Quark and Spring Potential 1

111Equation Chapter 1 Section 1

QUARK POTENTIAL AND CLASSICAL SPRING POTENTIAL

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 Quark and Spring Potential 2

Quark Potential and Classical Spring Potential

Introduction

Quarks constitute significant spin-1/2 particles during strong interactions [1]. From

relativity, Dirac spinors   ( x) consisting of four components (  =1… 4), that are functions of

space-time coordinates x  (t , x, y, z ) can be used to describe quarks. They obey the free Dirac
u

equation when they do not interact with other associated fields or particles [2].

(i  m) ( x )  0 212\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Where m denotes the “free” mass. The equation of standard plane waves is also used to

describe these quarks as shown


 k , ( x)  u ( k ,  )ei ( Et  xk )
313\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Where, k u
 ( E , k ) and  represents polarisation as well as the four-momentum. u ( k ,  )

represents the component of the momentum space wave function. Equation 1.1 can also be

derived based on the Lagrangian density function as shown:

( x )   ( x )(i  m) ( x ) 414\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Due to quark confinement, it is not possible to observe free quarks in a laboratory

experiment or isolated states [3]. It is a significant property in studying the low energy dynamics

of robust physical interactions. In high energy experiments, six flavours of quarks such as up (u ) ,

bottom (b) , charm (c) , down (d) , top (t ) , and strange ( s ) were found to form three families under

the influence of weak interactions [4]. The first family comprises of u and d , the second is

composed of c and s while t and b develops the third generation [5]. They have similar
 Quark and Spring Potential 3

quantum numbers; however, their physical significance is undefined. For instance, the magnitude

of electric charge present in u, c and t quarks are equivalent to two-thirds of the electric charge

1

on a proton while the electric charges of d , s and b are equal to 3 [6].

The energy that binds quarks together to form hadrons is known as quantum

chromodynamic (QCD) binding energy. It is associated with the energy fields generated by the

strong forces regulated by gluons. The hadron’s mass is mainly composed of energy produced by

both motion and interactions in a mass-energy equivalence [7]. Quarks possess potential energy

resulting from interactions with conservative fields resulting in forces such as nuclear, gravity,

and electromagnetism. Strong forces are dominant and largely influence the property of these

quarks, such as clustering to form groups; for instance, electrons are controlled by

electromagnetic forces around these clusters of quarks [3, 4].

The force of gravity is the weakest since it requires more considerable distances and

massive objects as galaxies to generate sufficient potential to influence the behaviour of quarks

[8]. However, gravitational force particles can carry a charge, which affects the particles

interacting with it. For instance, an electron can be changed into a neutrino; an up quark changed

to a down quark and vice versa [5]. In classical spring potential, Hooke’s law describes the

relationship between force and displacement [9] as shown:

F   kx 515\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

At equilibrium, the unit vector iˆ points to the direction in which the object would move

when the spring is stretched. The force acting on the spring’s mass is then given by

F s  Fxs iˆ   kxiˆ
616\* MERGEFORMAT (.)
 Quark and Spring Potential 4

The magnitude of displacement and scalar product [10] are then obtained as shown:

dr  dxiˆ 717\* MERGEFORMAT (.)
  
F  dr  kxiˆ  dxi   kxdx 818\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The work done is then calculated as shown [11]:

x x f   1 xxf 1 1
Ws   F  dr     ( kx)dx   k ( x 2f  xi2 )
x  xi 2 x  xi 2 2 919\*

MERGEFORMAT (.)

Thus, the change in the spring’s potential energy when moving from the initial position to

a final position can be determined as:

1
U s  U s ( x f )  U s ( xi )  W s  k ( x 2f  xi2 )
2 10110\* MERGEFORMAT

(.)

Hence, any degree of stretch or deformation of the spring from equilibrium would change

its potential energy by:

1 2
U s  U s ( x f )  U s (0)  kx
2 11111\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The above equation shows that a zero-reference potential exists in the system, where the

potential energy is always zero [12]. Using a three-coordinate system, with the equilibrium point

taken as xi  0 . The magnitude of deformation ( x  0) or stretch ( x  0) from the equilibrium

position, the difference in potential energy can be determined as shown;

x 1
U s ( x)  U s ( xi )    Fxs dx  k ( x 2  xi2 )
xi 2 12112\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

From the fundamental theorem of Calculus [13],

 Quark and Spring Potential 5

x'  x dU '
U ( x)  U ( xi )   ' dx
x  xi dx ' 13113\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Comparing equations 1.11 and 1.12, the magnitude of the force is the negative derivative of the

spring’s potential energy.

dU s ( x )
Fxs  
dx 14114\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The potential energy function can then be formed using the zero-reference potential, [14]

at equilibrium U (0)  0 to give rise to:

s

1 2
U s ( x)  kx
2 15115\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

From equation 1.14, the force law is obtained:

dU s ( x ) d 1
F 
x
s
  ( kx 2 )   kx
dx dx 2 16116\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Quark Potential Energy Function

The proton is considered the most stable hadron [15], assuming the gluon has a uniform,

symmetrical field of radius, R within the proton where the gluons are usually combined

particles, quark confinement, as well as asymptotic freedom, can be analysed as shown [16];

g 2 M (r )m f (r )
V f (r )  
4 Rr 17117\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

qf
In which valence quarks with the flavour index, r the distance from the centre of the

qf ,0  r  R
proton to the quark . The limits of the above equation show that the field acting

around the gluon is limited and confined within the proton.

