JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 116, B10201, doi:10.

1029/2011JB008243, 2011

Preeruptive magma viscosity: An important measure

of magma eruptibility
Shingo Takeuchi1
Received 20 January 2011; revised 23 June 2011; accepted 11 July 2011; published 5 October 2011.
[1] Using a compilation of melt compositions, meltwater contents, temperatures, and
phenocryst contents, the preeruptive viscosities under magma reservoir conditions
are calculated for 83 erupted magmas. The basaltic‐to‐rhyolitic magmas have preeruptive
viscosities over the range 101 to 108 Pa s. Although bulk SiO2 content has often been
used as a qualitative measure of preeruptive magma viscosity, the bulk SiO2 content
shows a weak correlation with magma viscosity (correlation coefficient r = 0.5). Because
of a wide range of phenocryst contents from 0 to ∼50 vol %, andesitic magmas have
viscosities ranging from 102 to 107 Pa s, which are lower or higher than those of
phenocryst‐poor rhyolitic magmas with 105 to 106 Pa s. Focusing on andesitic to
rhyolitic magmas, the r between bulk SiO2 contents and magma viscosities changes to
−0.1. In contrast, the melt‐only SiO2 content from a basaltic‐to‐rhyolitic melt shows
a good linear correlation with melt‐only viscosity (r = 0.9). Although most of the
calculated viscosities of erupted magmas fall below ∼106 Pa s, as consistent with the
previous compilation study, this paper describes 20 examples of highly viscous magmas
with >106 Pa s, in most cases, composed of mixtures of high‐silica rhyolitic melt
(75–79 wt % SiO2) and abundant phenocrysts (30–55 vol %). In these highly viscous
magmas, 9 examples have erupted following the precursory eruption of less viscous
magma, suggesting that precursory dike propagation and conduit formation by the less
viscous magma with <106 Pa s induced the following eruption of less eruptible,
highly viscous magmas.
Citation: Takeuchi, S. (2011), Preeruptive magma viscosity: An important measure of magma eruptibility, J. Geophys. Res.,
116, B10201, doi:10.1029/2011JB008243.

1. Introduction system. Among these factors, magma viscosity should be one

of the most important, because the viscosity determines
[2] The timescale of magma movement in the Earth’s
whether a dike (magma‐filled crack) can be propagated
interior is essentially controlled by the balance between the
with a high enough ascent velocity to overcome solidifica-
viscous resistance of the magma and the available driving
tion [e.g., Rubin, 1995]. It is of importance that the magma
forces. Magma viscosity is therefore one of the most impor-
viscosities can be calculated. One also can calculate the
tant physical properties in understanding magmatic pro-
magma viscosity for eruptions that have occurred in the past,
cesses, providing a means of predicting future volcanic
using petrological analyses of the volcanic rocks. Scaillet
activities and evaluating the potential hazards of active and
et al. [1998] compiled the petrological properties and esti-
dangerous volcanoes. This paper emphasizes the fact that
mated viscosities of 33 silicic magmas in the preeruptive
magma viscosity is an important measure of “magma erupt- magma reservoir (referred as to the “preeruptive magma
ibility,” which can be defined as the ability of the magma to
viscosity”). Subsequently, precise petrological data, such as
erupt from a reservoir to the surface of the Earth. Magma
melt composition, meltwater content, magmatic temperature,
eruptibility is expected to change during the evolution of a and phenocryst content, for erupted magmas have been
volcanic system. Under what conditions does the magma in
reported in several studies. In addition, models have been
the reservoir lose eruptibility? Many factors may control that
proposed that allow one to calculate precisely the viscosities
eruptibility, including the properties of the magma and the
of hydrous melts with various compositions [e.g., Giordano
crust and the scale, geometry, and structure of the volcanic
et al., 2008]. In the present paper, using the model of
Giordano et al. [2008] and a compilation of petrological
data, the preeruptive magma viscosity has been estimated for
1
Geosphere Sciences, Civil Engineering Research Laboratory, Central
83 erupted magmas. This work covers a wider compositional
Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Abiko, Japan. range than that found by Scaillet et al. [1998]. Finally, using
a compilation of preeruptive magma viscosities, I discuss
Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.
0148‐0227/11/2011JB008243

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B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
the prospects for evidence‐based estimates of upper limit
viscosities for eruptible magmas.
2. Estimating the Preeruptive Magma Viscosity
2.1. Magmatic Properties Required for Estimating
Preeruptive Magma Viscosity
[3] In this paper, the term “magma” refers to a mixture of
melt plus phenocrysts and bubbles (a three‐phase mixture).
However, the effect of bubbles in reservoir magma (referred
to as the “preeruptive bubbles”) on the preeruptive bulk
magma viscosity has no choice but to be eventually
neglected, as discussed in section 2.2.3. Therefore, the
properties required for calculating the preeruptive magma
viscosities are melt composition, meltwater content, tem-
perature, and crystal content (phenocryst content), under the
conditions of the preeruptive reservoir. When magmas
ascend and are decompressed prior to or during eruption,
these properties change significantly because of dehydra-
tion, vesiculation, crystallization, and cooling, and consid-
erable variations in viscosity should thus result. For this
study, estimates are made only for the preeruptive “resident”
magma viscosities in the magma reservoirs themselves and
in their immediate vicinity. Although the data of melt
composition, meltwater content, temperature, and pheno-
cryst content are fundamental, a few studies have reported
all the required data, despite the large number of studied
volcanoes and eruptions. The analytical methods used to
obtain these properties differ from study to study, and these
methods are summarized in Appendix A.
2.2. Viscosity Calculations
2.2.1. Melt Viscosities
[4] Many studies have sought to model the viscosities of
magmatic silicate melts since the works of Bottinga and
Weill [1972] and Shaw [1972]. Shaw’s [1972] model was
the first to be universally applicable to hydrous melts with a
wide compositional range from basalt to rhyolite. In this
model, an Arrhenian formulation is used to express the
temperature dependence. Dingwell et al. [1996] pointed out
the limitations of the Arrhenian model of Shaw [1972] when
applied to low‐temperature and/or low‐water‐content highly
viscous melts. Hess and Dingwell [1996] introduced a non‐
Arrhenian formulation for modeling viscosity, and they
succeeded in modeling the viscosity variation of leuco-
granitic melts within the high‐viscosity range. Other recent
works have also adopted a non‐Arrhenian formulation to
model melt viscosities for a wide range of anhydrous
compositions and water contents [Hui and Zhang, 2007;
Giordano et al., 2008]. These models are formulated on the
basis of anhydrous melt compositions, meltwater contents,
and temperature. Because Shaw’s [1972] model requires
ferric‐ferrous contents, the oxygen fugacity should also be
determined to be exact. In contrast, the recent models pro-
posed by Hui and Zhang [2007] and Giordano et al. [2008]
are formulated using total iron content only. In the above
models, the pressure dependence of melt viscosity has been
neglected, although several experimental studies performed
under the pressure up to several gigapascals have shown that
the melt viscosity has dependence on pressure [e.g.,
Kushiro, 1976; Scarfe et al., 1987; Hui et al., 2009].
However, if the pressure condition of the shallow crustal
2 of 19
B10201
reservoir in which the magmas resided just before eruption
can be roughly assumed to be less than 0.5 GPa [e.g.,
Rutherford et al., 1985; Martel et al., 1998; Scaillet and
Evans, 1999; di Carlo et al., 2006; Tomiya et al., 2010],
the viscosity variation of preeruptive magmas by pressure
effect would be less than 0.5 log unit.
[5] The present study employs the model developed by
Giordano et al. [2008], in which the discrepancy between
measured and calculated viscosities is minimized. For com-
parison, melt viscosities calculated using the models of Shaw
[1972] and Hui and Zhang [2007] are also shown in section 5.
2.2.2. The Effect of Phenocrysts
[6] Phenocrysts decrease the relatively deformable phase
volume of a magma. Moreover, for phenocryst‐rich magmas,
the mechanical interactions between phenocrysts have a
strong effect on bulk magma rheology. These effects increase
magma viscosity. The dependence of magma viscosity on
phenocryst content is expressed by using relative viscosity
hr, defined as magma viscosity hm divided by melt viscosity
hl. Since the work by Marsh [1981], the Einstein‐Roscoe
equation (E‐R eq.) has been used as a simple method to
evaluate the effect of phenocrysts on magma viscosity: hr =
hm/hl = (1 − ’/’max)−2.5, where ’ is the phenocryst content in
volume fractions and ’max is the critical crystallinity at
which magmas essentially become solid. Marsh [1981]
assumed ’max to be 0.6. Based on the E‐R eq., the relative
viscosities of phenocryst‐bearing magmas with 30 vol % and
50 vol % phenocrysts can be estimated to be 0.8 and 2.0 log
units, respectively. In this study, the E‐R eq. is used as the
simplest method of estimating the viscosities of phenocryst‐
bearing magmas, although there is a problem, as discussed in
the following section.
[7] The E‐R eq. is actually an insufficient formulation in
expressing the complex rheological behavior of phenocryst‐
bearing magmas. An experimental study for analog magma
containing monodispersed, spherical phenocrysts [Lejeune
and Richet, 1995] demonstrated that the rheological
behavior of magma with a low to medium phenocryst
content (<30–40 vol %) approximates that of a Newtonian
fluid. Lejeune and Richet [1995] showed that the E‐R eq.
with ’max = 0.6 is valid for phenocryst‐bearing magma
within this range of phenocryst content. However, for higher
phenocryst contents, the phenocryst‐bearing magmas
become non‐Newtonian and develop a yield strength and a
strain‐rate‐dependent viscosity [Pinkerton and Stevenson,
1992]. In the case in which magmas contain anisotropic,
tabular phenocrysts, such as plagioclase, Ishibashi [2009]
observed that the critical phenocryst content that deter-
mines the onset of non‐Newtonian behavior is shifted down
to ∼10 vol %. In recent experimental studies, attempts have
been made to model the strain rate dependence of magma
viscosity [Caricchi et al., 2007; Champallier et al., 2008;
Costa et al., 2009; Ishibashi, 2009]. In each model, the
magma viscosity decreases with increasing strain rate when
the phenocryst content is fixed. Caricchi et al. [2007]
experimentally determined the strain‐rate‐dependent viscos-
ity of magmas bearing ∼50 vol % phenocrysts. The relative
viscosity for the experiment with a strain rate of 10–5.5 s–1
was 0.7 log units higher than that calculated using the E‐R
eq. In contrast, the relative viscosity in the experiment with
10–4.2 s–1 was 0.2 log units lower. In experiments with a
54 vol % phenocryst‐bearing magma and a strain rate of
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
Figure 1. Total alkali (Na2O + K2O) versus SiO2 diagram,
and the classification of Le Bas et al. [1986], showing the
bulk and melt composition of alkali‐poor (circles) or alkali‐
rich (squares) magmas used for the compilations in this
study. Classification is based on the rock name given in the
source literature. The alkali‐poor group includes basalt (B),
basaltic andesite (O1), andesite (O2), dacite (O3), and rhy-
olite (R), while the alkali‐rich group includes trachybasalt
(S1), basaltic trachyandesite (S2), trachyandesite (S3), trachyte
or trachydacite (T), and phonolite (Ph). The open and solid
symbols represent bulk and melt compositions, respectively.
10–3.2 s–1 [Champallier et al., 2008], the relative viscosity
was 1.5 log units lower than that calculated using the E‐R eq.
Considering these experimental results, the relative viscosity
of phenocryst‐rich magmas calculated with the E‐R eq.
becomes larger or smaller than those calculated with non‐
Newtonian models, depending on strain rates.
[8] As shown above, to determine the preeruptive viscos-
ity of non‐Newtonian, phenocryst‐rich magmas, it is nec-
essary to know the strain rate in the preeruptive magma.
Spera et al. [1988] roughly estimated typical strain rates to
be 10−8 to 10−6 s–1 for convective mafic and silicic magma
reservoirs. If the magma in the reservoir is almost immobile
and unable to convect, the strain rate should be infinitesimal.
Such rough estimates of strain rate are much smaller than
those produced in the above experimental studies. Therefore,
the relative viscosities determined with the E‐R eq. may be
regarded as underestimates in the case of non‐Newtonian,
phenocryst‐rich preeruptive magmas in the reservoirs.
2.2.3. The Effects of Preeruptive Bubbles
[9] Unlike phenocrysts, bubbles have the effect of both
increasing and decreasing the viscosity of bubble‐bearing
magmas. The effect of bubbles depends on their deform-
ability. The deformability of a bubble is controlled by bubble
radius r, melt viscosity hl, strain rate ", and surface tension
between gas and melt phases s [e.g., Stein and Spera, 2002].
These factors are formulated as a capillary number, Ca,
which is a nondimensional number that expresses the ratio of
shear stress to surface tension: Ca = hl" r/s. For Ca  1,
bubbles are deformable during the shear motion of magma.
In this case, the presence of bubbles results in a decrease in
magma viscosity because the gas phase has a significantly
lower viscosity than that of the melt. In contrast, for Ca  1,
the surface tension keeps the bubbles relatively undeform-
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B10201
able during the shear motion of magma. These bubbles
behave like rigid particles, causing an increase in magma
viscosity. Stein and Spera [2002] summarized the situation
as follows: when Ca > 10, magma viscosity is decreased by
bubbles; however, when Ca < 0.1, it is increased.
[10] Recent studies have improved our understanding of
the rheology of bubble‐bearing magmas [Lejeune et al.,
1999; Stein and Spera, 2002; Manga and Loewenberg,
2001; Pal, 2003]. However, there are significant difficul-
ties in quantifying the effect of preeruptive bubbles on
resident magma viscosity in natural preeruptive reservoirs.
Because the data required for quantifying this effect are
difficult to obtain and are not available in the literature, the
effects of bubbles on viscosity estimates have to be
neglected in this study. The first difficulty is that estimating
the volume content of preeruptive bubbles in the resident
reservoir magma requires a precise analysis of melt inclu-
sions using H 2 O‐CO 2 systematics [e.g., Wallace et al.,
1995] or remote sensing observation data of total SO2
emissions during an eruption [e.g., Wallace and Gerlach,
1994]. According to previous studies, preeruptive magmas
in a reservoir may contain 5 to 30 vol % bubbles [e.g.,
Wallace, 2001]. The second difficulty is in estimating the
typical size of preeruptive bubbles, although several studies
have tackled this problem. Gualda and Anderson [2007], for
example, estimated the size of preeruptive bubbles in the
magma reservoir to be several hundreds of microns, based
on a textural study of erupted pumice in the Bishop Tuff.
Recent experimental work by Lautze et al. [2010] revealed
that micron‐scale bubbles are not stable because of Ostwald
ripening. The third difficulty is that the bubble‐bearing
magma viscosity depends on the strain rate of magma
motion in the preeruptive magma reservoir. When individual
parameters are roughly assumed to be 10−4 m for bubble
radius, 10−6 s−1 for strain rate in a convective magma res-
ervoir [Spera et al., 1988], and 10−1 N m–1 for surface
tension [e.g., Bagdassarov et al., 2000; Mangan and Sisson,
2005; Yamada et al., 2005], the Ca is estimated to be 10−8–
10−3 for melts with 101–106 Pa s viscosity, which is the
viscosity range for preeruptive basaltic‐to‐rhyolitic melts, as
shown in section 5. Considering this estimate, it would seem
that preeruptive bubbles tend to increase the viscosity in
magma reservoirs. Assuming that the Ca of 10−8–10−3 and
30 vol % bubbles at the maximum, the viscosity of bubble‐
bearing magma is 0.2 log unit larger than that of bubble‐free
melt following model 4 of Pal [2003].
[11] In addition, preeruptive bubbles decrease the effec-
tive phenocryst content in three‐phase magmas that consist
of bubbles, melt, and phenocrysts, because the effective
phenocryst content (volume fraction of phenocrysts in the
three‐phase magma) is therefore smaller than the phenocryst
content defined on a bubble‐free basis (see section A4).
However, the rheology of a three‐phase magma has been
explored in only a few studies [e.g., Bagdassarov et al.,
1994] and is poorly understood.
3. Examples That Satisfy the Data Requirements
[12] There are 83 examples of magmas erupted from
volcanoes in arc and intraplate settings that satisfy the data
requirements for calculating viscosity. As mentioned in the
caption of Figure 1, these magmas are categorized as alkali‐
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY B10201

