plate, forcing the Tibetan Plateau to uplift
rapidly. The eastern part of the Tibetan block flows slowly to extrude itself to the east
along the Longmenshan tectonic zone. When eastward movement of the Tibetan mass was
blocked by the rigid Sichuan Basin, the earthquake occurred at Wenchuan as a result of the
accumulation of tectonic strains to a critical level.

123
22 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Data from the China Earthquake Administration indicate that the Wenchuan Earthquake
initially originated from the Center fault, the Beichuan–Yingxiu Fault of the Longmenshan
fault zone. The epicenter of the initial shock was localized at Yingxiu County (30.94° N,
103.47° E) with the locus of the subsequent shock moving to Beichuan (31.82° N,
104.45° E). The movement on the Center fault propagated from the southwest to the
northeast at a rate of 2.8–3.1 km/s, lasting 120 s along a length of 120 km, affecting a
width of 30 km (the south end) and 15 km (the north end), with a total rupture length of
around 300 km. The earthquake was classified as a macroscopic linear fault earthquake.
Analysis of seismological measurements indicates that the hypocenter was localized at
the brittle–ductile transition zone of the lithosphere, averaging 20 km depth along the
Longmenshan Fault ([20 km in depth at the south end and 10 km at the north end). The
focal mechanism was assumed to be right-lateral strike-slip with a thrusting motion with an
orientation of 230°, inclined NW at an angle of 40°. Movement on the Beichuan–Yingxiu
section of the Longmenshan fault was predominately thrusting, in contrast to right-lateral
strike-slip motion to the north of Beichuan. The earthquake was characterized by mac-
roscopic linear distribution of slip along the fault, and seismic intensity appeared to
decrease with distance away from the rupture zone.

2.2.2 Aftershocks

As is often the case for earthquakes on reverse faults, aftershocks are of high intensity and
long duration due to a lag in tectonic strain release. The aftershocks of the Wenchuan
Earthquake embodied the aforesaid traits.
Figure 2 is a graph of recent aftershocks. As of 10 AM June 5, a sum of 10,254
aftershocks had been detected by the China Earthquake Monitoring Web. Among these
aftershocks, the number with a magnitude 4.0 and above was 197, 166 had magnitudes
4–4.9, 26 had magnitudes 5.0–5.9, and five aftershocks occurred with magnitudes of 6.0 or
greater. The strongest aftershock was of magnitude 6.4.
Within 10 h after the major shock of May 12, there occurred one aftershock of 6.0 Mw,
and 12 of [5.0 Mw. As time passed, the number decreased, but the magnitude remained
high. Two weeks after the major quake, an aftershock of magnitude 6.4 Mw occurred. The
aftershocks occurred mainly in the middle and northern portion of the Longmenshan Fault
zone. Aftershocks showed a tendency of moving to the north-east along the Longmenshan
Fault zone, moving toward Wenxian County in Gansu Province and Ningqiang County in

Fig. 2 Aftershocks series of the Longmenshan earthquake as of 10 AM June 5, 2008

123
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 23

Shaanxi Province. Aftershocks mainly moved to the southwest along the Longmenshan
Fault zone (Fig. 1).

3 Geohazards induced by the earthquake

3.1 General perspective of earthquake-induced geohazards

The major shock of Wenchuan Earthquake with Seismic intensity 11 inevitably impaired
the stability of mountains in the course of massive reverse-thrust strike-slip motion in the
fault zone. Subsequent aftershocks further affected the stability of mountains, creating
future geohazards.
Figure 3 provides a post-earthquake ADS-format aerial photo of Tianchi village in the
vicinity of Mianzhu city. Table 1 presents the analysis for the remote sensing images of the
Fig. 3. Rock avalanches and landslides account for 81% of the area of geohazards and for
40.47% of the entire area in the photo. The survey carried out by China Geological Survey
immediately after the earthquake identified approximately 15,000 new geohazards with the
types of rock avalanche, landslide, and debris-flow, and 4,970 potentially risky sites
making up of 1,701 landslides, 1,844 rock avalanches, 515 debris-flows, and 1,093
unstable slopes (Yin 2008). Rock avalanches and landslides rank as the most common
geohazard induced by the earthquake, as well as the hazard with the greatest future
potential, and thus, those areas should prioritized for emergency rescue activity and post-
earthquake mitigation projects.

