PART 7 COMPARISON AND SELECTION OF NDT PROCESSES By kind permission of General Dynamics, San Diego, USA. For more information see the 18 Volume set of NOT Training Handbooks published by General Dynamics Corp.» 1.0, GENERAL The purpose of this chapter ie to summarize the characteristics at various types of discontinuities and to list she NDT metho which may be emplayed to detect each type of discontinuity ‘The relationship between the various NOT methods and their abablilies and limitations when applied to the detection of a Specific discontinuity will be shown. Such variables as lype of iscontinuily (inherem. process ar service), manufacturing, pro- ‘cesses (heat treating. machining or plating), and limitations (metallurgical, structural or processing) all will Relp determine the sequence of testing and the uilimate selection of one test method over anotne. 74, METHOD IDENTIFICATION Figures 1/7 through 5/7 illustrate five NDT methods. Each ilustra- tion “shows the three elements involved ,in all five teste, the Gitferent methods in each test ealegory and tasks that may accomplished with specific method. 17.2, NOT DISCONTINUITY SELECTION The discontinuities that will be reviewed in paragraphs 7.6. throught 7.32. are only a pant of the many fundreds that are socitled with the vatious products of the aerospace industy. During the selection of discontinuities for inclusion in this eestion, only 2 lew of those discactinuities which would not be radically Changed under afferent. conditions of ‘design, configuration, dards and environment were chosen, 73, DISCONTINUITY CATEGORIES ch of the specific discontinuities are divided into three general Categories: innerent. processing, anc service. Each of these 's further classified as to whether the discontinuity Is associated with ferrous or nonferrous materials, the specific m terial configuration and tho manufacturing processes if applicable, 7.32, Inherent deenatinu Inherent discontinuities are those discontinuities that are related to the solidification of the molten metal. There are two types 2) Wrought. Inherent wrought discontinuities cover those giscon- Uinuites which se related to the melting and original solicit ‘en of the metal or ingot, } 7 egevent aH [ecoruee] Fig. 2/7 - Magnetic particle test i seas, }|Slay Fig, 3/7 - Ultrasonic test. | = Sin) | on =e — | ig. 4/7 = Eady Currant tost, i — = a agen se | Fla. 8/7 ~ Radiographic test i b) Cast. Inheront cast discontinuities are those discontinuities which are related to the melting, casting and solidification of the cast article. includes those giscontinuties that would De inherent to manulacturing variables such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessively nigh pouring temperature, entrap ed gases. handling and stacking 72. Processing discontinuities Processing discontinuities are those discontinuities that ae re lated to the various manufacturing processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating and. plating, 733. Service lscontinuities ‘Service discominsities cover those discontinuities that are related ta the various service conditions such as stress corrosion, fatigue and errosion 7A. DISCONTINUITY CHARACTERISTICS AND METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS: Discontinuity characteristics encompasses an_ an specific discontinuity and reference actual photo: is of the that examples of the discontinully. The discussion wil cover: Onigin and Yocation of iscontinuity (auriace, near surface of internal b. Orientation (parallet oF normal to the grain) © Shape flat, irregularly shaped oF spiral) 4. Photo (micrograph and/or typical overall view of the discon tinuity) ‘© Metallurgical analysis (how the discontinuity Is produced end at what stage of manufacture). 75. NDT METHODS APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS. 753. General The technological accomplishments in the feld of nondestructive testing Nave brought the Tevel of test reliability and reproducility to-a point where the design engineer may now selectively zone the specific article. This Zoning is based upon the structural application of the end product and takes into consideration the environment as well as the loading charactetistice of the anicte ‘Such an evaluation Is no way reduces the ond reliabiliy of the product, but it does reduce needless rejection of material thet Otherwise would have been acceplable. ust ee the stuctural application within the article vaties, the allowable discontinuity size will vary depending on the method fof manulacture and configuration. For example, 2 dle forging that has large masses of material and extremaly thin web sections would not require the same level of acceptance for the whole forging. The forging can be zoned for rigid contro! where tne structural applications are higher, and zoned for less rigid control, where the. siructural requirements permit larger discontinuities. The nondestructive testing specialists must also select the method which will sality the design objective of the specific anicie and Not assume that all NOT methods can produce the same reliability tor the same type of discontinuity 7.52. Selection of the NOT method In Selecting the NOT method for the evaluation of specific Siscomtinsity # should Be kept mind that NOT methods may supplement each other and that severs! NOT methods may be Capable of performing the same task. The selection of one method over another Is based upon variables such as: a. Type and origin of discominsity . Material manutacturing processes, fe, Accessibilty of article. d. Level of acceptapllty desired, fe. Equipment avaiable. 1. Cost To satistactorily develop knowledge of the above variables, a planned analysis of he task must pe made for each aricle Fequiring NOT testing ‘The NOT methods listed for each discontinuity in paragraphs 7.6. through 732. are in order of preference for thal. particular discontinuity. However, when reviewing that paction of the chapter it should be kept 19 mind that the rapidly developing NOT fel and new techniques may aller the ofder of test preference, 753. Limitations The limitations applicable to the various NOT methods will vary ‘with the applicable standard the material, and the service Vironment. Limitations not only atfect the NOT test. but in many Cases the structural reliability of the test article is aflected. For these reasons. limitations that ate listed for one discontinuly may also be applicable to other discontinuities under slightly ‘ifferent conditions of material or eAvironment. in addition, the many combinations of environment, location, material and’ test Capability donot permit mentioning all limitations. that may be associated with @ specitic discontinulty. The intent of th Chapter is tulliled you are mage aware of the many factacs that intiuence the selection of a valid NOT test 167COMPARISON AND SELECTION OF NTD PROCESS 76. BURST 76:1. Category. Processing 7.62. Material. Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material 763. Discontinuity characteristics Surface of internal, Straight or Found in wrought material which required forging exuding, (Bee igure ® 7) 7.6.4. Metallurgical analysis regular cavities varying in size with large Interfaces or very ght, Usually parate wih The grain rolling, of 1a Forging bursts are surface or internal ruptures which are atirbuted to processing at too law a temperature, of oxcossive working or metal ‘movement during the forging, rolling, oF extruding operation. b. A burst doe not nave a spongy appearance and, therefore, is distinguishable trom a pipe. even if it should occur at the sequent working, TAS. NOT methods application and limitations 4 ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used tor the detection of internal bursts | FORGING EXTERNAL BURST ROLLED BAR INTERNAL BURST i Fig. 6/7 168 Burste are often large and very seldom healed during sub Burst Diseontinurties (2) Bursts are definite breaks in the material and they resemble crack, producing a very sharp rellection on the scons (2) Ultrasonic testing is capable of detecting varying degrees fof burst which “could not’ be ‘detected ‘by. other Noy methods. (4) Micks, gouges. raised areas, tool tears, foreign materi gas bubbles on the article may produce adverse ultrasong fest rosuns. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used Testing is restricted to wire, rod. and other articles eder 0.250 inch diameter MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Usually used on wrought ferrous material that has surface or exposed internal Burst {2) Results ace limited to surface and neae surtace evaluation, LIQUIO PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not normaly used When fluorescent penetrant is to be applied to an’ aricle previously dye penetrant tested, ail traces of dye peneltant Should first be removes by prolonged cleanin im apphcable solvent. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used. Such variables as the direction of the burst, close interfaces, wrought material, discontinuity size, and’ material Thickness restrict the capability of radiography, FORGED GAR INTERNAL BURST |77. COLD SHUTS 7.74. Category. Inherent. 