found between melt SiO2 content and the temperature of

alkali‐poor magmas (Figure 3b). For alkali‐poor magmas,
silicic melts have higher meltwater contents than mafic
melts, giving a weak positive correlation between melt SiO2
and the meltwater contents (r = 0.5) (Figure 3c). A corre-

Figure 2. Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) versus bulk

SiO 2 content. The VEIs, defined by Newhall and Self
[1982], for eruptions in the Holocene come from the
Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program catalog [Siebert
and Simkin, 2002‐]. The VEIs for eruptions before the
Holocene were estimated from their tephra volume reported
in the data sources shown in Table 1, following the definition
by Newhall and Self [1982]. Open circles and solid squares
represent alkali‐poor and alkali‐rich magmas, respectively.

poor or alkali‐rich magmas, following the classification of

Le Bas et al. [1986] and using the total alkali (Na2O + K2O)
versus SiO2 diagram (Figure 1). Note that the categorization
as alkali‐poor or alkali‐rich does not correspond completely
to the subalkali and alkali rock series [e.g., Kuno, 1966]
because the categorization is not based on norms [Le Bas
et al., 1986]. The 83 examples include a number of alkali‐
poor magmas and a few alkali‐rich magmas covering the
compositional range from 45 to 80 wt % SiO2 (Figure 1).
In some cases, several different kinds of magma, with
different magmatic properties, were extruded in a single
eruption. The examples are biased toward andesitic‐rhyolitic
bulk compositions and pyroclastic samples that score more
than 4 on the volcanic explosive index (Figure 2).

4. Correlations Between the Magmatic Properties

of Preeruptive Magmas
[13] Although the physicochemical properties controlling
magma viscosity (melt composition, meltwater content,
temperature, and phenocryst content) have many degrees of
freedom, the variations in these properties should be con-
strained by phase equilibria in the preeruptive magma
[Scaillet et al., 1998]. As a result, there are some correla-
tions between these properties. The relationships between
melt SiO2 contents, meltwater contents, and temperatures
are shown in Figure 3. Each correlation is measured by
correlation coefficient r. A negative correlation between Figure 3. (a) Meltwater content versus temperature, (b)
meltwater content and temperature (r = −0.8) is found for temperature versus melt SiO2 content, and (c) meltwater
both alkali‐poor and alkali‐rich magmas (Figure 3a), as content versus melt SiO 2 content. Plus signs represent
demonstrated by Scaillet et al. [1998]. The temperature alkali‐rich magmas; all other symbols represent alkali‐poor
range (650°C–1200°C) determined for the 83 examples here magmas. The symbols of alkali‐poor magmas are coded on
is slightly larger than the range (650°C–1100°C) found by the basis of (Figure 3a) melt SiO2 content, (Figure 3b) melt-
Scaillet et al. [1998]. A negative correlation (r = −0.8) is water content, and (Figure 3c) temperature.