Fig. 3 A post-earthquake image of Tianchi village in the vicinity of Mianzhu City. Geohazards are
schematically indicated (Distance left to right approx. 4 km; View towards north by west 258). (Image from
the Chinese State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping)

123
24 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Table 1 Geohazards interpreted from the remote-sensing images in Fig. 3

Types Area (km2) Percentage

Proportion of Proportion of the

geohazard area (%) entire area (%)

Rock avalanches and landslides 4.40 81 40.5

Debris flows 1.01 18.4 9.3
Earthquake lakes 0.08 1.5 0.8
Total types of geohazards 5.50 100 50.5

3.2 Types of earthquake geohazards

3.2.1 Rock avalanches and landslides

Rock avalanches and landslides were common geohazards induced by the earthquake.
They swept the whole earthquake area with irresistible devastation. As of June 18, 2008,
geological survey in Sichuan Province figured out 5,836 earthquake-triggered geohazards,
including 3,286 landslides, l,218 rock avalanches, 460 debris-flows, and 872 others.
Among them, landslides and rock avalanches occupy 77.18% of the total (Lin et al. 2008).
These events caused heavy losses by destroying roads, smashing vehicles, burying villages,
blocking rivers, and claiming the lives of many local people (Cui et al. 2008). Sichuan
Bureau of Land and Resources indicated that about 20,000 of death toll were caused by
landslides and rock avalanches, and that 23 landslides killed more than 30 persons each.
A typical case is Beichuan Town where over 2,000 people are still buried (Fig. 4). The
events also gravely impeded all rescue actions by the Chinese Government in the first
2 days following the earthquake by blocking off all access to the severely impacted zone
(Table 2).

Fig. 4 A landslide and a rock avalanche killed over 2,000 people in Beichuan town (View towards north by
west 308). (Image from the Chinese State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping)

123
 Table 2 Traffic disruption and recovery time during the Wenchuan Earthquake
Highway blocking Causes Resumption Interval for traffic Locations waiting for rescue
time resumption(h)

Doujiangyan–Yingxiu Rock avalanche, Landslide, Bridge collapse 17:00, May 17 122.5 Yingxiu Town
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Yingxiu–Wenchuan Rock avalanche, Landslide, Bridge collapse Keep breaking [555.5 Wenchuan county
Wenchuan–Lixian Landslide, Rock avalanche, Debris flow 21:30, May 15 79 Lixian
Wenchuan–Maoxian Landslide, Collapse, Barrier lake 17:00, May 21 218.5 Maoxian
Maoxian–Heishui Rock avalanche, Landslide 17:00, May 16 98.5 Heishui county
Yingxiu–Wolong Rock avalanche, Landslide Keep breaking [555.5 Wolong Town, Gengda Town
Luoshui of Shifang– Rock avalanche, Landslide, Bridge collapse 17:00, May 23 266.5 Luoshui Town and Hongbai Town of Shifang
Hongbai Town
Hanwang of Mianzhu– Barrier lake group, Landslide, Rock avalanche 17:00, May 22 242.5 Qingping Town of Mianzhu
Qingping
Anchang Town–Beichuan Landslide, Rock avalanche, Land crack 17:00, May 13 26.5 Beichuan county
Beichuan–Maoxian Earthquake lakes group, Landslide, Keep breaking [555.5 Touns and Villages of Beichuan county
Rock avalanche, Bridge collapse and Maoxian County
Beichuan–Tongkou Town Rock avalanche, Barrier lake Keep breaking [555.5 Tongkou Town
Liangshui, Qingchuan– Rock avalanche, Landslide 17:00, May 19 170.5 Tangjiahe Natural Protection Area, Guangzhuang
Tangjiahe Town, Hongguang Town, etc.
Liangshui of Qingchuan– Rock avalanche, Landslide 17:00, May 19 170.5 Qingchuan county
Qingchuan county seat
Liangshui Rock avalanche, Landslide 17:00, May 19 170.5 Liangshui Town of Qingchuan
of Qingchuan–Jiange
Jiangyou–Nanba Town Rock avalanche, Landslide 17:00, May 20 194.5 Nanba Town
25