1.72 Material. Ferrous and Nonferrous Cast Material 7.7. Discontinuly characteristics Surface and subsurface. Generally smooth indentations on the cast surface resembling a forging lap. (See figure 7/7). 7.74, Metallurgical analysis Cold shuts are produced during casting molten metal. They may result com splashing, surging, snlerrspied pouring, oF meeting of {wo streams of metal coming trom’ difterent directions. Algo, soliditication of one surtace belore the other metal tlows over it the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish meta ff any factor that will prevent 2 fusion where two suraces meet will produce cold shuts. They are more prevalent in castings Which are formed in a mold with several sprues or gates. 7.75. NDT methods application an Unitations 4 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used to evaluate surtace cold shuts in both ferrous ‘and nonterrous materials (2) Wit appear as a smooth, regular, continuous. or intermittent fon, reasonably parallel to the eres section of the sea in whieh i occur. INTERNAL COLO SHUT (3) Liquid penetrant used for the testing of nickel bas euch as Inconel =X» Rene 41) ‘should not excee percent suilur (4) Certain castings may have surtaces which may be blind ‘and trom which removal of the excessive penevrants may be aitieut, (5) Geometric configuration (recesses, atices, and flanges) ‘may permit buildup of wel developer thereby masking any detection of a discontinuity ‘v, MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normaty weed for the screening of lerrous materials, (2) The metallurgical nature of 421 corrosion-resistant steel is such that in some cases magnetic particie testing Indica tions are obtained which donot result trom a crack ot ther harmiul discontinuities. These indications arise from 2 duplex structure within the material, wherein one portion exhibits strong Magnetic retentiviy and the olher does Nel , RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Normally detectable by radiography while testing tor other casting discontinuities, (2) Appear as a distinct dark tine or band ot variable length ‘and width, and detinite smooth outline. (@) Casting contiguration may have inaccessible areas which can only be detected by radiography. 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended. Cast sirvcture and article configuration do not as a general rule Tend themselves 19 ullrasonic testing @. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended. Art le configuration ang inherent material variables restict Toe Use of this: method SURFACE COLD SHUT MICROGRAPH | Fig. 7/7 ~ Cold Shuts Discontinuity 16878, FILLET CRACKS (BOLTS) 18.4. Category. Service 7.8.2. Material, Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material 7.83. Discontinuity characteristics Surface. Located at the junction of tne Met wih the shank of the bolt ana progressing! inward, (See 9. 8/7) 7.8.4. Metallurgical analysis Fillet cracks occur where 2 marked change in diameter occurs, Such as between the head-to-shank junction where sires risers are created, During the application of this Bolt in service repeated foading takes place. whereby the {ensile load fluctuates. in ma gnitude due 10 tha operation of the mechanism, These tensile foads can cause fatigue failure, starting a the point where the stress tisers are bull in. Fatigue failure, which is surtace pheno. ‘enon, starts at the suriace and propagates inward. 785. NOT miethods application and limitations a. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Used extensively for service associated discontinuities of this type. (2) A wide selection of tranaducers and equipment enable on the spot evaluation for filet crack (9) Being’ definite break in the material, the scope pattern will be a very sharp reflection. (Actual propagation can be monitored by using ultrasonics) FRACTURE AREA OF (A) SHOWING TANGENCY POINT OF FAILURE i Fig. 9/7 Fillet Crack (4) Ultrasonic: equipment has extreme sensitivity, and esia blished standards should be used to give reproducible aq reliable results. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used during in-service overhaul oF troubleshoot ing. (2) May be vsed for both ferrous ané nonferrous bolts, although usually confined to the nonferrous, (9) Wil appear asa sharp clear indication 1G) Structural damage may result” trom ‘exposure of high Strengin steels to paint strippers. alkaline coating removers, deoxidizer solutions, ete (8) Entrapment under fasteners, in holes, under splices, ang im similar areas may cause corrosion due to the ponettants atinity for moisture MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOO (1) Normally used on ferrous belts, (2) Will appear as clear sharp indication with a heavy buildup (3) Sharp tier areas may produce non-relevant magnetic inaieations. (4) 17.7 pH is only slightly magnetic in the annealed condition, but Becomes strongly magnetic after heat treatment, when iimay Be magnetic’ particle tested EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for detection of fillet cracks. Other NOT methods, are more compatible to the detection of this type of discontinuity RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used tor detection of filet cracks. Sutface siaconiinuities Of this type would be difficult to evaluate due to size of creck in relation to the thickness of materia. (A) FILLET FATIGUE FAILURE I ‘CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF FATIGUE CRACK IN FILLET SHOWING TANGENCY POINT IN RADIUS Discontinutty.GRINDING CRACKS 7.92. Material, Ferrous and Nonferrous. 7.93. Discontinulty characteristics Surface. Very shallow and sharp at the root. Similar to heat treat race and usual but not always, occur in groups. Grinding facks are generally at right angles to tne direction of gtinding They are found in highly heat treated articles, chrome pl case hardened and ceramic. materials thal ave subjected 10 ‘Finding operations. See fig. 9/7) 794, Mausllurgical analysis Grinding of hardened surtaces frequently introduces cracks. ‘These thermal cracks are caused by local overheating of the surface being ground. The overheating is usually caused by lack ‘of oF poor coolant. a dull or improperly ground wheel, too rapid eed, or too heavy cut 7.95. NDT methods application and lmiatlons a, LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used on both tesrous and non! {or the detection of grinding cracks. (2) Liquid penetrant indication will appear as ir eG, oF ahatlacad pattern of fine tines, fous materials (3) Cracks are the most ditficult discontinuity 10 Indicate and require the longest penetration time. (4) Articles that have been degreased may stil have solvent ‘entrapped in the discontinulty and’ should be. allowed Sufficient time for evaporation prior to the application of The ponetrart. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Restricted to ferrous materials. (2) Grinding cracks are generally at right angles to grinding irection, although in extreme cases a complate network ff cracks may appear, in which case may be paraliel 1 the magnetic field. (9) Magnetic sensitivity decreases as the size of grinding crack Secreases and as fie depth below the surlace increases, EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for Seteetion of prinsing eracks, Eddy current equioment has the capability and can be developed for a specific nonferrous application, ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for de- fection of grinding cracks. Other forms or NOT are more ‘e2canainical, faster, and better adapted to this type of discon- finuity tan ultrasonics, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended tor Getection of grinding cracks. Grinding cracks are 100 tight ‘and small. Other NOT methods are more suitable for detection of grinding cracks. e et ee TYPICAL CHECKED GRINDING CRACK PATTERN —= GRINDING CRACK PATTERN NORMAL TO GRINDING Fip. 9/7 - Grinding Crack Discontinuity MICROGRAPH OF GRINDING GRACK 17.40. CONVOLUTION CRACKS 710.1 Category. Processing. 7.40.2 Material, Nonferrous. 740.3, Discontinuity characteristics Surface, Range in size (tom micto tractures 10 open fissures. Situated on the periphery of tne convolutions and extend fongi= ‘udinaly in direction of rolling. (See hg. 10/7) 7404, Metallurgical analysis The rough = orange peel= etfect of convolution cracks is the fesuit of either @ forming operation which stretches Yhe material or tram chemical attack such ae pickling treament. The roughe: ed surface ‘contains all pits which form stress risers. Sub- Sequent service apelication (vibration ang flexing) may introduce Strasses that act on these pite and Torr faigue cracks as show: inthe accompanying photograph. 740.5. NOT methods application and timitations a. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (4) Used extensively for this type of failure (2) Configuration of ericle and tocation af discontinuity Himits detection almost exclusively to radiography. HIGHER MAGNIFICATION OF CRACK SHOWING ORANGE PEEL | ig, 1017 172 ». (9) Orientation of convolutions to Xray source is Very erica since thase discontinuities which are not normal to x may not register on the film due to the lack o! dillerse? in aensity (4) Liquid penetrant and magnetic panicle testing may sup. plement but not replace radiographic and ultrasonic testing (6) The type of marking material (e.g, grease pencil on tia. ium) "used to identity the area of discontinuties ay affect the structure of the article ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not notmaily used ‘oy the detection of convolution cracks. Configuration of the artle (Gouble-walled convolutions) and internal micro tractures we fil factors which restrict the use of ultrasonics. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD, Not normally used for the detection of convolution cracks, As in the case of Ullragonie esting, The eonfiguretion does nat lend itselt to this method of testing LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended {ar the detection of convolution cracks. Although the. discon tinuities are surface, they are internal and are superimposed over an exterior shell which creates a serious problem of fenteapment. MAGNETIC TESTING METHOD. Not applicable. Material is pontercaus MICROGRAPH OF CONVOLUTION WITH PARTIAL i CRACKING ON SIDES, Convolution Cracks Discontinuity.7.41, HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACKING ZAVA. Category. Processing (Weldments), ‘ 7.41.2. Material. Ferrous and Nontertous. 7.41.3. Dlacontinulty eh ‘Surface. Often quite deep and very tight. Ususlly paraliel with the weld in the heat affect zone of the weldmant. (See fig. 11/7). TAVA, Metallurgical analysis Hot cracking of heat-atlected zones of weldments increases in Severity with Increasing carbon content. Steels that contain more than 0.30% carbon are prone to ths type of failure and require 1 preheating prior to welding. 7.48. NDT methods application and limitations & MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used for ferrous weldmants. (2) Prod burns ave very detrimental, especially on highly heat Weated articles. May ‘contribute to structural failure of ariel. (9) Demagnetization of highly heat wrested articles can be very difficult due to metallurgical siructu (A) MICROGRAPH OF WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE SHOWING CRACK NOTE COLD LAP WHICH MASKS THE ENTRANCE TO THE CRACK PESESESSSSSSSSESP SSP REEDS PSR EORBE SPP PRO R PDD b. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used tor nanterrous weldments. (@) Material that has had its surtace obliterated, blurred, oF blended due to manufacturing processes should not be Penetrant tested until the smeared surtace has been removed. (8) Liquid penetrant testing alter the application of certain types of chemical film coatings may be invalid due to the Covering oF filing of the discontinuities, &. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for the detection of heat-affectes zone cracking. Olscontin orientation and surface origin make other NOT methods more, ‘suitable 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Used where specialized applications have been developed (2) Rigid standards and procedures are requited to develop valid tests (G) The configuration of the surface roughness (.e., shatp Versus rounded root fadii and the slope condition) are ‘major factors in dellecting the sound beam. fe. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for the detection of heal-affected zone cracking, Eddy current equipment has capability of detecting nonferrous surtace iscontinuties; however, it is not as universally used as ‘magnetic particle or liquid penetrant. MICROGRAPH OF CRACK SHOWN IN (A) | Fig. 11/7 = Heet-Attected Zone Cracking Discontinuity.7.42. HEAT TREAT CRACKS: {3) Likely points of origin are areas that would develop sires, fisers, such as keyways, filets, or areas with rapid chavs? in material thickness. 7 (4) Metallurgical structure of age hardenable and neat treats bie ‘stainless steels 17.4. 177. and 491) ‘may prom 712.2. Material, Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought and Cast Ma- irrelevant indications * terial TAZ. Category. Processing b, LIQUID PENETAANT TESTING METHOD 7.423, Discontinuity characteristics (1) For nonferrous materials liquid penetvant testing is tne Surface. Usually deep and forked. Seldom follow a definite pattern fecommended method. and can be in any direction on ihe part, Originate in areas with (2) Likely points of origin would be the same as those isteg fapio change. of material thickness, sharp. machining marks, above for magnetie particle anton filets, ‘nicks, and Giscontinuities which have been exposed %0 the Surface of the material, (See fig. 12/7) (3) Materials oF articles that will eventually be used in Lox systems must be tested with compalible penewants 7424. Metallurgical analysis © EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD During the heating and cooling process localized stresses may” (1) Normatiy not uses be set up by unequal heating or cooling, restricted movement ¥ of the article, or urequal cross-sectional thickness. These stresses (2) Magnetic particles and liquid penetrant re more direct may exceed the tensile strength of the material causing it to and economical, fupture. Where builtin stress risers occur (keyways oF grooves) adaitlonal cracks may develop. 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for de. tection of heat treat cracks. I used the scope patlern wil show a definite indication of a discontinuity. Recommenses .125, NOT methods application and limitations reine pales wave mode would be surface. 2. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) For ferrous materials, heat treat cracks are normally delee- @, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used tor ted by magnetic particles testing Getection of heat treat cracks, Surface discontinuities are (2) The magneie particles indications will normally be straight, more easily detected by other NDT methods. designed for forked, or cured Indications, surface application. FILLET AND MATERIAL THICKNESS CRACKS (TOP CENTER) RELIEF RADIUS CRACKING (LOWER LEFT) HEAT TREAT CRACK DUE TO SHARP MACHINING MARKS : ! Fig. 12/7 - Heat Treat Cracks Discontinuity.133, SURFACE SHRINK CRACKS. TA34. Category. Processing (Welding). 7.932. Materl L Ferrous and Nonferrous. 7.133. Discontinulty characterletics Surface. Situated on the face of the weld, tuslon zone, and base Range in size trom very small, tight, and shallow, 10 open ‘and deep. Cracks may run parallel of transverse. the direction of welding. (See 9. 19/7). 78844 Maatturpieal anatysie Surface shrink cracks are generally tne result of Improper heat application, either in heating of welding of the article. Heating for cooling 1 a localized area may set up stresses thal exceed the tensile strength of the material causing the material to crack Restriction of the movernent (contraction or expansion) of the Fial_duting heating, cooling, or welding may also set up excessive stresses, 7.185. NDT methods application and tmtations , LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Surface shrink cracks are normally detected by liquis Penetrant. (2) Liquid penetrant equipment is easily ponabie and can be used during in-process control for oth ferrous and non ferrous weldments TYPICAL STAR-SHAPED CRATER CRACK Fig. 19/7 ~ Surtace Shrink Crack Discontinuily. TRANSVERSE CRACKS IN HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE (8) Assemblies which are joined by bolting. riveting, intermit. nt welding. or press filings will retain the peretrant, which will 8ep out after developing and mask the adjoining Suctaces (4) When articles are dried in a not air dryer or by similar means. excessive drying temperature should be avolded to ‘prevent evaporation of the penstrent MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Ferrous weldments are normally tested by magnetic particle method, @) Surtace ciscontinuities that are parallel to the magnetic ilo will not produce indications since they Go nel interrupt or distort the magnetic Tild. @) Areas of grease fitings, bearing races, or other similar items that might be damaged or clogged by tne suspension solution or magnetic solids should be masked betore testing. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally contined to nonferrous welded pipe and tubing (@) Prove or encircting coll could be used where article configuration permits. FADIOGRAPHYC TESTING METHOD, Not normally uses for the detection of surtace discontinuities. During the radiogra hic testing ‘of weldments for other types of discontinuities, Surface indications may be Setected ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for getection of surface shrink cracks, Other forme ot NOT (guid enetrant and magnetic particle) give betler results, are more ‘economical, and are fast SHRINKAGE CRACK AT WELD TERMINAL 1787.44, THREAD CRACKS (3) When applying liquid penetrant to components wit assembly of structure, the adjacent areas should ye", tively masked to. prevant overspraying 748.1. Category. Service b. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD 7.442, Material. Ferrous ang Nonlerrous Wrought Material (1) Normally used on ferrous materials. ' {Q\ Irelevant magnetic indications may result tom the thy configuration 7 7443, Discontinuity characteristics (9) Gleening ‘titanium and 40C stainiess in halogenes,.| |! hydrocarbons may ‘result in structural damage i Surface. Cracks are transverse to the grain yoroca i, starting at the root of the thread. (See fig. 14/7) (transgranuiar) EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used « detecting thread cracks. The aticie configuration i Fatigue lallvres of this type ate cat uncammon. High cyclic require specialized equipment it adapiable, ' stveases resulting from vibration and/or flexing act on the stress in fisers created by the thresd roots and produce cracks. Fatigue | Cracks may start as fine submicroscople discontinuities and/or 1 7.444. Metallurgical analysis . racks and propagate in tne direction of appliea stresses, 7.445. NOT methods application and limitations a. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Fluorescent penetvant is recommended over nonsiuore- (2) Low surtace tension sowents such, as gasoline and kero- sene are not recommended cleaners, MICROGRAPH OF (A) SHOWING CRACK AT BASE OF ROOT i Fig. 14/7 176 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended tor ge tecting thread cracks. Thread configuration doesnot et gel! to ultrasonic. testing. © RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended tc etecting thread cracks. Surface discontinuities are be screened by NOT method designed tar the specific condita Fatigue cracks of tnis type are very tight and surface cor rected, their detection by radiography would be extreme sitieul, MICROGRAPH OF (8) SHOWING TRANSGRANULAR. CRACK AT THREAD ROOT Thread Crack Discontinuityic oe 7.8. TUBING CRACKS (INCONEL) 7.48.1. Category. Inher 7.18.2. Materlal. Nonferrous. 7.45.3. Discontinully characteristics Tubing cracks formed on the inner surtace (1.D.), parallel to direction of grain flow (see fig. 18/7). Tubing LD. cracks may be’ attributed to one or a combination of the following: ‘a Improper cold reduction of the tube during fabrication. ». Foreign material may nave been embedded on the Inner sur- face of the tubes causing embrittement and cracking when the cold worked material was heated during the ann ‘operation, ©. Insufficient heating rate to the annealing temperature with possible cracking occurring In the 1200-1407 range. 7455. NDT methods application and timitations a. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD 1) Normally used for detection of this type ®t discontinuity. (2) The diameter (1 inch) and wall thickness (0.166 inch) are well within equipment capability (6) Testing of ferro-magnetic. mi al may be difficult. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used on heavy gauge tubing (2) A wide variety of equipment and transducers are available {for sereening tubing for internal discontinuities of this type. (6) Uttasonie transducers have varying temperature limitations. (4) Certain uitrasonic contact couplants may have high sulfur Content which will have an adverse ellect on high nickel alloys RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Wot normally used for detecting tubing cracks. (2) Discontinuity orientation and thickness of material govern ‘the radiogiaphic sensitivity. (@) Other forms of NOT (eddy current and ultrasonic) are more economical, faser, and reliable. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting tubing cracks. Internal discontinuity would be dificult to process and interpret MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING METHOD. Not applicable, Material is nonferrous under normal conditions, CRACKS ON INSIDE OF TUBING AND RELATIVE MICROGRAPH i Fig. 15/7 - Tubing Crack Discontinuity. 7TA6, HYDROGEN FLAKE 716.1. Category. Processing 7.162, Material. Ferrous. 146.3. Discontinuity characteristies Internat fissures in a fractured surface. flaket appear as bright silvery areas. On an etched surface they appear as short uiscon Tnuities. Sometimes known as chrome checks and haitline cracks ‘shen revealed by machining, lakes are extremely thin and gone: fal aligned paraliel with the grain. They are usually found in heavy steel forgings, billets. and bars (see fg. 16/7) 7.6.4, Metallurgical analysis Flakes are internal fissures attributed to stresses produces by localized transformation and. decreased solubility of hydrogen during cooling after hot working, Usvaly found only in heavy alloy stee! forgings. TASS. NOT methods application and timitations 2. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Used extensively for the detection of hygrogen ake (2) Material in the wrought condition can be screened success- fully using either the immersion of the contact method, The surface condition wil determine the method most sulted, (3) On the A-scan presentation, hydrogen flake will appear as hash on the sereen or as loss of back rellecion, (4) All foreign materials (loose scale, dit, ol, grease) shoulg be removed prior to any testing, Surtace irregularitles suey 2 nicks, gouges, tool marks, and scarfing may cause loss ff back ‘reflection. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used on finished machined articles. (2) Flakes appear as short discontinuities and resemble chro. me checks of hairline cracks, (@) Machined surtaces with deep tool marks may obliterate the detection of the flake (4) Where the general direction of a discontinuity is questio rable, it’ may be necessary 10 magnslize in two or more directions, LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for detecting flakes. Discontinuities are very small and tight and would be dificult to detect by liquid penetrant, EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting flakes. The metallurgical structure of ferrous. ma. terials limits their adaptability to the use of eddy current, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for Setectirg flakes. The size of the discontinuity, its location and orientation with respect to the material surface restricts the application of radiography. ‘CROSS-SECTION OF (A) SHOWING FLAKE CONDITION. IN CENTER OF MATERIAL Fig. 16/7 - Hydrogen Flake Discontinuity 1787.17, HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT TATA. Category. Processing and Service, 7.7.2. Material. Ferrous. 7.17.3. Discontiulty characteristics ith no orientation or I that wat subjected to\plekling and/or plating or in material exposed to free hydrogen, (See fig. 17/7, TATA. Metallurgical analysis ‘Operations such as plekling and cleaning prior to electroplating fof electroplating generate hydrogen at the surtace of the material This hydrogen penetrates the surface of the material creating immediate or delayed embritiement and cracking ATS. NOT methods application and limitations a. MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING METHOD (1) Magnetic indications appear as a fractured pattern (2) Hycrogen embritiement cracks are randomly orientated and may follow the magnetic field HYOROGEN EMARITTLEMENT UNDER CHROME PLATE Fig. 17/7 ~ Hydrogen Embrittlement Discontinuity (@) Magnetic particle testing should be and after plating, (4) Care should be taken to produce no contusing or irelevan: indications or cause damage to the srlice by overhesting (6) 301 corrosion resistant steel Is non-magnetic in the an: reales condition, but becomes magnetic with cold working, somplished betore LIQUID PENETRATING TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting hydrogen embrittiement (@) Discontinuities on the surface are extremely tight, small, ‘and difficult to detect. Subsequent plating deposit may ‘mask the discontiulty ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting hydragen embrittlement. 2) Article configurations and size do not, in general, tend themselves to this method of testing (@) Equipment has capability of detecting hydrogen embrit lement. Recommend surface wave technique. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting hydrogen embrittlement. Many variables inherent in the specific material may produce contlicing patterns RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting hydrogen embrittlement. The sensitivity required 10 Setect hydrogen embrittiement is in most cases in excess of radiographic capabilities. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT (CHROME PLATE148. INCLUSIONS 7.184. Category. Processing (Weldments) 7.18.2. Material. Ferrous and Nonferrous Welced Material 7.18.3. Discontinuity characterises Surtace and subsurface. Inclusions may be any shape. They may bbe metallic or non-metallic and may appear singly oF be linearly Sintibuled or scattered throughout the weidment, (See %g. 18/7) 7.484, Metallurgical analysis Motallic inclusions are generatly partcies of metale of dltferent Gensity as compared 10 the weld or base metal. Non-metalic Inclusions re oxides, sulphides, lag or other nonmetallic foreign materi entrapped in the Weld or between the weld metal fang the vase metal 7.485. NOT methods application and imitations a. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) This NOT method Is universally used. (2) Metallic inclusions appear on the radiograph as. sharply Selmed, Found, erratically shaped, or elongated white spots land may be isolated or in small linear or seaitered groups, CROSS-SECTION OF WELD SHOWING INTERNAL INCLUSIONS Fig 1817 We'smaot Inclusion Discontinunty, e fon-melallic inetusions will appear on the radiog shadows of round globules or elongated ‘or ive shaped contours occurring. singly, linearly, oF se throughout the weldment. They wit fusion zone or at tho ract of the a a: ‘generally appear ints ‘aeld. Less absort. material is indicated by a greater tim density ang’ ee absorbent materials by a Ughter film density Z (4) Foreign material such as loose scales, splatter, or invalid test resuits. em EDOY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normaity coatined to thin wall welded tubing (@) Established standards may be required if valid resuls q, to be obtained a MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normally not used for detecting inclusions in weldment (2) Confined to machined weidments where the discontinay are surtace or near surface. (9) The indications would appear jagged, irregularly shases individually or clustered, and would nol be too pronoun (#) Discontiouities may go undetected when improper contsct ‘exists between the magnetic particles and the surface a! ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting inclusions. (2) Specitic applications of gesign or of article configuration may require ultrasonic testing. QUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not applicabie. in clusions are narmally nat open fissures. Raeabtarerentreaaeasee7.19, INCLUSIONS, TA94. Category. Processing 7.19.2, Matert Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material, 7.19.3, Dlscontinulty characteristics Subsurtace (original var) or surface (after machining). There are two types: one is non-metallic wth long straight lines parallel to flow lines and quite tightly adherent. O'ten shor and likely to ‘occur in groups, The other type is non-plastic, appearing as 3 ‘comparatively large mass and not parallel to flow lines. Found in forged, extruded, and rolled material. (See fig. 19/7) 7.19.4. Metallurgleal analysis Non-metallic inclusions (stringers) are causea by the existence of slag or oxides in the billet oF ingot. Non-plastic inclusions are caused by paricles remaining in the solid state during. billet melting 7.495. NOT methods application and limitations 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD 8) Normally used to evajuate inclusions in wrought material, @) Inclusions will appear as definite intertaces within the ‘etal. Small clustered condition of cancitions on different Planes causing a lose in back rellection. Numerous. small Scallered conditions cause excessive «noise » TYPICAL INCLUSION PATTERN ON MACHINED SURFACES MICROGRAPH OF TYPICAL INCLUSION (9) Inclusion orientation in relationship 10 ultrasonic beam IS (4) The direction of the ultrasonic beam should be perpendi- cular to the direction of the grain flow whenever possible EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used for thin wall tubing and small diameter rods (2) Testing of ferro-magneic materials can be ditficul MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used on machined surtace. (2) Inclusions will appear as a straight intermittent or as a Conlinuous indication. They may be individual or clustered. (9) The magnetic technique should be such tnat a surface or near surface inclusion ean be Salstactorily detected when ite axe is In any direction. (4) A knowledge of the grain flow of the material is eritical since Inclusions will be parallel 10 that airection, (5) Certain types of steels are more prone to inclusions than other. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting inclusions in wrought (2) elusions. are generally not openings in the materia RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended. NOT methods designed for surface testing are more suitaule for Setecling surface Inclusions, STEEL FORGING SHOWING NUMEROUS. INCLUSIONS LONGITUDINAL CROSS-SECTION SHOWING ORIENTATION OF INCLUSIONS Fig. 19/7 ~ Wrought Inclusion Discontinuity 181120. LACK OF PENETRATION 7.20.1. Category. Processing 7.20.2. Material. Fersous and Nonferrous Weldments. 7.203, Discontinulty characteristics Internal of éxternal. Generally irregular and filamentary occurring ft the root and fuaning parallel with the weld. (See fig. 20/7), 120.4, Metallurgical analysis Caused by root face of joint not reaching tusion temperature before weld metal was deposited, Also caused dy fast welding fate, 100 large a welding ‘od, or toa cola a bead 17208. NDT methods application and limitations a. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Used extensively on a wide variety of welded atticies to determine the lack of penetration (2) Lack of penetration will appear on the radiograph as an clongeted ark area of varying length ang width, It may. be continuous of intermittent and may appear in the center of the weld at the junction of multipass bends. (9) Lack of penetration orientation in relationsip to the radio~ graphic tource is critical INADEQUATE ROOT PENETRATION OF BUTT WELOED TUBE (4) Sensitivity levels govern the capability to detect small gy light discontinuities, ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Commonly used for specitic applications, (2) Complex weld configurations. or thin wall weldments do not fend themselves 10 ultrasonic testing, (3) Lack of penatration will apnear on the scope as a define break or discontinuity resembling a crack and will gives very sharp reflection. (4) Repeatability of ultrasonic test results is dificult antess equipment is standardizes. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (9} Kormally used to determine lack of penetration in non Terrous welded pipe and tubing (2) Eddy current can be used where other nonferrous artcies ean meet the configuration requirement c! the equipmest MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used where backside of weld is visible (2) Lack of penetration appears as an irregular indication varying width LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOO (1) Normally used where backside of weld is visible. (2) Lack of penetration appears as an irregular indication of varying wiath (@) Residue left by the penetrant and the de Sontaminate ary re-welding operation, oper coule a INADEQUATE FILLET WELD PENETRATION KNOWN AS BRIDGING Fig. 20/7 - Lack of Penetration Discontinuity “9?7.21, LAMINATIONS, (@) Lamination will appear as a definite interface with a loss of back retiection, 7.21.4. Category. Inherent (4) Through transmission and reflection techniques are appll- ‘cable for very thin sections. 721.2. Mat lal. Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Materia a b. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD COC (1) Articles fabricated trom ferrous materiale are normally oe - ty “ int sy th ligne tested for lamination by magnetic particle, urface and internal. Flat, extremely thin, generally aligned pa- Magnetic indication will appear 8 a. straight, intermitten to the work surface of the material. May contain a thin tim _() Magnetic indication will app coe 7 ‘of oxide between the surfaces. Found in forged, extruded, and rolled material. (See fig. 21/7) (@) Magnetic particle testing Is not capable of determining the over-all size oF depth of the lamination t ©, LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD aminations are separations or weaknesses generally aligned pa: 0 fallel to the work surface of the material. They may be the result (1) Normally used on nonferrous materials ‘of pipe, blister, seam. inclusions, o” segregations elongated and made directional by working. Laminations are flattened impurities (2) Machining, hosing, lapping, or blasting may smear surtace ‘of material and thereby close or mask surface lamination, | that are ‘extremely thin (@) Acid and alkalines seriously limit the effectiveness of liquid Penetrant testing. Thorough cleaning of the surface. is essential : 7.218. NDT methods application and limitations @. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD 4. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used to (1) For heavier gauge material the geometry and orientation detect laminations, if used, the method must be confined to ‘of lamination (normal to the beam) makes their detection thin sheet stock. Timites to ultrasonic. (2) Numerous wave modes may be used depending upon the @, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for materia! thickness or method selected for testing, Aulo- detecting laminations. Laminations have very small thickness matic and manual contact or immersion metnods are changes in the direction of the X-ray beam, thereby making Adaptable Fadiographie detection almost impossible. LAMINATION IN 0.250 IN, PLATE LAMINATION IN 0.040 TITANIUM SHEET LAMINATION IN PLATE SHOWING SURFACE ORIENTATION LAMINATION IN 1 IN. BAR SHOWING SURFACE ORIENTATION | | Fig. 21/7 ~ Lamination Discontinuity722, LAPS AND SEAMS 1.22.1. Category. Processing, 7.222, Material. Ferrous and Nonferrous Rolled Threads. 7.223, Discontinuity characteristics Surface, Wavy lines, often quite deep and sometime very tight appearing as hairline cracks. Found in rolled threads in tho minor, pitch, and major diameter of the thread, and in direction of toling. (See Nig. 22/7). 7.224. Metallurgical analysis, During the rolling operation, taully or oversized dies or an overt of material may cause material to be folded over and flattened io the susface of the thread but not fused. 7.225, NOT methods application and limitations , LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Compatibility with both fertous and nonferrous materials makes fluorescent liquid penetrant the first. choice. (2) Liquid penettant indications will be circumferential, slightly curved, intermittent or continuous indications. Laps and Seams may occur indwvidually or in clusters, FAILURES OCCURRING AT ROOT OF THREAD Fig. 22/7 84 Lens and Seams Discontinuity in Rolled Threads. 6) Foreign material may sot only interfere withthe penetration atthe penettant ine the eiscontnuiy but moy cause oh Sccumsation of penetrant ina nondetectve neo, (4) Surtace of thresds may be smeared due to roling opera tion, thereby sealing off laps and seams. ° (8) Fluorescent and dye penstrants are not compatible. bye penetrants tend to kill the fluorescent qualities in fluor Scent penetrants MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Magnetic particle indications would generally appear the same as liquid penetrant. @) Irrelevant magnetic indications may result from the thieas contiguration. (9) Questionable magnetic particies indications can be verities by liquid penetrant testing EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for detecting laps and seams. Article configuration is the restrict ing factor, ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD, Not recommended for Selecting laps and seams. Thread configurations restrict ur trasonic: capability. RADIOGRAFIC TESTING METHOD. Net recommended for detecting laps and seams, Size and orientation of discon huilies restricts the capability of radiograpnie testing7.23, LAPS AND SEAMS 7.23.1. Category. Processing 7.28.2. Material. Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material 7.233, Discontinuity characterlaties Lap Surface. Wavy lines usually very pronounced or tighty ‘adherent since they usually enfer the surface al a small angle Lape may nave surface openings smeared closed. Found in wrought forgings, plate, wbing, bes, and rod. (See fig. 23/7) b. Seam Surface. Lenginy, eften quite deep and sometimes very tight, usually paralel fissures with the grain and at times spiral when associated with rolled rod and tubing 7.23.4, Metallurgica} analysis Seams originate from Blowholes, cracks, splits, and tears intro- Guced in earlies processing and elongated in’ the direction of rolling or forging. The distance between adjacent Inrertaces of the ‘aiscontinulty is very smal Laps are similar 10 seams and may result {rom improper rolling, Yorging. oF sizing aperations. During the processing of the ma- terial, Corners may be folded over or an overtit may exist during the sizing resulting In materia! being flattened Into the surtace but not fused. Laps may occur on any part of the article 7.235, NOT methods appileation and Vimitations. a. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD {1} Magnetic particle Is recommended for ferrous material. {2} Surface and near-surlace taps and seams may be detected by this metnos. TYPICAL FORGING LAP (©) Laps and seams may appear as 4 straight, spiral, or sight) curved indication. They may be Individual or clusetes ang ontinuous or interment, (4) Magnetic buildup of laps and seams is very small. There fore, & tagretizing current greater than that used for the detection of a crack is necessary. (6) Correct magnotizing technique sRould be used when exa mining for forsing tape since tne siscontinuty may le In 2'plane nearly parallel 1 the surlace. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Liguld penetrant is recommended for nonferrous materi {2} Lape and’ seams may be very WoMt and alffcult to detect especially by lguie penetrant (9) Liquid penetant testing of laps and seams can ve increae fed slighly by Neating the article before applying the Penetrant , ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used to test wrought material prior to machining (@) Surtace wave technique permits accurate evaluation of the ‘SepIh, length. and size of laps and seams (@) Ultrasonic indication of laps ané seams will appear as ofinite Inner faces within the metal EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used tor the evaluation of laps and seams in tubing and pipe (2) Other anicles can be screened by eddy current where arlicle configuration and size permit. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. Not cecommended for detecting laps and seams in wrought material. The ratio Detweon the discontinuity. size and the material thickness ‘excend 2% of sensitiviy in most cases, WICROGRAPH OF A LAP Fig. 29/7 ~ Laps and Seams Discortinwky fa Weaught Material 105124, MICRO-SHRINKAGE 724.1. Category. Processing. 17.242, Material. Magnesium Casting. 7.242, Discontinuity characteristics Imernal. Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appea ts concentrated porasily in cross section. (See {. 24/7, 7.244, Metallurgical a lysis ‘Shrinkage occurs while the metal ig In a plastic or semixmolten Gute. fsutficient molten metal cannot flow into different areas fs it Cools, the shrinkage will leave a void. The void is identified by its appearance and by the time in the plastic range it occurs. Mero-shrinkage is causes by she withdrawal of the low meiting point eonftivent from the grain boundaries, 7245. NOT methads application and limitations a. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Radiography is universally used to determine the accep tance level of micro-shrinkage. CLOSE-UP MEW OF (A) (@) Micro-shrinkage will appear on the radiograph 2s an falongated swt resembling feathery slreaks or as dark Irregular pateres, ‘nbich ste indicative of cavities in the (rain Boundaries, LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (0) Normatly weed on finished machined surfaces. (2) Micro-shrinkage is not normally open to the surtace. These conditions ‘wil, theretore, De detected in machined areas, (9) The appearance of the indication depends on the plane sirough whieh the candition has been cut. The appearance Varies trom a continuous hairline to a massive porous indication (4) Penetram may act a8 2 contaminant by saturating the micro porous casting affecting their ability to accept a Surface treatment (6) Serious structural and dimensional damage to the article an result Irom the improper use ot acide o¢ alkalies. They Should never be used uniess approval fs obtained EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting micro-shrinkage. Article configuration and type of ‘discontinuity do not lend themselves to eddy curren ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. tot recammanded for de- tecting microshrinkage. Cast structure and article configura tion are reatricting factors. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD. Not applicable Material Is nonferrous WICROGRAPH OF CRACKED AREA Fig 24/7 - Micro-Shninkage Discontinuity {125. GAS POROSITY 7.251, Category. Processing 7.25.2 Malerlal. Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments. 7.25.3. Discontinuity charactacttlcs Surlace of subsurtace. Rounded oF elongated, seardrop shaped With or without a sharp discontinuity at the point. Scattered ‘nitermly throughout the weld or isolated in'small groups. May ‘also be concentrated al the rook of toe. (See fig. 25/7) Porosity In welds is caused by gas entrapment In the molten ‘metal, foo much moisture on the base OF filer metal, oF improp Cleaning oF preheating. 