4 of 19
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
Figure 4. Phenocryst content versus bulk SiO2 content.
Open circles and solid squares represent alkali‐poor and
alkali‐rich magmas, respectively.
lation between phenocryst volume percent and bulk SiO2
content is well known in magmas erupted during arc vol-
canism [Marsh, 1981; Brophy, 1991]. Figure 4 shows a
similar correlation to that described by Brophy [1991]. The
main feature of the correlation between phenocryst and bulk
SiO2 contents is that phenocryst content peaks at around
55 vol % for andesitic‐to‐dacitic bulk compositions with
increasing SiO2 content, and the maximum phenocryst
content appears to linearly decrease toward 0 vol % from 65
to 80 wt % SiO2. Although phenocryst‐rich basaltic magmas
(∼50 vol % phenocrysts) are described by Brophy [1991],
they are not seen in the 83 examples of the present study. The
origin of the correlation between phenocryst and bulk SiO2
contents is discussed in section 6.1.
5. Viscosity of Preeruptive Magmas
[14] Calculated melt viscosities, based on a compilation of
the magmatic properties for individual examples, are sum-
marized in Tables 1 and A1. Even if a viscosity had been
calculated in the source literature, it was recalculated in the
present study to ensure that all calculations were made in a
uniform way. In Table 1, melt viscosity values were calculated
using the model of Giordano et al. [2008]. These values are
compared with calculations using the models of Shaw [1972]
and Hui and Zhang [2007] (Figures 5a and 5b). There are
small differences of 0.2 log units on average between the
models of Giordano et al. and Shaw, whereas there are 0.3 log
units between the models of Giordano et al. and Hui and
Zhang. Recent studies [e.g., Hess and Dingwell, 1996] have
reported that the Shaw model underestimates or overestimates
melt viscosity in the case of low water content (<1 wt %).
However, for naturally observed magmas with >1 wt % water
in the preeruptive melt (Figures 3a and 3c), the Shaw model
provides results consistent with the recent two models.
[15] Viscosities for phenocryst‐bearing magmas are shown
in Table 1. The relationship between the estimated magma
viscosities and bulk SiO2 contents is shown in Figure 6a.
Most of the viscosities range from 101 to 108 Pa s for basaltic‐
to‐rhyolitic bulk compositions, with one exceptionally high
viscosity (∼1010 Pa s) for a silicic magma. Bulk SiO2 content
5 of 19
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has often been used as a qualitative measure of preeruptive
magma viscosity for nonalkali series. The results here,
however, show a weak correlation between bulk SiO2 content
and magma viscosity (correlation coefficient r = 0.5).
Andesitic magmas, in particular, have a wide range of magma
viscosities, from 102 to 107 Pa s, which is due to a wide range
in phenocryst contents from 0 (phenocryst‐free andesitic
melt) to ∼50 vol % (50 vol % rhyolitic melt + 50 vol %
phenocrysts). Focusing on andesitic‐to‐rhyolitic magmas, the
r changes to −0.1. These data demonstrate therefore that bulk
SiO2 content is not a good measure of preeruptive magma
viscosity, especially for andesitic‐to‐rhyolitic magmas. In
contrast, melt SiO2 contents (the SiO2 content of the
groundmass) show a good linear correlation with melt vis-
cosities (r = 0.9) (Figure 6b). This correlation between melt
SiO2 contents and melt viscosities corresponds to the lower
boundary of the plots in bulk SiO2 contents and magma
viscosities (Figure 6a). This means that the lower boundary of
bulk SiO2 contents and magma viscosities corresponds to the
viscosity data of phenocryst‐free magmas. This correlation in
Figure 6b suggests that synchronized variations in the mag-
matic properties that result from phase equilibria (see section
4) limit the variations in melt viscosity. For example, if a melt
coexisting with phenocrysts maintains a given fixed com-
position (fixed melt SiO2 content), temperature increases and
meltwater content decreases have to be synchronized under
phase equilibria to prevent changes in the anhydrous melt
composition that are due to phenocryst melting or melt
crystallization. Such a synchronization between temperature
and meltwater content can be seen in Figure 3a. Such a
synchronization cancels the effects of variations in melt vis-
cosity. Increases in temperature cause melt viscosities to
decrease, while decreasing water contents cause melt vis-
cosities to increase. As a result, variations in melt viscosity
with synchronized variations in temperature and water con-
tent are limited to a relatively narrow range (Figure 6b).
[16] There is a good negative correlation between tem-
perature and melt viscosity (r = −0.8) (Figure 7). Scaillet
et al. [1998] produced similar plots, and they described the
correlation between temperature and melt viscosity as “hor-
izontal,” but here the temperature‐melt viscosity plots of
Scaillet et al. [1998] are viewed as “negative correlations.”
For the present examples, the negative correlation shown in
Figure 7 is more noticeable than that of Scaillet et al. [1998]
because high‐temperature mafic melts (1000°C–1200°C) are
included in the present study. In addition, for the present
examples, the synchronized variation in properties that is
due to phase equilibria controls the variation in melt vis-
cosity. For example, if a melt coexisting with phenocrysts
maintains a given fixed temperature, increases in melt SiO2
and decreases in water content have to be synchronized
under phase equilibria to prevent changes in temperature.
Such a synchronization between melt SiO2 and meltwater
contents can be roughly seen in Figure 3c, but it is unclear
compared with that between temperature and meltwater
content (Figure 3a). Unlike the synchronization between
temperature and meltwater content discussed above, this
synchronization produces a synergistic effect on variations
in melt viscosity. An increase in melt SiO2 content causes an
increase in melt viscosity, while a decrease in water content
also causes the melt viscosity to increase. As a result, the
extent of the variations in melt viscosity with synchronized
 Table 1. Estimated Melt and Magma Viscosity With Magmatic Properties Required for Viscosity Estimates
B10201

Bulk SiO2 Melt SiO2 Melt Water Phenocryst Melt Magma

Main Eruption Content Contentc Content Temperature Content Viscosity Viscosity
a b
GVP Number Volcano Eruption Age VEI Style Subclassification (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (°C) (vol %) (log Pa s) (log Pa s) Data Sources

0100‐01 Laacher See 13 ka 6 Plinian LLST 57.4 57.4 5.5 755 1 3.7 3.7 Schmincke et al. [1999],
Harms et al. [2004]
0101‐01 Campi Flegrei 39 ka 7 Caldera forming Campanian 60.5 60.8 2.0 1000 5 3.6 3.7 Marianelli et al. [2006]
0101‐02 Vesuvius AD79 5? Plinian Pompeii 56.0 56.0 6.2 815 10 3.2 3.4 Cioni et al. [1995],
Scaillet et al. [2008]
0101‐04 Stromboli AD800–1600 2–3 Eruptive paroxysm 49.4 49.8 2.6 1150 11 1.0 1.2 di Carlo et al. [2006]
0101‐06 Etna BC122 5 Plinian 49.3 52.7 3.0 1010 10 2.3 2.5 Coltelli et al. [1998], Goepfert and
Gardner [2010]
0102‐04 Santorini 3.6 ka 7 Caldera forming Minoan 69.1 73.6 2.8 885 15 5.1 5.4 Cottrell et al. [1999]
0201‐19 Fantale Quaternary Postcaldera lava flow 70.0 73.9 4.8 800 14 4.3 4.6 Gibson [1970], Webster et al. [1993]
0401‐07 Taupo 1.8 ka 6 Caldera forming Hapete 76.2 76.2 4.3 839 5 5.1 5.2 Dunbar et al. [1989a, 1989b]
0401‐07 Taupo 26.5 ka 8 Caldera forming Oruanui 75.7 76.9 4.5 760 10d 5.7 5.9 Wilson et al. [2005]
0602‐00 Krakatau AD1883 6 Caldera forming rhyodacite 68.3 72.0 4.0 885 11 4.3 4.6 Mandeville et al. [1996]
0604‐02 Agung AD1963 5 Lava flow, sub‐Plinian, 57.6 59.1 3.0 1070 19 2.4 2.8 Self and King [1996]
Vulcanian
0703‐083 Pinatubo AD1991e 6 Caldera forming dacite 64.0 78.5 6.3 760 47 5.2 6.9 Westrich and Gerlach [1992],
Pallister et al. [1992], Scaillet
and Evans [1999]
andesite 59.2 64.8 5.0 950 38 3.0 4.1 Pallister et al. [1996], Rutherford
and Devine [1996], Takeuchi [2002]
0802‐06 Kikai AD1934 2 Lava dome Showa‐Iwojima 70.6 77.8 1.0 970 18 6.3 6.7 Ono et al. [1982], Saito et al.
[2001, 2002]
0802‐06 Kikai 0.5–0.6 ka ? Explosive Iwodake, K‐Iw‐P2 69.3 76.9 3.0 960 17 4.6 5.0 Ono et al. [1982], Saito et al. [2001,
2002], Kawanabe and Saito [2002]
0802‐06 Kikai 3 ka 2 Scoria cone building Inamuradake 53.0 57.8 2.0 1125 29 2.1 2.8 Ono et al. [1982], Saito et al.

6 of 19
[2001, 2002]
0802‐06 Kikai 7.3 ka 7 Caldera forming Akahoya 71.0 73.4 3.7 960 10 4.0 4.2 Ono et al. [1982], Saito et al.
[2001, 2002]
0802‐08 Sakurajima AD1975 3 Vulcanian 60.0 67.6 3.0 1030 31 3.4 4.2 Okumura et al. [2004], Yamanoi
et al. [2008]
0802‐08 Aira 25 ka 7 Caldera forming Aira‐Tanzawa 75.0 76.3 6.0 780 13 5.0 5.2 Aramaki [1984], Tsukui and
Aramaki [1990], Miyagi and
Yurimoto [1995]
0802‐10 Unzen AD1991 1 Lava dome 64.6 68.2 6.0 900 25 3.4 4.0 Nakada and Motomura [1999],
Sato et al. [1999], Venezky and
TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY

Rutherford [1999], Holtz et al.

[2004]
0802‐11 Aso 90 kae 7 Caldera forming 4II‐3S 51.0 66.8 5.9 870 25 3.5 4.1 Kaneko et al. [2007]
4I‐3S 54.0 68.2 5.7 865 25 3.7 4.3 Kaneko et al. [2007]
4I‐1P 68.0 72.0 4.9 830 7.5 4.5 4.6 Kaneko et al. [2007]
0803‐11 Asama AD2004 2 Vulcanian 61.5 69.8 3.0 1050 35 3.5 4.5 Shimano et al. [2005],
Miyake et al. [2005]
0803‐122 Haruna, 1.5 ka 5 Plinian Futatsudake 61.0 78.1 5.3 835 50 5.0 7.0 Suzuki and Nakada [2007]
0804‐04 Miyakejima AD2000 3 Phreatomagmatic 50.6 53.4 1.8 1100 17 1.8 2.2 Saito et al. [2005]
0805‐02 Hokkaido AD1929e 4 Plinian Ko‐a, climactic 60.0 76.8 3.0 950 48 5.0 6.8 Takeuchi [2002], Takeuchi and
Komagatake Nakamura [2001]
Ko‐a, precursory 58.0 67.0 3.0 1040 33 3.3 4.2 Takeuchi [2002], Takeuchi and
Nakamura [2001]
0805‐02 Hokkaido AD1856e 4 Plinian Ko‐c1, climactic 61.0 76.7 3.0 960 53 4.8 7.2 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
Komagatake,
Ko‐c1, precursory 58.3 57.9 2.0f 1050f 1 2.6 2.6 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
0805‐02 Hokkaido AD1694e 4 Plinian Ko‐c2, climactic 59.8 76.9 3.0 950 53 4.9 7.2 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
Komagatake,
B10201
 Table 1. (continued)
B10201