123
 26
Table 2 continued
Highway blocking Causes Resumption Interval for traffic Locations waiting for rescue
time resumption(h)

123
Nanba–Pingwu Rock avalanche, Landslide, Barrier lake 17:00, May 19 170.5 Pingwu county
Sangzao Town of Anxian– Landslip, Landslide, Barrier lake group Keep breaking [555.5 Qianfoshan Scenery Area, Chaping Town
Qianfoshan
Doujiangyan–Hongkou Town Rock avalanche, Landslide, 12:00, May 19 165.5 Hongkou Town
Yinchanggou of Pengzhou– Rock avalanche, Landslide, Barrier lake Keep breaking [555.5 Yinchanggou Scenery Area,
Baishuihe Baishuihe Town
Traffic disrupting events listed above were collected by 18:00, June 4, 2008
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 27

3.2.2 Earthquake lakes

Earthquake lakes are the most dangerous earthquake geohazards (Costa 1985; Costa and
Schuster 1991; Kallen et al. 2006). Massive landslides running down into river valleys
commonly block drainages, raising the water level upstream and flooding roads, villages,
towns, and farmlands. The Wenchuan Earthquake created many large earthquake lakes as
illustrated in Fig. 5. Analysis of remote-sensing images and field investigations indentified
32 lakes in perilous scattered over the disaster area, posing great threats to the safety of
villages and towns downstream in the event of blockage collapse. It also identified 8 lakes
in Beichuan, 3 in Qingchuan, 3 in Anxian, 1 in Pingwu, 4 in Mianzhu, 7 in Shifang, 2 in
Pengzhou, and 4 in Chongzhou. Table 3 depicts the features of the major earthquake lakes.
Some small lakes began to be breached on May 17.
Field investigation of four earthquake lakes in the Chaping River at Anxian, the Ton-
gkou River at Beichuan, and the Qing River at Qingchuan found that the blockages are
commonly characterized by loose consolidation, low soil strength, and huge volume.
Collapse is highly probably once water overflows the blockage surface. It is possible that a
series of dam collapses could occur successively, creating huge flood surges that would
threaten towns far downstream. The largest lake dammed by landslide debris of
2.04 9 107 m3 is located at Tangjiashan, 3.2 km upstream from Beichuan Town. It has an

Fig. 5 Distribution of major earthquake lakes

123
 28

Table 3 The features of the major earthquake lakes in the quake-hit area

123
No. Name Location Landslide Dam Element(s) at risk
6 3 6 3
County River Longitude Latitude Length/m Width/m High/m Volume/10 m Storage/10 m

1 Tangjiashan Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.42890 31.84492 803 82–124 20.37 302.0 Beichuan, Jiangyou,
Mianyang city, over 1
million people
2 Kuzhuba Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.45710 31.84845 300 200 60 2.00 Beichaun county, 70,000
residents
3 Xinjiecun Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.45330 31.83556 350 200 20 2.0 2.0 ibidem
4 Baiguocun Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.45320 31.82890 200 100 10–20 0.4
5 Yanyangtan Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.48570 31.85311 20–30 4.0 ibidem
6 Sunjiayuanzi Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.51360 31.86719 180 50 5.6 Two reinhabited areas
and 15,000 residents
7 Guanzipu Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.55040 31.85276 390 60 5.9 ibidem
8 Tangjiawan Beichuan Tongkuo river 104.56930 31.90428 300 30 2.0 2.0 ibidem
9 Nanba Pingwu Shikan river 104.86310 32.22407 25–50 6.0 5.0 3 small towns and 40,000
residents
10 Shibangou Qingchuan Qing river 105.10900 32.43160 300–400 800 70–80 16.0–22.4 10.0 19 villages and town and
150,000 residents
11 Donghekou Qingchuan Qing river 105.12600 32.41540 700–800 300–400 20 10.0 3.0 ibidem
12 Hongshihe Qingchuan Qing river 500 400 50 4.0–6.0 2.0–3.0 ibidem
13 Xiaojiaqiao Anxian Chaping river 104.27010 31.65805 61 2.0 20.0 6 towns and 77000 residents
14 Guantan Anxian Jushui river 104.23880 31.50451 120 60 1.2 10.0 ibidem
15 Laoyingyan Anxian Ganhezi river 104.25700 31.72970 180 20.0
16 Heidongya Mianzhu Mianyuan river 104.11440 31.58427 30–50 120 50–80 0.4
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36
 Table 3 continued
No. Name Location Landslide Dam Element(s) at risk
6 3 6 3
County River Longitude Latitude Length/m Width/m High/m Volume/10 m Storage/10 m