 Quark and Spring Potential 6

Quark-quark strong interactions resemble a harmonic oscillator in which a pull exerciser

is grabbed and expanded which leads to greater forces in pulling the handles apart. A constant

point is attained in which no further expansion occurs, and the distance of expansion remains

constant. These properties are analogous to spring since the quarks cannot be eliminated from the

nucleon due to the strong forces that are similar to potential energy in spring [17]. In equation

1.18, k can be used as a spring constant in determining the potential energy of a spring. The

Coulomb potential is attributed to strong interactions in QCD with asymptotic degrees of

freedom at smaller and colour confinement at greater distances. The value of r is analogous to

spring displacement x . It is indirectly proportional to the magnitude of Coulomb potential [18,

19].

Quark-quark interactions are similar to atoms in a spring, the nucleus of an atom

corresponds to the heavy quark while the role of electrons is performed by the light degrees of

freedom [20]. The main difference between hadronic and spring (atomic) systems lies in how the

light degrees of freedom are configured. In hadronic systems, it is impossible to calculate these

light degrees of freedom due to the non-perturbative capability of the strong interactions in QCD

[21]. However, it is possible to predict the range and application of these light degrees of

freedom using light hadrons [22].

Potential coefficient of quark-antiquark and radius of charge

Mesons are a combination of quarks and antiquarks controlled by QCD [23]. Most of

these are light quarks such as u, d and s which are inherently relativistic since the magnitude of

binding energies is higher compared to their masses [24]. An analysis of quark and an antiquark

at close ranges shows a coulomb potential while at greater distances, quark confinement is taken

into account [25]. Strong interactions are mainly controlled by QCD and the SU (3) gauge
 Quark and Spring Potential 7

theory. The former creates millions of hadrons that constitute various features such as oscillation

potential and “colour” confinement. The Schrodinger equation is used to analyse mesons with

heavy quarks, whereas mesons of light quarks are analysed using the Dirac equation [26]. Static

properties of central potentials such as oscillation, coulomb, and confinement are used to

 
examine light mesons. The wave function of a meson depends on two coordinates r1 and r2

representing the quark and antiquark, respectively. However, their internal motions are analysed

using relative coordinates [27].

  
r  r2  r1 18118\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The central potentials are analysed with the coulombic potential associated with colour

charge as shown [28, 29];

k s c
V (r )  
r r 19119\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

At more considerable distances, the linear term in the above equation defines the quark

confinement [30],

V (r )  br 20120\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The oscillator potential, [27] can also be defined as

V  r2 21121\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

Hence, the total sum of potential acting on the meson is

c
v(r )   r 2  br 
r 22122\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

1
0  rcm2  p 2
Taking the meson charge radius to be p with limits , the radius can be

expressed as
 Quark and Spring Potential 8


( r ) q   r 2  ( r )  ( r ) d 3r
2

0 23123\* MERGEFORMAT (.)

The analytical solution of quark confinement shows that the complete interaction

involving the three potentials is sufficient to predict the position of the meson. Central potentials

are useful in determining steady states which contribute realistic quarks to prove that static

properties depend on the wave function [29, 31].

The above quark-antiquark pair represents a singlet colour state [22, 32]. Colour

confinement is essential in QCD at low energies as any strong interactions at zero temperatures,

1/  QCD
and low densities consist of a coloured singlet at distances greater than ( ) [33, 34, 35].

Hence, a consequence of quark confinement [36] attempts to separate the antiquark from the

quark by pulling them apart creates stronger interactions between them as the distance also

increases. It is a similar scenario to a spring; once the elastic limit is exceeded, the spring breaks

into two [37].

In comparison to the quark-antiquark pair, in the event they break into two, new quark-

antiquark pair is produced. The energy used in pulling the pair apart is transformed into the

development of a new pair; hence, it is not possible to have quarks as freely existing particles.

The quark-antiquark potential, coupled with QCD simulations, can be used to determine the

potential energy formed when the quarks are pulled apart [38, 39]. The quark potential is directly

proportional to the distance of separation of fermions, which is analogous to the spring potential

and displacement.

Quark and spring potentials both possess kinetic energy. For instance, the potential

energy of the spring can be transformed into kinetic energy once it is released after being

stretched based on the principle of energy conservation. In quarks, the potential energy can be
 Quark and Spring Potential 9

transferred by gluons that have spin, colour, and eight degrees of freedom. Differences between

the potentials include deformation in springs once the elastic limit has been exceeded, whereas,

in quarks, deformation can be attributed to strong magnetic fields, extreme densities, and high

temperatures.

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