Bulk SiO2 Melt SiO2 Melt Water Phenocryst Melt Magma

Main Eruption Content Contentc Content Temperature Content Viscosity Viscosity
a b
GVP Number Volcano Eruption Age VEI Style Subclassification (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (°C) (vol %) (log Pa s) (log Pa s) Data Sources

Ko‐c2, precursory 58.9 64.1 1.5 1035 34 3.7 4.6 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
0805‐02 Hokkaido AD1640e 5 Plinian Ko‐d, climactic 59.9 75.8 3.0 970 52 4.6 6.8 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
Komagatake,
Ko‐d, precursory 57.4 57.6 3.0 1030 4 2.4 2.4 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
0805‐03 Usu AD1663 5 Plinian Us‐b 75.0 76.1 6.4 780 4 4.7 4.8 Tomiya et al. [2010]
0805‐04 Tarumai AD1739e 5 Plinian Ta‐a, climactic 60.3 75.9 4.0 930 50 4.5 6.4 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
Ta‐a, precursory 56.2 66.4 2.0 1045 43 3.7 5.1 Takeuchi [2002, 2004]
1000‐13 Karymsky 7.9 ka 6 Caldera forming 69.6 75.6 3.6 871 26 4.9 5.6 Izbekov et al. [2004]
1000‐13 Karymsky 40 ka Caldera forming 69.5 74.3 4.3 883 21 4.4 4.9 Izbekov et al. [2004]
1000‐27 Shiveluch AD2001‐2004 1–4 Lava dome, Vulcanian 62.0 68.6 5.1 850 39d 4.0 5.2 Dirksen et al. [2006]
1102‐09 Aniakchak 3.6 kae 6 Caldera forming andesite 58.7 58.6 3.5 1000 10 2.6 2.8 Larsen [2006]
rhyolite 70.6 71.5 4.0 885 9 4.3 4.5 Larsen [2006]
1102‐17 Katmai, AD1912e 6 Caldera forming andesite 60.0 67.6 3.3 945 37.5 3.9 5.0 Hammer et al. [2002]
dacite 67.2 79.1 2.5 865 37.5 6.0 7.1 Lowenstern [1993], Hammer et al.
[2002]
rhyolite 77.2 78.6 4.0 838 2 5.3 5.3 Lowenstern [1993], Coombs and
Gardner [2001]
1201‐03 Rainier 2.2 kae 4 Plinian C, dacite 64.0 75.4 3.0 930 54 4.7 7.2 Venezky and Rutherford [1997]
C, andesite 58.5 64.7 5.0 1020 31 2.5 3.3 Venezky and Rutherford [1997]
1201‐05 St. Helens AD1980 5 Plinian 1980 62.8 73.0 4.6 930 40d 3.8 5.0 Rutherford et al. [1985]
1201‐05 St. Helens AD1800 5 Plinian T 63.2 70.2 4.6 893 31 3.9 4.7 Gardner et al. [1995]
1201‐05 St. Helens AD1480 5 Plinian Wn 67.2 74.8 4.8 847 27 4.5 5.2 Gardner et al. [1995]
1201‐05 St. Helens 2.2 ka? Plinian Bi 64.1 72.8 3.7 913 41 4.4 5.6 Gardner et al. [1995]
1201‐05 St. Helens 2.5 ka? 5 Plinian Pu 63.3 74.3 4.3 870 46 4.5 6.1 Gardner et al. [1995]
1201‐05 St. Helens 3.8 ka Plinian Ye 65.5 75.6 5.6 795 40 4.8 6.0 Gardner et al. [1995]

7 of 19
1201‐05 St. Helens 3.9 ka?e 6 Plinian Yn high T 65.9 74.8 6.3 791 32 4.5 5.3 Gardner et al. [1995]
Yn med T 65.8 75.5 6.5 777 35 4.6 5.6 Gardner et al. [1995]
1202‐16 Crater Lake 6.8 ka 7 Caldera forming climactic 70.4 73.2 3.9 885 10 4.5 4.7 Bacon and Druitt [1988],
Bacon et al. [1992]
1203‐13 Inyo 0.6 ka 4 Lava dome 72.6 78.1 4.1 880 5 4.9 5.0 Hervig et al. [1989], Vogel et al.
[1989], Ghiorso and Sack [1991]
120314‐A Long Valley 0.7 Ma 7 Caldera forming Bishop early 76.8 77.4 5.0 725 5 5.7 5.8 Bailey et al. [1976], Anderson et al.
[2000], Hildreth and Wilson [2007]
121002‐D Valles Caldera 1.212 Ma <5 Plinian Cerro Toledo‐6‐8 77.8 6.0 697 7.5 5.6 5.7 Stix and Gorton [1990], Stix and
Layne [1996]
121002‐D Valles Caldera 1.225 Ma 7 Caldera forming Bandelier Upper 77.5 5.0 697 5 6.0 6.1 Warshaw and Smith [1988],
TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY

Stix and Gorton [1990], Stix and

Layne [1996]
121002‐D Valles Caldera 1.376 Ma <5 Plinian Cerro Toledo‐15‐11 79.3 5.0 777 5 5.5 5.5 Stix and Gorton [1990], Stix and
Layne [1996]
121002‐D Valles Caldera 1.536 Ma <5 Plinian Cerro Toledo‐15‐9 78.7 6.0 813 5 4.7 4.8 Stix and Gorton [1990], Stix and
Layne [1996]
121002‐D Valles Caldera 1.593 Ma <5 Plinian Cerro Toledo‐15‐8 79.0 3.0 813 5 6.2 6.2 Stix and Gorton [1990], Stix and
Layne [1996]
1302‐01 Kilauea AD1984 1 Hawaiian PuuOo 50.8 50.8 0.4 1140 0 2.0 2.0 Garcia and Wolfe [1988], Neal et al.
[1988], Wallace and Anderson
[1998]
1302‐01 Kilauea AD1959 2 Hawaiian Kilauea Iki 46.4 48.8 0.7 1190 30 1.2 1.9 Macdonald and Katsura [1961],
Murata and Richter [1966],
Richter and Murata [1966],
Wallace and Anderson [1998]
1401‐04 Volcan Colima AD1991, 1998–99 2–3 Lava dome, vulcanian 60.0 66.6 3.5 985 40 3.4 4.6 Luhr [2002]
1404‐10 Masaya late‐Pleistocene 6 Plinian Fontana 52.4 52.6 3.0 1035 10 2.0 2.2 Williams [1983], Goepfert and
Gardner [2010]
B10201
 B10201

Table 1. (continued)
Bulk SiO2 Melt SiO2 Melt Water Phenocryst Melt Magma
Main Eruption Content Contentc Content Temperature Content Viscosity Viscosity
GVP Number Volcano Eruption Age VEIa Style Subclassificationb (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (°C) (vol %) (log Pa s) (log Pa s) Data Sources

1504‐03 Huaynaputina AD1600 6 Plinian Stage 1 65.5 73.3 6.0 849.5 18.5 4.0 4.4 Adams et al. [2001], Costa et al.
[2003]
d
1505‐094 Dome D 0.98 Ma lava dome 66.5 77.3 2.4 780 55 7.0 9.7 Schmitt [2001], Schmitt et al.
[2001], Lindsay et al.
[2001a, 2001b]
1505‐094 Purico 1.2 Mae 6 Ignimbrite eruption LPI II 63.9 77.1 3.8 830 38d 5.6 6.7 Schmitt [2001], Schmitt et al. [2001],
Lindsay et al. [2001a, 2001b]
d
LPI I 65.9 77.3 4.1 780 51 5.9 8.0 Schmitt [2001], Schmitt et al. [2001],
Lindsay et al. [2001a, 2001b]
d
1507‐062 Volcan San Pedro Holocene Lava flow 66.0 74.2 5.0 850 29 4.5 5.2 Costa et al. [2004]
1507‐12 Villarrica AD2000 1 Lava lake, passive degassed 52.8 53.9 0.1 1140 38 2.6 3.7 Witter et al. [2004]
degassing
1508‐057 Cerro Hudson AD1991e 5 Plinian P2 trachyandesite 61.4 62.8 2.0 972 9d 3.7 3.9 Kratzmann et al. [2009]
P1 basalt 51.5 52.6 0.2 1050 2d 3.4 3.4 Kratzmann et al. [2009]
1600‐05 Soufrière Hills AD1995 3 Lava dome, vulcanian 59.2 71.4 4.5 880 40 4.3 5.5 Barclay et al. [1998], Devine et al.
[1998], Murphy et al. [1998]

8 of 19
1600‐12 Mt. Pelee 0.7 ka 4 Plinian P1 61.0 76.7 5.8 890 45 4.1 5.6 Martel et al. [1998], Pichavant et al.
[2002]
1803‐03 Tenerife 190 ka 6 Caldera forming Abrigo 60.3 60.0 3.0 825 7 4.1 4.3 Edgar et al. [2007], Andujar et al.
[2008]
Pine Grove 22 Ma Plinian 76.1 76.1 7.1 675 32 5.3 6.1 Keith et al. [1986], Lowenstern [1994]
Fish Canyon Tuff 28 Ma 8 Caldera forming 64.4 77.1 5.0 760 40 5.5 6.7 Johnson and Rutherford [1989]
Atana 4 Ma 8 Caldera forming 69.5 77.6 4.4 785 42d 5.5 6.8 Schmitt [2001], Schmitt et al. [2001],
Lindsay et al. [2001a, 2001b]
Toconao 5 Ma 7 Caldera forming 76.9 77.6 6.0 740 1 5.3 5.3 Lindsay et al. [2001a, 2001b]
Artola 9.4 Ma 7 Caldera forming 72.5 78.0 4.0 810 33d 5.6 6.5 Schmitt [2001], Schmitt et al. [2001],
Lindsay et al. [2001b]
TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY

a
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), defined by Newhall and Self [1982], for eruptions in Holocene come from the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program (GVP) catalog [Siebert and Simkin, 2002–].The VEI for
eruptions before the Holocene were estimated from their tephra volume reported in the data sources, following the definition by Newhall and Self [1982].
b
Name of eruption, eruptive center, pyroclastic unit, eruptive stage or magma for sub‐classification.
c
Melt compositions used for calculation of melt viscosity are summarized in Table A1.
d
Phenocryst content in weight percent.
e
Several different kinds of magmas with different magmatic properties observed in the single eruption were evaluated.
f
Assumed values, which are consistent with phase equilibrium simulated by the MELTS program [Ghiorso and Sack, 1995].
B10201
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY B10201

lation between bulk SiO2 and phenocryst contents for a

series of basaltic and andesitic lavas erupted from the Atka
volcanic centers in the Aleutians. In his study, phenocryst
content and bulk SiO2 content were used as a measure of
magma viscosity, and the upper limit for phenocryst con-
tents was called “critical crystallinity.” Basaltic magmas
have the highest critical crystallinity of ∼50 vol %. The
critical crystallinity shows a systematic decrease with
increasing bulk SiO2 content from 47 to 62 wt %. Marsh
[1981] suggested that this negative correlation indicates an
isoviscosity limit beyond which magmas are too viscous to
erupt because a trade‐off in magma viscosity exists between

Figure 5. Comparison of calculated melt viscosities from

the work of Giordano et al. [2008] with viscosities calcu-
lated using the work of (a) Shaw [1972] and (b) Hui and
Zhang [2007]. Open circles and solid squares represent
alkali‐poor and alkali‐rich magmas, respectively. The 1:1
relationship is given for comparison (solid line).

variations in melt SiO2 contents and water contents is

increased (Figure 7) compared with the variation with syn-
chronized variations in temperature and water content
(Figure 6b).