17 Xiaogangjian 1# Mianzhu Mianyuan river 104.13980 31.49302 300 150 62–72 1.6 6 towns and 200,000
residents
18 Xiaogangjian 2# Mianzhu Mianyuan river 104.14690 31.49338 150 150 30 0.8 6 towns and 200,000
residents
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

19 Yibadao Mianzhu Mianyuan river 104.14970 31.48939 30–40 0.1 1.0 6 towns and 200,000
residents
20 Ganhekou Shifang Shiting river 103.99400 31.44766 0.5
21 Macaotan 1# Shifang Shiting river 100 300 40–50 2.0 7 km2 and 5,000
residents
22 Macaotan 2# Shifang Shiting river 90 80 40–50 0.2 5 km2 and 4,500
residents
23 Macaotan 3# Shifang Shiting river 80–100 60 30 0.14 4 km2 and 4,000
residents
24 Muguaping Shifang Shiting river 100 20–30 15 0.2 4 km2 and 2,000
residents
25 Yanziyan Shifang Shiting river 104.06940 31.52471 30 20 10 5 km2 and 2,000
residents
26 Hongcun Power Shifang Shiting river 100 60 37 0.26 6 towns and 200,000
Station residents
27 Fengmingqiao Pengzhou Shajin river 103.81360 31.19547 300 80 10 1.8
28 Xiejiadianzi Pengzhou Shajin river 250 70 10 1.0 8,000 residents
29 Zhugendingqiao Chongzhou Wenjing River 103.40000 30.78770 500 68 90 3.0 4.5 1,600 residents
30 Huoshigou Chongzhou Wenjing River 103.45000 30.75060 500 40 120 2.4 1.5 150 residents
31 Haiziping Chongzhou Wenjing River 103.48400 30.75970 70 1,200 8 0.67 3.0 1,200 residents
32 Liudinggou Chongzhou Wenjing River 103.38000 30.80260 500 50 60 1.5 3.0 1,200 residents
29

123
30 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Fig. 6 Overview of Tangjiashan earthquake-induced landslide lake (Distance from left to right approx.
3.0 km; View towards north). (Image from the Chinese State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping)

estimated water storage capacity of 3.15 9 108 m3, and a submerged area over 8.9 km2 up
to Zhicheng Town 23 km upstream from the dam. The water level rose at the end of May
and increased the risk of dam outburst greatly threatening the lives and property of more
than 1 million people downstream in Mianyang City (Fig. 6). Additional smaller lakes
were formed in tributaries, but cannot be recognized on the current remote-sensing images
due to low resolution. These lakes also pose a potential threat to inhabitants nearby.

3.2.3 Debris flows

The landslides and rock avalanches produced abundant unconsolidated materials as the
source of debris flows in the affected areas. In addition, the earthquake widely increased
slope instability, providing more rock debris for the initiation of future debris flows. The
large volume of loose material in valleys is easily swept away during rainstorm and turns
into debris flows. Field survey identified 515 new debris flows during early rainy season in
May and June—460 in Sichuan Province, 50 in Gansu Province, and 5 in Shaanxi Province
(Lin et al. 2008). The debris flows distribute along faults and extremely develops on the
hanging wall of the Beichuan–Yingxiu Fault, an active thrusting block.
On September 23 and 24, 2008, a rainstorm triggered numerous debris flows in the
disaster area. There were 72 debris flows occurred along the road only in Beichuan County
caused by the rainfall of 231.7 mm, resulting in 42 deaths. In Beichuan old town, a debris
flow from Weijia gully filled up 3 m on average and even more than 10 m near original
flow path. Debris flow made the situation worse by burying a part of Beichuan Town where
the earthquake museum was supposed to be constructed (Fig. 7). Moreover, the debris flow
increased the risk to the town.