7.255. NDT methods spplie &. RADIOGRAPHY TESTING METHOD (1) Radiography is the most universally used NOT method for the detection of gas porosity in weldments (2) The radiographic image of a = round = porosity will appear as oval shaped spots with smooth edges, while ~elongated= porosity wil appear es oval shaped spots with the major xls sometimes several times longer than the minor axis. lon and tmitations (8) Foreign materi such a8 loose scale. fox, oF splatter wit affect validity of test resuits. - ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Unrasonic testing equipment is highly sensitive, capabie fof detecting micro-separalions, Established stancards should be used if valid test results are to be obtained. (2) Surtace finish and grain size will affect the validity of the test results, EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally confined to thin wall welded pipe and tube. (@) Penetration restricts testing to a depth of more than one. ‘quarter incn, LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING WETHOD (1) Normally confines to in-process contro! of ferrous ang nonferrous weldments, {2) Liquis penetcant testing, lke magnetic particle, is restrictes to surface evaluation. (9) Extrome caution must be exercised to prevent any cleaning material, magnetic iron oxide), and liquid penetrant ma- Terials. {eam becoming entrapped and contaminating the reweiding operation MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used to detect gas porosity. (2) Only surtace porosity would be evidem. Neer surface po- rosity would not be clearly defined since it is neither strong oF pronounced ‘CROSS-SECTION OF (A) SHOWING EXTENT OF | POROSITY, MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION SHOWING TYPICAL SHRINKAGE POROSITY Fig. 25/7 ~ Gas Porosity Discontinuity728, UNFUSED POROSITY 1.26.1. Category. Processing 7.262. Material. Aluminum, 7.262, Discontinuity characteristics ternal, Wafer-thin fissures aligned paralle! with tne grain flow. Found in wrought aluminum whieh is flles, forged. or extruded, (Gee fig. 26/7), 7.264, Metallurgical analysis Untused porosity is attributed to porosity which is in the cast ingot. During the rolling, forging, ar extruding operations it is Niattened into waferthin shape. tf the internal surface of these discontinuities JS oxidized or is composed of a foreign material, they will not fyse during the subsequent processing, resulting in fan extremely thin interlace oF void. 7.28, NOT methods application and timtations a. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (0) Used extensively for the detection of untused porosity. {@) Material may be tested in the wrought as received con: figuration (@) Ultrasonic testing fixes the location of the void In all three FRACTURED SPECIMEN SHOWING UNFUSED POROSITY | (A) TYPICAL UNFUSED POROSITY (4) Where the general direction of the discontinuity fs unknown, it may be necessary to test trom several dvections (5) Method of manufacture and subsequent article configura tion wi datermine the orientation of the unlused porosity to the material surface b. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used on nonterous machined articles 2) Untuses porosity will spear as a straight line of varying length cunning parallel with the grain. Liquid penewant & restricted 10 surface evaluation (@) Surface preparations such as vapor blasting, honing. oF Sanding may obliterate by masking the surface discont Auities, thereby restricting the reliability of liquid penetrant testing (4) Excessive agitation of powder in a large container may produce foaming © EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used for electing untused porosity 2 4, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting untused porosity (2) Water-thin discontinuities are ditficult to detect by @ methos which measures density or which requites that the discon linuity be parallel and perpendicular 10 the X-ray beam. ©. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD. Not applicable, Material is nonterrous, UNFUSEO POROSITY EQUIVALENT To 1/64, 3/64, 5/64 AND 8/64 (LEFT TO RIGHT) ULTRASONIC SCOPE PATTERN OF (A) Fig. 26/7 » Untused Porosity Discontinuity121, STRESS CORROSION Service 7.27.3, Discontinuity characteristics Surface. Range from shallow to very deep, and usually follow the ‘grain tlow of the material; however, Wransverse cracks are also Possible, (See Nig. 27/7) 7274, Met analysts Three factors are necessary for the phenomenon of stress cor rosion to occur: 1) a sustained statie tensile stress, 2) the pre- sence of a corrosive environment, 29d 2) the use of a material that is susceptible to this type of fallure. Stross corrosion is much more likely to occur faster at high levels of stress than at low levels of stress. The type of stresses Include residual (internal) as well as those from exlemnal {applied} loading 7275. NOT methods application and limitations a. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Liquid penetrant i normally used for the detection of stress corrosion. (2)In the preparation, application, and fina! cleaning of arti clas, extreme care must be exercised to. prevent over spraying and contamination of the surrounding articles. DUE TO STRESS CORROSION Fig. 27/7 FRACTURED ALUMINUM ALLOY COUPLING ‘Stress Corrosion Discontinuity (@) Chemical cleaning immediately before the spplication of liquid penetrant may seriously atlect tho test results it the solvents are not given time to evaporate, (4) Senice aticies may contain moisture within the discon- Uinuity which will dilute, contaminate, and invalid results t the moisture is not removed b. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used to detect stress corrosion, (2) Eddy current equipment is capable of resolving stress cor- rosion where article configuration is compatible with equip ‘ment limitations. ©, ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used to detect stress corrosion. (2) Discontiuities are perpendicular ta surtace oY materia! and require surface technique. 4. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used to detect stress corrosion. (2) Contiguration of article and usual nonmagnetic condition ‘exclude magnetic particle testing. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used to detect stress corrosion. (@) Surtace indications are best detected by NOT method Sesigned for such application. However, radiography can land has shown strese corrosion with the use of the proper technique, 169728. HYORAULIC TUBING 1728.1. Category. Processing and Service 7.28.2. Material, Aluminum 6061-T6. 7283. Discontinuity characteristics ‘Surface and internal. Range in size from short to long, shallow to very tight and deep. Usually they will be found in the direction of the grain flow with the exception of stress corrosion, which has no direction. (See fig. 28/7). Hydraulic tubing discontinuities are usually one of the following, 2. Foreign material coming in contact with the tube material and being embedded into the surface of the tube, b. Laps whien are the result of material being folded over and rot fused © Seams which originate trom blowholes, cracks, splits and tears introduced in the earlier processing, and then are elongated during rolling 4, Intergranular corrosion which Is due to the presence of a corrosive environment 7.28.5. NOT methods application and limitations ‘4. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Universally weed for testing of nonferrous tubing INTERGRANULAR CORROSION EMBEDDED FOREIGN MATERIAL 190 Fig. 28/7 - Hydraulle Tubing Discontinuity. 12) Heavier walled tubing (0250 ine. and above) may not succesnuly ested due fo the penetration abiity oF ne eavipment @) The specific nature of various discontinuities may not be clearly defined cael (# Test fesuls may not be Valid unless contoled by brown (6) Testing of terro-magneti¢ material may be ditficul, (8) All material should be tree of any foreign material that ‘would invalid’ the test results * LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used tor detecting tubing discontinuities, (2) Eddy current is more economical, taster, and with esta. blisted standards js more reliable, ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Ret normally used for detecting tubing discontinuities. (2) Eday current is recommended over ultrasonic testing since itis faster and more econamical for this range of Surface discontinuity and nonferrous materia. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Not normally used for detecting tubing discontinuities. (2) The size and type of discontinuity and the configuration of the article limit the use of radiography for screening of material for this group of discontinuties, MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING METHOD. Not applicable Material is nonferrous. LAP IN OUTER SURFACE OF TUBING ‘TWIN LAPS IN OUTER SURFACE OF TUBING728. MANDREL DRAG 7291, Category. Processing 7.28.2. Materlal, Nonferrous Thick-Wall Seamless Tubing 728.4, OUcontinuly cracacteraties Internal surface of thick-wall tubing. Range trom shallow even gouges to ragged tears. Often @ siug of the material will be embedded within the gouged area. (See fig. 29/7). 7.294, Metalurgleal analysie During the manfacture of thick-wall Seamless tubing, the billet is ruptured as. passes Through the offset rolls. A the piercing ‘mandrel (ollows this fracture, a portion of the material may break loose and be forced aver the mandrel. As it does the surface of The Tubing may be scored or Nave the slug embedded Into the wall. Certain types of material are more prone to this type of {allure than others. 7285, NDT methods application and Umitatlons a. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used for the testing of thin-wall pipe or tube, (2) Eddy current testing be contined to nonferrous matetals @) Discontinulties are qualitative, not quantitative indications, (4) Several factors simultaneously atlect output indications. ANOTHER TYPE OF EMBEDDED SLUG ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD (1) Normally used for the screening of thickwall pipe or tube for mantel crag. pe (2) Can be used to test both ferrous and nonterrous pipe oF lube a (31 Raquites access (com ane side oni (3) May be used in support of production line since it Is adaptable for automatic instrumentation (©) Contiguration of mandre! crag or tear will produce very Sharp and noticeable indications on the scope RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (9) Not normally used although it has been instrumental in the election of mandrel drag during examination o! adjacent welds. Complete coverage requires several exposures around the Circumference of the tube. (9) This metnod is not designed for production support since his very slow anc costly for lage volumes pipe Or be. () Radicgrapn will discioge only two dimensions and not the third LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not recommendes for detecting mandrel grag sitce discontinully i internal and would not be detectable MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting mandrel drag. Discontinullies are not close enough to the Surface to be detectable by megnelic particles. Most mandrel drag wil occur in seamless stainless. steel GOUGE ON INNER SURFACE OF PIPE Fig. 28/7 - Mandre! Drag Discontinuity 197.0. SEMICONDUCTORS 7.30.1. Category. Processing and Service 7.0.2. Material, Hardware 730., Discontinuity eharacteristies Internal, Appear in macy sizes and shapes and various degrees of density. They may be mislormed, aligned, damaged, or broken Internal hardware. Found in transisicrs, diodes, resisters, and capacitors. (See fig. 29/7), 7.30.4, Metallurgical analysis Semiconductor discantinuities such as loose wire, weld splash, flakes, solder balls, Jonse leads, inadequate clearance between internal elements and case, and inclusions or voids in seals oF areund lead connections are the product of processing errors, 7.05. NDT methods application and limitations a, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Universally used as the NOT method {or the detection of discontinuities in semiconductors (2) The configuration and internal structure of the various semiconductors limit the NDT method 0 radiography. (3) Semiconductors that have copper heat sinks may require ‘more than one technique due to the density of the copper. QROKEN ELECTRICAL CABLE Fig. 90/7 - Semiconductor Discontinuity. (4) internal wires in semiconductors are very fine and may be constructed. trom materials of different density auch SS copper, silver, gold and aluminum. If the latler is uss, withthe others, special techniques may be needed i fesolve its reliably . (6) Micro-partcles may require the highest sensitivity ty resolve. (6) The complexity of the internat structure of semiconsictony may require additional views to excluse the possiblity of non-detection of discontinullies gue to masking by hang Positive positioning of each semiconductor will preven invalid interpretation (@) Source angle should give minimum distortion (9) Preliminary examination of semiconductors may be ac. complished using a viaicon system trat would allow visus) observation during 360 degree rotation of the article EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting semiconductor discontinuities. Nature ot discon. fuity and method of construction of te article do not lend themselves 10 this form of NOT. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD. Not recommenda {or detecting semiconductor discontinuities LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting semiconductor discontinuities. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommended tor de- lecting semiconductor discontinuities. FOREIGN MATERIAL WITHIN SEMICONDUCTOR731. HOT TEARS 731A. Category. Inherent. 7.31.2, Material. Forrous Castings, 7.21.3. Discontinulty characteristics Internal near eudtace, Appear as ragged fine of variable width ang numerous branches Oceur singly or in groups. (See fig. 31/7) Hot cracks (tears) are caused by non-uniform cooling resulting in stresses which rupture the surface of the metal while Its lemperaure le stl in the ritle range. Tears may originate Where stresses are set up by the more rapid cooling at thin Sections that adjoin heavier masses of metal, which are slower 1 coo! 7.31.5. NDT methods application and limitations a, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (1) Radiographic testing i¢ the first choice since the material i cast steusture ans the siscontinuities may Be iniernal ‘and surtace * (2) Orientation of the not tear in relation to the source may Intence the test results. (9) The sensitivity lavel may not be eulticient to detect tine surface hot tears, CLOSE-UP OF HOT TEARS IN CAD b. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD (1) Hot tears that are exposed to the surta with magnetic panicle method (2) Aricle contguration an mataurpieal composition make demagnization difficult ad (2) Aitough magnetic panicle can detect near surface hot tears, radiography should be used for final analysis, (4 Foreign materia not removed priot 10 testing wil cause a iat eat can be screened © UQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Liquid penetrant is recommended for nonferrous east material (2) Liquid penetrant is confined to surtace valuation. (@) The use of penetrants on castings may act as 2 conta cwinant by saturating the porous euctore and aflest he ability to apply surface finish (4) Repeatability of indications may be poor after a tong Period of time. 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not recommenced for de tecting ho! tears. Discontinuties of this type when associated With ast structure do not land themselves to vllrasonlc testing ©. EODY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommenced fat etecting ho! tears, Metallurgical structure. along with the eemplex configurations do fot. lend themselves to eddy ceureent testing, (8) HOT TEARS IN FILLET OF CASTING \ CLOSE-UP OF HOT TEARS IN Ca) Fig. 91/7 ~ Hot Tear Discontinuity.2 7.2. INTERGRANULAR CORROSION 7321. Category. Service, 7.322. Material. Nonferrous. 7.223, Discontinuity characteristics Surface of internal, & setles cf small micro-openings with no Getinite pattern. May appear singly of in groups. The Insidious fnatuie of intergranular corrosion results Wom the fact that very litte corrosion or cotrosion product Is visible on the surface, Intergranular corrosion may exiend in any direction ‘ollowing the grain boundaries of tne material. (See fi. 32/7). 7224. Metallorgfeal analyels Two factors that contribute to intergranular corrosion are. ‘a Metallurgical structure of the material that is prone 10 inter- granular corrosion such as unstabilzed 309 eevee stalnless Heel b. improper stress relieving or heat teat may create the su scoptibilty 10 intargranviar corrosion. Either of these condi- ions coupled “with @ Corrosive atmosphere wil! result in imergranular attack. TAR5, NOT methods application and Umitations a. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD (1) Liquid penetrant is the first choice due to the size and fotation of this tyBe of siscontinuly b. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD & EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD 4. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD. Not normally used although (2) Chemical cleaning operations immediately betore the plication of tiquid penetrant may contaminate. the wn ‘and seriously affect he test results : @) Cleaning io savant may release chlorine and acceler, intergranular corrosion : 18 Trapped penerrant sotution may present a cleaning or ‘moval problem, C (1) tntergranular corrosion in the more advanced stages he, ‘been detected with raciography. (2) Sensitivity levels may prevent tne detection of fine inte granular corrosion. {@) Radiography may not determine on which suctace the in | fergranular corrosion will occur 10) Eady current can be used tor the screening of intergranuia, corrosion, (2) Tube oF pipe tend themselves readily to this method ot NOT testing. (9) Metallurgical structure of the material may seriously atect the output indications, the equipment has the capability to detect intergranular MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING METHOD, Not recommended for detecting intergranular corrosion. Type of discontinuity and rmaneriah restrict the use of magnetic Particles, St a oe pee ee a MiEROGRAPW OF IVTERGRANUAR CORROSION SHOWiNG LFTNG OF Sure Ace Frow suasueract Coneasion \ Ae EE Phy ‘ aes MICROGRAPH SHOWING NATURE OF INTERGRANULAR CORROSION. | ONLY MINOR EVIDENCE OF CORROSION IS EVIDENT FROM SURFACE ( Fig. 92/7 - intergranular Corrosion Discontinuity. 194