6. Upper Limit Viscosities of Eruptible Magmas

6.1. Previous Estimates From the Relationships Figure 6. (a) Magma viscosity versus bulk SiO2 content
Between Phenocrysts and Bulk SiO2 Contents and (b) melt viscosity versus melt SiO2 content. Open cir-
[17] In order to discuss the upper limit viscosities of cles and solid squares represent alkali‐poor and alkali‐rich
eruptible magmas, Marsh [1981] showed a negative corre- magmas, respectively.

9 of 19
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
Figure 7. Melt viscosity versus temperature. Open circles
and solid squares represent alkali‐poor and alkali‐rich mag-
mas, respectively.
bulk SiO2 content increasing and phenocryst content
decreasing. The upper limit viscosity of eruptible magmas
can be found if one knows the viscosity of a phenocryst‐free
magma given by the intersection of the negative correlation
line with the SiO2 axis. In the case of the erupted Atka
magmas, the negative correlation intersects the SiO2 axis
at ∼61%, and Marsh [1981] estimated the viscosity to be
104.6 Pa s, assuming anhydrous liquidus conditions for the
phenocryst‐free magma. Marsh [1981] predicted that in the
case of a hydrous silicic lava, the upper limit of phenocryst
content would increase because the presence of water results
in reduced melt viscosity.
[18] A similar negative correlation was found by Brophy
[1991], who compiled data on more than 600 orogenic
lavas with an extensive compositional range from basaltic to
rhyolitic. From 45 to 62 wt % bulk SiO2, the critical crys-
tallinity is ∼60 vol %. From 62 to 76 wt % bulk SiO2, the
critical crystallinity forms a negative correlation line that is
shifted toward higher SiO2 and phenocryst contents com-
pared with those given by Marsh [1981]. Scaillet et al.
[1998] also found a negative correlation, consistent with
that reported by Brophy [1991]. Scaillet et al. [1998]
interpreted the correlation as indicating an isoviscosity
limit, just as Marsh [1981] did, and the shift in the position
of the correlation line results from lowering melt viscosities
that are due to increasing water contents in the silicic
magmas. Scaillet et al. [1998] attempted to examine quan-
titatively the relationships among bulk SiO2, phenocryst,
and meltwater contents, using their compilation of data, and
the results showed both consistencies and inconsistencies
with the ideas of Marsh [1981].
[19] Although previous researchers have considered the
negative correlation line to indicate an isoviscosity limit for
eruptible magmas, a different interpretation is considered
10 of 19
B10201
here. A negative correlation with viscosity data indicated by
symbol size is presented in Figure 8. Along the negative
correlation line, the preeruptive magma viscosities decrease
from 107–8 to 104–5 Pa s as bulk SiO2 contents increase and
phenocryst contents decrease. This finding shows that the
negative correlation line is not an isoviscosity line and that
the negative correlation is therefore not due to a trade‐off in
magma viscosity between an increasing bulk SiO2 content
and a decreasing phenocryst content.
[20] Instead, it is proposed that the correlation line results
from various degrees of mixing between phenocrysts and
rhyolitic melts. When the negative correlation line is
extrapolated to 100 vol % phenocryst content, the line
roughly points to the average SiO2 content of all the phe-
nocrysts with 46–62 wt % in SiO2 (Figure 8), which was
calculated using representative chemical compositions and
the modal contents of phenocrysts in basaltic‐to‐rhyolitic
magmas provided in the several studies used in the present
compilations. In some andesitic‐to‐dacitic magmas in these
examples, rhyolitic melts with 71–79 wt % SiO2 coexist with
9–54 vol % phenocrysts. The primary phenocryst phase in
these andesitic‐to‐dacitic magmas is plagioclase, and other
phases are pyroxene, quartz, hornblende, biotite, and iron‐
titanium oxides; the average SiO2 content of all the pheno-
crysts in any one rock ranges from 48 to 62 wt % SiO2.
Figure 8. Phenocryst content versus bulk SiO2 content,
with circles showing the log‐scale magnitude of magma vis-
cosity. Dashed lines represent the critical phenocryst con-
tents of orogenic magmas shown by Brophy [1991]. The
thick bar indicates the average SiO2 content of total phe-
nocrysts for basalt‐to‐rhyolite magmas: Aira, Aira‐Tanzawa
[Aramaki, 1984; Tsukui and Aramaki, 1990]; Aniakchak,
rhyolite [Larsen, 2006]; Atana [Lindsay et al., 2001b];
Haruna, Futatsudake [Suzuki and Nakada, 2007]; Karymsky
7.9 and 40 ka [Izbekov et al., 2004]; Krakatau, rhyodacite
[Mandeville et al., 1996]; Rainier, C andesite and dacite
[Venezky and Rutherford, 1997]; Pinatubo, andesite and
dacite [Pallister et al., 1992]; Soufrière Hills, Montserrat
[Murphy et al., 2000]; Stromboli [di Carlo et al., 2006]; and
Usu, Us‐b [Tomiya et al., 2010].
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
Figure 9. Phenocryst content versus melt viscosity. Trian-
gles represent examples for which the precursory eruption of
less viscous magmas (solid triangles) occurred prior to a fol-
lowing eruption of highly viscous magmas (open triangles).
An inverted, open triangle represents the following magma
erupted in the climactic phase of the Haruna, Futatsudake
eruption in the middle of the sixth century, where a precur-
sory eruption of a less viscous magma probably occurred
[Suzuki and Nakada, 2007]. Solid diamonds represent
magmas erupted during the Katmai 1912 eruption; numbers
indicate the eruptive sequence. Other magmas are denoted
by open circles (alkali‐poor) and plus signs (alkali‐rich).
The thin broken lines represent isoviscosity lines (in log
units) of phenocryst‐bearing magmas, calculated with the
Einstein‐Roscoe equation (see section 2.2.2). The thick
broken line indicates a dike propagation limit of ∼106 Pa s
(see section 6.3).
6.2. Upper Limit Viscosities Estimated From
Preeruptive Magma Viscosities
[21] The compilation of data for preeruptive magma vis-
cosities allows one to directly estimate the upper limit vis-
cosities of eruptible magmas. Figure 6a shows that
preeruptive magma viscosities mainly fall below 108 Pa s,
although there is one exceptional and highly viscous silicic
magma with a viscosity of 1010 Pa s. Similar compilations
for silicic magmas by Scaillet et al. [1998] have indicated
that the viscosity of an erupted silicic magma rarely exceeds
106 Pa s. In the present study, most of the calculated viscosities
of erupted magmas fall below ∼106 Pa s. It is noteworthy,
however, that 20 of the present andesite‐dacite examples
had viscosities >106 Pa s. As mentioned in section 5, most of
these magmas were mixtures of high‐silica rhyolitic melt
(75–79 wt % SiO2) and abundant phenocrysts (30–55 vol %).
Interestingly, several eruptions of these highly viscous mag-
mas exhibit common and characteristic eruptive patterns, as
discussed in the following sections.
6.3. Precursory Eruptions of Less Viscous Magma and
the Following Eruptions of Highly Viscous Magma
[22] The eruption of viscous magma is often preceded by
a precursory eruption of less viscous (<106 Pa s) magma
11 of 19
B10201
(Figure 9). A famous example of this eruptive pattern is the
1991 eruption of Pinatubo, in which lava dome growth and
the sub‐Plinian eruption of andesitic magma occurred prior to
the eruption of phenocryst‐rich dacitic magma in the cli-
mactic phase [Pallister et al., 1992]. Takeuchi and Nakamura
[2001] found a similar eruptive sequence in the 1929 eruption
of phenocryst‐rich andesitic magma from the Hokkaido‐
Komagatake volcano, and they estimated the preeruptive
viscosities of the precursory and following magmas to be
about 104 and 107 Pa s, respectively. Takeuchi [2004] found
seven examples of this eruptive pattern, including the above
two examples. These viscous magmas are all characterized by
phenocryst‐rich andesitic‐to‐dacitic magmas with pre-
eruptive viscosities of 106 to 107 Pa s and are preceded by
magmas with preeruptive viscosities 1–5 orders of magnitude
less viscous (Figure 9).
[ 23 ] In addition to the examples given by Takeuchi
[2004], there are other examples in which a similar erup-
tive sequence occurred. In the Plinian eruption of the Har-
una volcano, Japan, in the middle of the sixth century, an
andesitic magma with 50 vol % phenocrysts erupted in the
climactic phase. The preeruptive magma viscosity of the
climactic phenocryst‐rich magma has been estimated to be
∼108 Pa s by Suzuki and Nakada [2007] and ∼107 Pa s in the
present study (Table 1 and Figure 9). Prior to the climactic
eruption, a less silicic andesitic magma with 30–35 vol %
phenocrysts erupted to form the lowermost pumice fall unit.
Compositional zoning in phenocrysts of the precursory
magma indicates that it was the product of mixing between a
phenocryst‐rich silicic magma and an aphyric mafic magma
[Suzuki and Nakada, 2007]. Although the properties
required for estimating viscosity have not been quantified,
the petrological features and eruption sequence indicate, in
the Haruna case, a precursory eruption of less viscous mixed
magma, followed by the eruption of viscous phenocryst‐rich
magma in the climactic phase.
[24] A similar eruptive sequence has been reported in the
effusive eruption of a lava dome in the Cerro Chascon‐
Runyu Jarita Dome Complex of Bolivia [Watts et al., 1999].
In this case, high‐temperature dacite lava (926°C–1000°C)
with 35 vol % phenocrysts erupted initially, and lower‐
temperature rhyolite lava (625°C–727°C) with 48 vol %
phenocrysts followed.
[25] During the Katmai 1912 eruption, phenocryst‐poor
rhyolitic magma erupted first, followed by the eruption of a
relatively less voluminous andesitic‐to‐dacitic magma
[Hildreth, 1983]. Here, I have estimated the preeruptive
magma viscosities of the rhyolitic, dacitic, and andesitic
magmas to be approximately 105, 107, and 105 Pa s,
respectively (Table 1 and Figure 9). This eruptive sequence
and the viscosity contrast between the first less viscous
rhyolitic and the later, relatively viscous dacitic magma are
similar to the other examples noted above. However, one
should note that the vertical and horizontal configurations of
the reservoir system before eruption are a matter of debate
[Hildreth and Fierstein, 2000; Coombs and Gardner, 2001;
Hammer et al., 2002].
[26] In the case of the eruptive pattern described above, it
is suggested that the precursory, less viscous magma can
propagate dikes and erupt thus before the more highly vis-
cous phenocryst‐rich magmas, because less viscous magmas
should have a higher eruptibility than relatively viscous ones.
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
The common occurrence of this eruptive pattern suggests
that the highly viscous magmas may not be able to erupt
without the precursory dike propagation and conduit for-
mation by the less viscous magma. Takeuchi [2004] pro-
posed that the upper limit viscosities controlling magma
eruptibility should be twofold: a dike propagation limit and a
magma extrusion limit. While the dike propagation limit
determines whether a magma can ultimately form a dike and
thus initiate an eruption, the magma extrusion limit deter-
mines whether a magma can be extruded at the surface fol-
lowing the precursory eruptions of less viscous magma. Most
of the present examples, including precursory less viscous
magmas, have viscosities that are below the dike propagation
limit of ∼106 Pa s (Figure 9). Applying the hypothesis of a
twofold viscosity limit, the more highly viscous magmas
(>106 Pa s) fall between the dike propagation and magma
extrusion limits. If viscosities exceed the magma extrusion
limit, the magmas should not erupt. Judging from the
observed range of magma viscosities, the magma extrusion
limit may be >108 Pa s. These limits can be regarded as