123
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 31

Fig. 7 The destroyed scenes after earthquake combined with landslides (left) and after debris flow on
September 24, 2008 (right). Debris flow made the situation worse by burying part of Beichuan town where
the earthquake museum suppose to be constructed (View towards north)

3.3 Origins of geohazards

Serious disasters are mainly focused on the Longmenshan Mountain area, 2,500–3,500 m
in altitude in the southwest and 2,500–4,000 m in the north. The highest peak is Jiuding
Mountain in Mao County, with the summit at 4,984 m altitude. The general altitude of the
northeast section in Longmenshan Mountain area is 1,500–2500 m, and the peak altitude is
about 3,000 m. In general, the central area is the highest and the northeast is the lowest.
The southwest section of the Longmenshan Mountain area is transitional with the front of
the Tibetan Plateau. The high relief of the Plateau contrasts sharply with the lesser relief of
the Chengdu Basin.
The mountainous environment of the impacted region greatly increases its vulnerability
to earthquake-triggered geohazards. Alpine gorges with an average valley-side slope of
25–35° are common in the Longmenshan Mountain area, where most of the slopes are
inherently unstable. Steep areas underlain by rock with slope-parallel bedding planes are
particularly unstable. Rock avalanches increased in volume and triggered other failures as
they impacted areas of poorly consolidated rock during flow. Debris flows are common
throughout the region where they are initiated by rainfall, groundwater, and other water
dynamic factors.
A large number of river meanders occur in the region due to intensive erosion, and
slopes above concave bends are particularly unstable because of basal erosion. Such slopes
failed readily during the earthquake, yielding large-scale landslides and rock avalanches
that blocked the rivers and created earthquake lakes. Large-scale debris flows from slopes
and tributaries also blocked valleys and generated earthquake lakes.
The middle and southerly portion of the fracture zone orients river courses and forms
fault cliffs and other forms of fault-zone topography. Late Quaternary strata in the fault
zone are of low strength and high sensitivity to collapse, especially under the vibrative load
of earthquake.
All these conditions are in favor of the geohazards, which often appear in chain:
landslip, landslide or debris flow ? landslide lake ? outburst flood.

3.4 Characteristics of geohazard distribution

By field investigations and remote sensing interpretation immediately after the earthquake,
the authors featured out a total of 6,108 rock avalanches and landslides. However, this

123
32 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

1600

1400
Landslide number
1200 <0.01km2
0.01-0.1km2
1000 0.1-0.2km2
800 0.2-0.5km2
1-0.5km2
600
>1km2
400

200

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Distance to earthquake fracture(Km)

Fig. 8 Relationship between the number of earthquake-induced landslides and their distance to the major
fault rupture

number is only part of the actual total because the remote-sensing images were not clear
enough to support further geohazard delineation by June 4. Otherwise, our preliminarily
analysis confirms that the relationship between the number of earthquake-induced land-
slides decreases logarithmically with distance from the major rupture (Fig. 8).
Figure 8 demonstrates that mega-landslides with a projective area greater than 1 km2
are restricted to within 15 km of the major rupture. Earthquake-induced lakes were
impounded by mega-landslides and rock avalanches that were similarly concentrated along
the fault. As a rule, geohazard occurrence varied inversely with distance from the fault.
Although the distribution was consistent with general seismic intensity, it was most
commonly recognized along highways. Figure 9 illustrates the rule. Within 48 km of No.
312 highway from Xuankon Town to Yingxiu Town, landslides distributed along the
highway totaled 159 cases with a density of 3.3/km. Highway geohazards reflected the fact
that slopes on the both sides of highway had been impaired during original road
construction.

4 Long-term trends of geohazards

Due to the deep gorges and quasi-stable slopes in the mountainous area, geohazards are
constantly frequent even before Wenchuan Earthquake. The Intensive shock of the
earthquake resulted in numerous unstable slopes and unconsolidated material as well as
geohazards themselves. The survey data (Fig. 10) indicate the significant increase of
geohazards after the earthquake (Yin 2008). It means that Longmenshan Mountains have
stepped into a new episode of active development of geohazards.
It will take some time for slopes to resume stable states, in large part by restoration of
vegetation on failed slopes. Geohazards from the unstable slopes will be initiated by
rainstorm during rainy season for 5–10 years and massive landslides will probably block
rivers and form lakes.
Rock avalanches and landslides induced by earthquakes have produced abundant loose
debris, ready for incorporation in debris flows during the rainy season. The Lu-huo
Earthquake (7.9 magnitude) in Sichuan in 1973 produced debris flows in groups and
sequences (Tian 1986), and the Songpan-Pingwu Earthquake (7.2 magnitude) in 1976

123
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 33

Fig. 9 Landslides distributed along the highway (section of 312 highway from Xuankon Town to Yingxiu
Town)

1000 933 Before earthquake

869
After earthquake
800 748
709

600
Sites

400

232
200 151 153 156

0
Rock avalanche Landslide Debris flow Unstable slope
Type of geo-hazards

Fig. 10 Ratio of potential geohazards in the counties of extreme severe hazards before/after earthquake

123
34 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

Table 4 Comparison of debris

Features of debris flow Before earthquake After earthquake
flows before and after the
Wenchuan Earthquake
Type of gully Non-debris flow Debris flow
Source material Less Rich
Frequency Low Medium and high
Bulk weight Low and medium Medium and high
Magnitude Small and medium Large and mega
Triggering rainfall High Low
Antecedent precipitation High Low
for debris flow occurrence
Risky area Small Large

resulted in over 10-year period of debris flows in Jiuzhai Gully (Cui et al. 2003). The above
past events indicate that debris flows will recur for a relatively long period because other
types of earthquake-triggered geohazards, such as landslides and rock avalanches, have
provided abundant unconsolidated potential source materials. For instance, the unconsol-
idated material in the valley of Weijiagou in Beichuan Town increased from 50,000 m3 to
3.5 million m3 after the earthquake. A quarter of the material was already delivered on
September 24, 2008. It can be anticipated that debris flow will be active in the following
5 years or even last for as long as 20 years. At present, debris flows become the most
remarkable geohazards (Table 4).
At present, the most serious geohazards are earthquake lakes. With progressive failure
or stabilization of the blockages, the quantity of earthquake lakes will decrease gradually
and the scale of potential downstream flooding will diminish gradually.
The mountain geohazards induced by earthquake occur sequentially. Presently, the
sequence is: collapses and landslides ? earthquake lakes ? dam-breaking floods or
debris flows. With the rainy season, the typical disaster chain will be: collapses and
landslides ? debris flows ? earthquake lakes ? dam-breaking floods or debris flows,
and this condition will last a few years.

5 Strategy of earthquake geohazards mitigation

Two progressive strategies are proposed for the process of earthquake geohazards control
in terms of different situations. The two stages are, initially, Disaster Emergency Response
and Relief, and second, Reconstruction Assistance for the succeeding period.

5.1 Strategies for disaster emergency response and relief

5.1.1 Earthquake-lake investigations and risk analysis of potential for failure

By analyzing and interpreting the information on earthquake-induced earthquake lakes on

high-resolution remote-sensing images, in connection with field surveys, the magnitude,
distribution, and features of earthquake lakes should be determined, followed by evaluation
and ranking of risks. Thus, the authorities in charge of mitigation can concentrate resources
on the most critical examples.

123
Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36 35

5.1.2 Earthquake-lake monitoring and planning

A monitoring system will be constructed to monitor the earthquake lakes with a higher risk
of collapse. It will be designed to check water levels and blockage stability. If a situation
worsens, evacuations will save people and property.

5.1.3 Addressing risk assessment specifically for threatened inhabited areas

It will be necessary to perform risk assessment for the inhabited areas that initially were set
aside as relatively safe places for relief teams and disaster victims. If it is hard to find ideal
places for reconstruction, additional risk analysis, monitoring, and relief programs can be
undertaken.

5.2 Strategy for reconstruction assistance

5.2.1 Promoting post-earthquake geohazards monitoring

Studies reveal that heavy rainfall is a significant cause of landslides and debris flows. It is
imperative to implement rainfall monitoring and forecasting after an earthquake disaster,
particularly of local storm frequency and intensity.

5.2.2 Construction site selection

In order to seek safer geology and geomorphology for reconstruction, geohazard risk
assessment should be a significant step toward building site selection.

5.2.3 Geohazard control by civil engineering

Thorough ecological and geohazard studies should be performed on all proposed con-
struction sites.