evidence‐based estimates for the upper limit viscosities that
control magma eruptibility.
7. Effects of Magma Mixing on Magma
Eruptibility
[27] Magma mixing plays an important role in producing
less viscous precursory magmas. The features of precursory
magmas, summarized by Takeuchi [2004], are as follows.
Compared with the following magmas, the precursory
magmas are less silicic in melt composition, have lower
phenocryst contents, and have a higher temperature.
Chemical disequilibrium textures (e.g., sieve texture in
plagioclase phenocrysts and reverse zoning in plagioclase
and pyroxene phenocrysts) are often found, suggesting they
formed by the mixing of low‐ and high‐temperature end‐
member magmas. In contrast, there is no evidence of magma
mixing in the following magmas, which are therefore
regarded as silicic end‐members that probably form the main
body of phenocryst‐rich magma reservoirs at shallow crustal
levels. In this sense, the precursory magma can be regarded
as “remobilized magma” that originated by thermal interac-
tion between a hot magma and a relatively immobile silicic
end‐member, which in turn was consequently mobilized.
[28] If the erupted magma originated by magma mixing
just before eruption, its preeruptive viscosity does not, of
course, represent the viscosity of the silicic end‐member
magma that fills the main part of a shallow reservoir. This is
an important point to remember when assessing magma
eruptibility from a shallow reservoir. For example, in cases
in which both mixed and silicic nonmixed magmas were
erupted and can be analyzed, the mixed magmas have pre-
eruptive viscosities 1 to 5 orders of magnitude lower than
those of the silicic end‐member magmas (Figure 9). In many
other situations, it is common that mixed magmas alone are
erupted without the extrusion of silicic end‐member mag-
mas (e.g., Unzen and Soufriere Hills). In such situations, it
is obviously difficult to estimate the viscosity of the none-
rupted silicic end‐member magma. Recently, several studies
on mixed magmas concluded that the mixed magmas orig-
inated from phenocryst‐rich silicic end‐member magmas
12 of 19
B10201
[Nakamura, 1995; Murphy et al., 2000; Holtz et al., 2004].
Holtz et al. [2004] attempted to constrain the magmatic
properties of nonerupted silicic end‐member magma for the
1991–1995 eruption of Unzen volcano, based on chemical
mass and heat balances among the nonerupted silicic and
mafic end‐member magmas and the erupted mixed magmas.
They suggested that the silicic end‐member magma is
dacitic, comprising a rhyolitic melt that coexisted with
more than 33 vol % phenocrysts. In addition, they attempted
to determine the magmatic properties of the silicic end‐
member magma, which satisfy the data requirements for
estimating the bulk magma viscosity. Based on their data for
the composition of the high‐silica rhyolitic melt, the melt-
water content (8 wt %), and the temperature (790°C), the
preeruptive viscosities are estimated to be ∼104 Pa s for the
rhyolitic melt and >105 Pa s for phenocryst‐bearing dacitic
magma. The estimated magma viscosity of the nonerupted
silicic end‐member is more than 1 order of magnitude
greater than that of the erupted mixed magma (104 Pa s)
(Table 1).
8. Effect of Segregating Interstitial Melt From a
Crystal Mush on Magma Eruptibility
[29] The segregation of interstitial melt from a crystal
mush is a possible mechanism for generating less viscous
magma in a mushy reservoir. Melt segregation is an
important process for generating crystal‐poor, silicic magma
[e.g., Bachmann and Bergantz, 2004]. The melt segregation
can be promoted as a mechanism when the phenocryst
content of the magma reaches 50–70 vol %, because melt
segregation can be enhanced (1) in the absence of reservoir‐
wide convection, (2) as a result of buffering by latent heat of
crystallization, and (3) by diminished thermal gradients in
the reservoir walls [Dufek and Bachmann, 2010]. Consid-
ering the estimated melt viscosities discussed in this paper,
if interstitial rhyolitic melt were to segregate from a phe-
nocryst‐rich andesitic‐dacitic magma and accumulate at the
top of a reservoir, it will form a body of resulting magma
with a viscosity of 2 to 3 orders of magnitude less than that
of the phenocryst‐rich andesitic‐dacitic magma. Such a
segregated, less viscous, phenocryst‐poor magma may then
become eruptible from a reservoir that is mainly filled with
phenocryst‐rich magma. Although there is a debate on the
reservoir configuration, if the model of Hildreth and
Fierstein [2000] is adopted, the Katmai 1912 eruption
may have been the result of such a segregated less viscous
magma. From the isotopic compositions of the erupted
magmas, Hildreth and Fierstein [2000] suggested that the
first‐erupting, phenocryst‐poor rhyolitic magma originated
as a melt that segregated from the subsequently erupted
dacitic phenocryst‐rich magma. As shown in section 6.3, the
preeruptive viscosity of the rhyolitic magma is estimated to
have been ∼105 Pa s (less than the dike propagation limit),
while that of the dacitic magma is ∼107 Pa s (greater than the
dike propagation limit) (Table 1 and Figure 9).
9. Conclusions
[30] This paper has provided a compilation of physico‐
chemical properties required for calculating magma viscos-
ity (melt composition, meltwater content, temperature, and
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY
phenocryst content), and these properties were used to cal-
culate magma viscosities under the conditions within the
preeruptive magma reservoir. These calculated viscosities
lie in the range 101 to 108 Pa s for basaltic‐to‐rhyolitic bulk
compositions. Bulk SiO2 contents have often been used as a
qualitative measure of preeruptive magma viscosity when
discussing, for example, the generation of ash flows [Smith,
1979] and volcano dormancy [White et al., 2006]. However,
the present compilations of data and the estimated viscosi-
ties show that bulk SiO2 contents are weakly related to
magma viscosities (correlation coefficient r = 0.5). Focusing
on andesitic‐to‐rhyolitic magmas, the r between bulk SiO2
contents and magma viscosities changes to −0.1. Given that
the data clearly show a lack of correlation between bulk
SiO2 content and preeruptive magma viscosity, especially
for silicic magmas, it is clear that there is a need for a
reexamination of those cases in which only the bulk SiO2
content has been used as a measure of viscosity.
[31] The calculated preeruptive magma viscosities provide
us with more complicated and comprehensive estimates of
the upper limit viscosities of eruptible magmas. Most of the
erupted magma viscosities compiled here fall below the
critical viscosity of 106 Pa s, suggested by Scaillet et al.
[1998]. Although this critical viscosity is consistent plausi-
bly with a threshold viscosity for dike propagation (it is
called the “dike propagation limit” [Takeuchi, 2004]), the
present compilation includes the 20 erupted magmas that
were more viscous than the dike propagation limit. Of these
20 eruptions, 9 were marked by the eruption of precursory
less viscous magmas, suggesting that this precursory activity
provided the necessary conditions for the following eruption
of highly viscous magma. This result supports the idea that
the dike propagation limit controls only the initiation of an
eruption sequence: It does not control the upper viscosity
limit for magma extrusion to the surface (this is called the
“magma extrusion limit”). Developing an understanding of
the mechanisms that determine magma extrusion limits and
their relationship to model‐based estimates are important
themes for future research. Considering this mechanism, one
of the important factors is “lubrication” by precursory less
viscous magmas [Carrigan et al., 1992; Koyaguchi and
Takada, 1994]. The highly viscous magmas can flow effi-
ciently into the dike center, being lubricated by the less
viscous magma on the dike wall. In addition, once the
highly viscous magmas begin to ascend following the
precursory magmas, viscous heating and resulting self‐
lubrication [e.g., Polacci et al., 2001; Hess et al., 2008] may
play important roles in helping highly viscous magma
extrude to the surface. The present compilation of preeruptive
magma viscosities suggests that the magma extrusion limit
may be >108 Pa s. If magmas exceed this limit, they may
lose their eruptibility completely and would not be expected
to follow precursory magmas and erupt to the surface.
Appendix A
A1. Melt Composition Determination
[32] To determine the melt composition of preeruptive
magmas (Table A1), the bulk groundmass compositions of
the erupted lavas and pyroclasts first need to be analyzed.
Generally, magmas contain phenocrysts, which can be
assumed to coexist with a preeruptive melt in the magma
13 of 19
B10201
reservoir. Therefore, bulk rock compositions are not the
same as melt compositions, except in the case of nearly
phenocryst‐free magmas. In some cases, the bulk ground-
mass compositions can be obtained from a microprobe
analysis of rapidly quenched, microlite‐free groundmass
glass. In contrast, the crystallization of microlites that is due
to dehydration and/or cooling during eruption makes it
difficult to obtain the bulk groundmass composition. In the
case of a microlite‐free, glassy groundmass, the standard
methods employed to determine glass compositions are
wavelength‐dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) and energy‐
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). In the case of a microlite‐
rich groundmass, various attempts to estimate bulk
groundmass compositions can be made, as discussed below.
A1.1. X‐ray Analysis Using Broad Beam and Beam
Scanning Techniques
[33] Average compositions of microlite‐rich groundmass
can be obtained by using a broad electron beam or beam
scanning with WDS or EDS over a wide groundmass area
[e.g., Saito et al., 2001; Dirksen et al., 2006]. This method is
effective for a less vesicular groundmass, but it is difficult to
use with highly vesicular scoria or pumice with a ground-
mass containing fine bubbles, because bubbles in the ana-
lyzed areas significantly decrease the X‐ray signals.
A1.2. Groundmass Separation
[34] X‐ray fluorescence analysis of groundmass separated
from coarsely crushed bulk rock samples is a straightfor-
ward method for determining bulk groundmass composi-
tions [e.g., Sato et al., 1999; Saito et al., 2005]. Heavy
liquid separation, magnetic separation, elutriation, and
handpicking are used in the separation process.
A1.3. Modal Summation
[35] If the modal abundances of groundmass minerals and
glass can be determined using electron images and/or X‐ray
elemental mapping images, the average composition of the
bulk groundmass can be estimated from the mode and the
average composition of individual phases with density
correction [Takeuchi and Nakamura, 2001]. To apply this
method, the groundmass texture needs to be coarse enough
to determine modal abundances and average mineral com-
positions. This method is difficult to apply to a highly
vesicular groundmass, as is the case when using broad beam
analytical methods, but the problem can be overcome by a
compression technique under high temperatures using a
pressure vessel that removes pores from vesicular samples,
thus raising the precision of the resulting image analysis
[Takeuchi and Nakamura, 2001].
A2. Meltwater Content
[36] Unlike the melt composition, the meltwater content
of a preeruptive magma within the reservoir (referred to
as the “preeruptive meltwater content”) is not preserved in
the groundmass because decompression during eruption
inevitably causes dehydration. Therefore, several indirect
methods must be used to estimate the preeruptive melt-
water content.
B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY B10201