5.2.4 Ecology protection and engineering-induced geohazard prevention

Overpopulation was previously a problem in the mountainous areas, contrasting with

shortages of farmland in lowland areas. In accordance with geohazard risk assessment, the
population capacity should be evaluated, and emigration policy should be enforced so as to
reduce populations for the purpose of protecting the ecological environment. Also, in the
process of town re-construction, attention should be focused on keeping slopes undisturbed
whenever possible and preventing landslides resulting from excavation activity. In building
mountain roads, new routes should avoid, whenever possible, landslide zones and debris
flow gullies.

5.2.5 Resource utilization and earthquake-lake evaluation

Some earthquake lakes with low risk can be treated and changed to hydropower facilities
or tourism sites.

123
36 Nat Hazards (2011) 56:19–36

6 Conclusions and discussion

The Wenchuan Earthquake, with a magnitude of 8.0, triggered numerous earthquake

geohazards. Rock avalanches, landslides, debris flows, and earthquake lakes were the four
most common types.
Rock avalanches and landslides obstructed the road system, gravely impeding rescue
actions by the Chinese Government for at least the first 72 h, the most valuable period for
rescue and life-saving. Road disruptions were greatest in the areas where the injuries and
damage were the greatest.
Earthquake lakes became the most dangerous hazard by threatening one million
inhabitants.
In specific earthquake-hit regions, different types of geohazards comprised a circular
geohazard sequence, illustrated by rock avalanches gradually evolving to landslides or
debris flows, earthquake lakes, potential earthquake-lake breakouts and flooding, and
finally to renewed debris flows.
Lessons from Wenchuan Earthquake tell us that geohazards will continue after the
earthquakes in active fault regions. Landslides and rock avalanches will continue for the
next 5 or 10 years in the affected area, and debris flow activity for 10 or 20 years. As China
has more than 20 earthquake zones in the mountainous area, it is emergent to access and
plan for geohazard prevention in the earthquake-active mountainous areas, and the hazard
risk assessment should take the earthquake potential as one of the key indices for evalu-
ating potential losses.

Acknowledgments This research was supported by State Key fundamental Research Program (973)
project (2008CB425802) The authors acknowledge the contributions of Si-ming He, Yong You, Zhan-lu Li,
Cao Dang, and Chen-lin Yang, who were involved in the field investigations, and several postgraduate
students, who did some of the geohazard mapping. We also thank Dr. Kevin Scott of USGS for his help in
improving the English language.

References

Burchfiel BC, Chen Z et al (1995) Tectonics of the Longmen Shan and adjacent regions, central China. Int
Geol Rev 37(8):661–735
Costa JE (1985) Flood from dam failures: flood geomorphology. In: Baker VR, Kochel RC, Patton PC (eds)
US Geological Survey Open-File Report, vol 54
Costa JE, Schuster RL (1991) Documented historical landslide dams from around the world. U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, pp 91-239
Cui P, Liu SQ et al (2003) Debris flow prevention pattern in national parks: taking the world natural heritage
Jiuzhaigou as an example. Sci China Ser E 46(Suppl):1–11
Cui P, Wei FQ, He SM et al (2008) Mountain disasters induced by the earthquake of May 12 in Wenchuan
and the disaster mitigation. J Mt Sci 26(3):280–282 (in Chinese)
Densmore AL, Ellis MA, et al (2007) Active tectonics of the Beichuan and Pengguan faults at the eastern
margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Tectonics 26(TC4005). doi:10.1029/2006TC001987
Kallen D, Xiang W et al (2006) Landslides at Qingjiang river in the downstream area of Shuibuya dam site,
China. J China Univ Geosci 17(2):158–162
Lin LF, Fang C, Li XJ et al (2008) Analysis on geohazards in 512 Wenchuan earthquake hit area. Hydrogeol
Eng Geol 2008(4):129–132 (in Chinese)
Meade BJ (2007) Present-day kinematics at the India-Asia collision zone. Geology 35(1):81–84
Tian LQ (1986) Debris flow in the Luhe earthquake area, Sichuan Province. Debris flow (3), Chongqing
Branch of Science and Technology Literature Press, Chongqing, pp 58–66 (in Chinese)
Yin YP (2008) Researches on the geo-hazards triggered by Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan. J Eng Geol
16(4):433–444 (in Chinese)

123