Table A1. Melt Compositions Used for Calculation of Melt Viscosity

Melt Composition
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeOt MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Total
GVP Number Volcano, Sub‐classification (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %)
0100‐01 Laacher See, LLST 57.4 0.2 22.6 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.6 10.8 5.4 99.0
0101‐01 Campi Flegrei, Campanian 60.8 0.5 18.9 3.0 0.3 0.3 1.7 6.4 7.4 0.0 99.2
0101‐02 Vesuvius, Pompeii 56.0 0.2 21.9 2.3 0.0 0.2 2.8 6.2 10.2 99.8
0101‐04 Stromboli 49.8 0.8 15.0 7.8 0.1 8.1 12.1 2.3 1.8 0.6 98.4
0101‐06 Etna 52.7 1.8 17.5 9.3 0.3 3.1 5.7 4.8 3.7 1.2 100.0
0102‐04 Santorini, Minoan 73.6 0.3 13.9 2.1 0.1 0.3 1.5 5.0 3.3 100.0
0201‐19 Fantale 73.9 0.2 8.3 6.5 0.3 0.0 0.3 6.2 3.9 0.0 99.6
0401‐07 Taupo, Hapete 76.2 0.3 12.7 2.3 1.3 4.0 2.8 99.6
0401‐07 Taupo, Oruanui 76.9 0.2 12.7 1.4 0.1 0.2 1.3 4.1 3.2 0.0 100.0
0602‐00 Krakatau, rhyodacite 72.0 0.6 13.7 2.5 0.1 0.6 2.2 5.3 2.5 99.4
0604‐02 Agung 59.1 1.1 16.7 8.7 0.2 3.3 6.4 1.6 1.9 0.4 99.4
0703‐083 Pinatubo, dacite 78.5 0.1 12.9 1.0 0.0 0.2 1.2 3.2 3.0 0.0 100.2
0703‐083 Pinatubo, andesite 64.8 0.7 16.3 6.0 0.1 1.3 4.4 4.7 2.4 100.7
0802‐06 Kikai, Showa‐Iwojima 77.8 0.4 11.8 1.4 0.1 0.2 1.0 4.0 3.0 99.7
0802‐06 Kikai, Iwodake, K‐Iw‐P2 76.9 0.6 12.6 1.9 0.1 0.3 1.6 4.4 3.1 101.5
0802‐06 Kikai, Inamuradake 57.8 1.1 16.0 10.0 0.2 2.8 7.5 3.9 1.1 100.2
0802‐06 Kikai, Akahoya 73.4 0.5 13.1 2.7 0.6 2.2 4.5 3.0 100.0
0802‐08 Sakurajimaa 67.6 0.9 14.9 5.3 0.1 1.5 4.1 3.3 2.6 100.3
0802‐08 Aira, Aira‐Tanzawa 76.3 0.1 13.1 0.8 0.0 0.3 1.7 3.5 3.4 0.1 99.3
0802‐10 Unzen 68.2 0.5 15.0 4.1 0.1 1.9 3.9 3.5 2.9 0.1 100.1
0802‐11 Aso, Aso 4, 4II‐3S 66.8 0.6 16.6 3.7 0.1 1.2 3.3 4.6 3.1 100.0
0802‐11 Aso, Aso 4, 4I‐3S 68.2 0.5 16.2 3.0 0.1 0.9 2.9 4.3 4.0 100.0
0802‐11 Aso, Aso 4, 4I‐1P 72.0 0.5 14.9 1.6 0.1 0.5 1.4 4.3 4.8 100.0
0803‐11 Asama 69.8 1.0 13.9 5.2 0.1 1.4 3.5 3.0 2.0 100.0
0803‐122 Haruna, Futatsudake 78.1 0.3 12.5 1.7 0.1 0.5 2.4 3.2 1.3 100.0
0804‐04 Miyakejima 53.4 1.3 15.0 12.3 5.0 9.4 2.6 0.6 0.1 99.8
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐a, climactic 76.8 0.5 12.3 2.4 0.1 0.4 2.4 2.8 1.9 99.6
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐a, precursory 67.0 0.7 15.0 6.1 0.2 2.4 5.1 2.5 1.1 100.0
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐c1, climactic 76.7 0.4 12.3 2.3 0.1 0.4 2.4 3.3 2.1 100.0
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐c1, precursory 57.9 0.7 18.2 8.5 0.2 3.1 7.7 3.2 0.5 100.0
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐c2, climactic 76.9 0.4 12.5 2.1 0.1 0.4 2.3 3.2 2.0 99.9
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐c2, precursory 64.1 0.7 15.6 6.3 0.2 2.6 6.8 2.7 1.1 100.1
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐d, climactic 75.8 0.4 12.7 2.4 0.1 0.5 2.5 3.5 2.0 99.9
0805‐02 Hokkaido Komagatake, Ko‐d, precursory 57.6 0.8 18.2 8.8 0.3 3.3 7.8 2.9 0.4 100.1
0805‐03 Usu, Us‐b 76.1 0.2 13.8 2.0 0.1 0.2 1.8 4.5 1.2 0.1 100.0
0805‐04 Tarumai, Ta‐a, climactic 75.9 0.3 13.0 1.9 0.0 0.3 2.2 3.6 2.6 99.8
0805‐04 Tarumai, Ta‐a, precursory 66.4 0.6 16.2 5.5 0.2 1.5 6.2 2.3 1.2 100.1
1000‐13 Karymsky 75.6 0.2 12.8 1.8 0.3 1.4 4.6 3.2 99.8
1000‐13 Karymsky 74.3 0.2 13.5 1.8 0.4 1.7 4.9 3.0 99.8
1000‐27 Shiveluch 68.6 0.3 16.3 1.8 0.1 0.7 3.6 5.5 1.7 0.3 98.7
1102‐09 Aniakchak, andesite 58.6 1.5 16.1 8.1 2.8 6.1 4.5 1.6 99.4
1102‐09 Aniakchak, rhyolite 71.5 0.5 14.5 2.6 0.5 1.9 5.2 3.0 0.1 99.8
1102‐17 Katmai, andesite 67.6 0.7 15.5 4.7 0.1 1.4 3.6 4.3 2.2 100.0
1102‐17 Katmai, dacite 79.1 0.2 11.7 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.8 4.1 3.3 100.1
1102‐17 Katmai, rhyolite 78.6 0.2 11.9 0.9 0.0 0.1 0.8 4.0 3.4 0.0 99.7
1201‐03 Rainier, C, dacite 75.4 12.2 2.1 0.1 0.3 1.0 4.1 3.8 99.0
1201‐03 Rainier, C, andesite 64.7 16.2 5.0 0.1 1.9 4.4 4.5 2.2 99.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, 1980 73.0 0.4 14.6 2.1 0.1 0.5 2.4 5.2 2.2 0.0 100.3
1201‐05 St. Helens, T 70.2 0.5 15.1 2.9 0.1 0.7 3.1 5.6 1.9 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Wn 74.8 0.2 13.9 1.7 0.0 0.3 1.7 5.2 2.3 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Bi 72.8 0.4 14.2 2.5 0.0 0.6 2.4 4.7 2.4 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Pu 74.3 0.3 13.7 1.8 0.1 0.4 2.0 5.1 2.3 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Ye 75.6 0.2 13.9 1.3 0.1 0.4 1.7 4.9 2.1 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Yn high T 74.8 0.2 14.3 1.4 0.1 0.4 2.0 4.9 2.0 100.0
1201‐05 St. Helens, Yn med T 75.5 0.2 13.9 1.4 0.0 0.4 1.8 5.0 2.0 100.0
1202‐16 Crater Lake, climactic 73.2 0.4 14.4 1.7 0.1 0.5 1.6 5.1 2.9 0.1 99.9
1203‐13 Inyo 78.1 0.0 12.3 0.8 0.0 0.1 0.5 3.0 5.2 0.0 100.0
120314‐A Long Valley, Bishop early 77.4 12.7 0.7 0.0 0.4 4.2 4.8 100.2
121002‐D Valles Caldera, Cerro Toledo‐6‐8 77.8 0.0 12.0 1.4 0.1 0.0 0.3 4.3 4.2 0.0 100.0
121002‐D Valles Caldera, Bandelier Upper 77.5 0.0 12.0 1.3 0.1 0.0 0.2 4.3 4.5 0.0 100.0
121002‐D Valles Caldera, Cerro Toledo‐15‐11 79.3 0.1 11.5 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 3.6 4.2 0.0 100.0
121002‐D Valles Caldera, Cerro Toledo‐15‐9 78.7 0.1 11.8 0.8 0.1 0.0 0.3 3.5 4.7 0.0 100.0
121002‐D Valles Caldera, Cerro Toledo‐15‐8 79.0 0.1 11.5 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 3.5 4.3 0.0 100.0
1302‐01 Kilauea, PuuOo 50.8 2.5 13.5 11.0 7.3 11.2 2.3 0.5 99.2
1302‐01 Kilauea, Kilauea Iki 48.8 2.8 13.4 11.6 0.2 9.0 11.3 2.3 0.6 99.9
1401‐04 Volcan Colima 66.6 0.6 16.1 2.4 0.1 0.9 4.4 5.4 2.6 0.2 99.2
1404‐10 Masaya, Fontana 52.6 1.3 14.8 12.5 0.2 4.1 8.2 3.1 1.5 0.3 98.5
1504‐03 Huaynaputina, Stage 1 73.3 0.3 14.8 1.5 0.3 1.5 4.4 3.8 99.9
1505‐094 Dome D 77.3 0.2 12.5 0.8 0.0 0.1 0.9 3.0 5.2 0.1 100.1

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B10201 TAKEUCHI: PREERUPTIVE MAGMA VISCOSITY B10201

Table A1. (continued)

Melt Composition
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeOt MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Total
GVP Number Volcano, Sub‐classification (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %)
1505‐094 Purico LPI II 77.1 0.2 12.6 1.2 0.0 0.2 1.0 2.6 5.0 0.0 100.0
1505‐094 Purico LPI I 77.3 0.1 12.7 0.9 0.0 0.1 1.0 2.8 5.1 0.0 100.1
1507‐062 Volcan San Pedro 74.2 0.3 14.6 1.3 0.1 0.2 1.3 4.2 3.8 100.0
1507‐12 Villarrica, degassed 53.9 1.7 14.5 11.0 0.2 5.3 8.9 3.3 0.9 0.4 100.1
1508‐057 Cerro Hudson, P2 trachyandesite 62.8 1.2 16.1 4.7 0.2 1.5 3.2 6.7 2.6 99.0
1508‐057 Cerro Hudson, P1 basalt 52.6 2.6 13.9 12.2 0.2 4.0 7.7 4.2 1.5 0.9 99.7
1600‐05 Soufrière Hills 71.4 0.3 13.6 2.8 0.0 1.6 4.9 3.7 1.6 99.9
1600‐12 Mt. Pelee, P1 76.7 0.2 12.6 2.2 0.0 0.3 2.2 3.8 1.9 99.9
1803‐03 Tenerife, Abrigo 60.0 0.7 18.9 3.6 0.3 0.3 0.6 9.8 5.4 99.6
Pine Grove 76.1 0.0 13.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 3.4 6.2 100.0
Fish Canyon Tuff 77.1 0.1 12.5 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.6 2.9 5.9 99.8
Atana 77.6 0.1 12.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.7 3.8 5.0 0.0 100.1
Toconao 77.6 0.1 12.8 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.5 3.4 4.9 0.0 100.0
Artola 78.0 0.1 12.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.7 3.2 5.3 0.0 100.0
a
The melt composition was determined by Yamanoi et al. [2008], but the melt composition data other than SiO2 content are first reported in this study.

A2.1. Phase Equilibrium Relations A3. Temperature

[37] The thermodynamic conditions of preeruptive magma
reservoirs (pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity, and
composition of the phases) are constrained by phase equi-
librium experiments under high pressures and temperatures.
The preeruptive meltwater content can be inferred by
comparing the petrological characteristics of experimental
products (phenocryst assemblages, phenocryst modes,
anhydrous groundmass compositions, phenocryst composi-
tions, and temperatures) with those of the erupted magmas
[e.g., Gardner et al., 1995; Scaillet and Evans, 1999].
Instead of undertaking experiments for individual examples,
thermodynamic models that are based on large amounts of
experimental data can be used to constrain preeruptive
meltwater contents. The model of plagioclase‐melt phase
equilibria proposed by Housh and Luhr [1991] has often
been used to estimate preeruptive meltwater contents [e.g.,
Self and King, 1996; Luhr, 2002; Kaneko et al., 2007]. The
MELTS model [Ghiorso and Sack, 1995] is also effective in
constraining meltwater contents in magmas with anhydrous
phenocryst assemblages [e.g., Witter et al., 2004; Larsen,
2006].
A2.2. Analysis of Glass Inclusions
[38] Some glass inclusions in phenocrysts are captured
during phenocryst growth in the preeruptive magma reser-
voir. Therefore, we can assume that these glass inclusions
represent a melt that coexisted with the phenocryst in the
preeruptive magma and that they preserve their volatile
contents, provided that the volatile‐bearing melt inclusions
did not rupture and leak during eruption. Methods that can be
used to measure the water content of glass inclusions include
secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) and Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) [e.g., Dunbar et al.,
1989a; Saito et al., 2001; Schmitt, 2001]. A rough method of
estimating water contents, using the total loss in the WDS
analysis for major chemical components other than water,
called the volatile‐by‐difference method [Devine et al.,
1995], has often been used [e.g., Mandeville et al., 1996;
Takeuchi and Nakamura, 2001; Suzuki and Nakada, 2007].
[39] Magma temperatures (the equilibrium temperature) in
the preeruptive magma reservoir can be estimated by an
applying a mineral geothermometer to the phenocrysts. A
suitable geothermometer depends on the phenocryst assem-
blage. Geothermometers using two pyroxenes [e.g., Wells,
1977; Andersen et al., 1993] and iron‐titanium oxides [e.g.,
Ghiorso and Sack, 1991; Andersen et al., 1993] are standard
[e.g., Rutherford et al., 1985; Self and King, 1996]. Because
chemical diffusion in iron‐titanium oxides is very rapid [e.g.,
Freer and Hauptman, 1978], the iron‐titanium oxide geo-
thermometers perform well in recording temperatures just
before an eruption. In some cases, the rapid equilibration of
iron‐titanium oxides enables estimates of the annealed tem-
perature of a mixed magma just after the magma mixing event
[Venezky and Rutherford, 1999]. However, iron‐titanium
oxides readily re‐equilibrate during the cooling process of
eruption, and if the iron‐titanium oxides undergo slow cool-
ing within a lava or pyroclastic flow, or, in some cases, in a
thick deposit of air fall pyroclasts, it becomes difficult to
measure the temperature under the conditions of the pre-
eruptive reservoir. Chemical diffusion in the pyroxenes [e.g.,
Ganguly and Tazzoli, 1994] is much slower than that in the
iron‐titanium oxides. Therefore, two‐pyroxene geotherm-
ometers are effective for lava samples that undergo slow
cooling [e.g., Luhr, 2002]. However, the slow rate of diffu-
sion may allow for the preservation of heterogeneous com-
position, which provides a range of possible temperatures.
[40] If no existing geothermometer is applicable, tem-
peratures may still be estimated from phase equilibrium
experiments as well as meltwater contents [e.g., Harms
et al., 2004; Scaillet et al., 2008].
A4. Phenocryst Contents
[41] Phenocryst content is generally defined as the volume
fraction of phenocrysts on a bubble‐free basis. If samples
contain pores (bubbles), one needs to quantify the pore
fraction in order to calculate the phenocryst content on a
bubble‐free basis. Because the vesicular texture in the ana-
lyzed samples originated during the late eruptive processes
and in the near surface (e.g., vesiculation and degassing),

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most of the pores observed in analyzed samples did not exist
in the preeruptive magma reservoirs.
A4.1. Point Counting
[42] Even today, the classical method of point counting in
a thin section under the optical microscope is a simple and
basic method adopted by many researchers. However, it is
difficult to distinguish between glass and pore in vesicular
samples (e.g., pumice and scoria), where the groundmass
may consist of micron‐scale fine glass filaments and bub-
bles. Such a fine vesicular texture makes it difficult to
determine precisely the phenocryst content on a bubble‐free
basis.
A4.2. Phenocryst Separation
[43] Weighing of phenocrysts and groundmass separated
by heavy liquid separation, magnetic separation, elutriation,
and handpicking from coarsely crushed samples can be used
to determine phenocryst content by weight [e.g., Wilson et al.,
2005].
A4.3. Mass Balance Calculations
[44] If the bulk groundmass composition is obtained
independently, a mass balance calculation using bulk rock,
phenocryst, and groundmass compositions is a precise
method for determining the phenocryst content by weight
[e.g., Suzuki and Nakada, 2007]. For cases in which the
magmas do not contain potassium‐rich phenocryst phases,
the mass balance calculation using the K2O content is a
simple method [e.g., Takeuchi and Nakamura, 2001] because
potassium concentrates only in the groundmass phases. Using
the average mass density of the bulk phenocrysts and
groundmass, the phenocryst content by weight can thus be
converted to the phenocryst content by volume.
[45] Acknowledgments. I thank E. Takahashi, M. Nakamura,
S. Okumura, and M. Nakaya for valuable discussions on an early version
of this study at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. I thank the Associate
Editor M. P. Ryan and two anonymous reviewers for careful reviews.
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