Extended Abstract

Design of aluminium structural components

Gonçalo Filipe Bernardino Marques

Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal

July 2016

Abstract

This document addresses the design of structural components made of aluminium alloys, according
with the design rules given in Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures.

The existing aluminium alloys are presented, especially those that are most appropriate for use as a
structural material. Additionally, the criteria currently accepted for the safety verification of structural
elements, with particular emphasis on the most relevant rules and principles given in Eurocode 9, will
be presented.

Then, the methodology presented by Eurocode 9 is illustrated with the safety verification of some
elements and connections in a defined framed structure.

Keywords: structures, aluminium, design, Eurocode 9

1. Introduction

The applications of aluminium are based on aluminium alloys. Aluminium alloys result from the addition
of other elements with some different characteristics which, depending on the addition, gives rise to
alloys with a wide range of values for the relevant properties. As a result, the range for the use of
aluminium alloys is extremely wide and they are used in almost any type of transportation systems (air,
sea and land), construction, packaging and household utensils and, more recently, in structural elements
[1, 2, 3].

The growth in the use of aluminium as a structural element has enhanced, mostly due to the fact that it
presents a considerable weight-resistance ratio. Being a material three times lighter than steel, it
became substantially attractive and, consequently, its application increased, particularly in mobile
bridges, roofs, helicopter and offshore structures [2, 3]. Thus, aluminium has been revealing, through
its characteristics and properties, ability as a structural material in civil engineering, along with concrete,
steel, masonry or wood.

Regarding the design of aluminium structures, the designer should seek to make the most of its
advantages and, at the same time, to mitigate, as much as possible, some unfavourable aspects.
2. Aluminium alloys

The success of aluminium alloys as a structural material and the ability to compete with steel are directly
related to its physical characteristics, its production process and the technology associated with it. The
aluminium alloys can be economically competitive, taking into account the following properties [2, 3, 5]:

1) High strength-weight ratio

2) Durability and corrosion resistance
3) Flexibility
4) Structural functionality
5) Incombustibility

Moreover, the design of aluminium alloys structures must take into account the less positive aspects of
the material characteristics, such as:

1) Reduced elastic modulus

2) High thermal sensitivity
3) Increased cost per unit weight

The aluminium alloys, characterized by the addition of imperfections in the crystalline structure of
aluminium, can attain strength values similar to those of some steel alloys. Currently, the most effective
way to introduce those imperfections is based on the addition of new elements, such as magnesium,
resulting in some ductility loss but, above all, a considerable increase of the resistance [1, 5].

The addition of different elements leads to different effects, depending on the added elements. The
characteristics of the alloys show a wide range of variation, from ductile to fragile and also with variable
weldability. By taking advantage of the aluminium production process, designers are endowed with the
ability to scale the desired cross section, depending on its future application. This way, the choice of the
alloy to be used should take into account several parameters, namely the resistance capacity, the type
of product (sheet, plate or extruded section), the high temperature resistance and cost, among others.
Therefore, it becomes essential for the designer to have a strong knowledge regarding aluminium as a
material, due to the whole range of variables presented in the design, so that it is properly used.

Among the possible applications in the field of Structural Engineering, the following ones stand out [2]:

o Roofs with large spans, where the structure’s own weight is very significant compared to the
remaining applied loads (pools or large auditoriums and public buildings roofs, for example);
o Structures on locations with difficult access, where factors such as the associated costs with
transport and assembly are extremely important. High voltage towers in aluminium, for example,
can be easily transported by a helicopter due to its reduced weight;
o Structures located in humid and aggressive environments, such as bridges, hydraulic structures
or heliports located on sea platforms (offshore platforms);
o Structures with moving parts, such as movable bridges (onshore platforms), in which the low
weight facilitates the movements;
o Special structures, like lighting poles or aerials, where the maintenance operations are
particularly difficult and limited.
3. Worked example

The worked example consists of an

industrial building containing an
“administrative” area (offices space,
meeting rooms, etc.) and a
production/manufacturing area. The main
building structure is a set of frames
spaced 6 meters from each other. The
frames are illustrated in Figure 1.

For the worked example, extruded

aluminium alloys type EN AW-6082 (T6
temper) and plates type EN AW-5083
Figure 1: Worked example
(H24 temper) are considered.

3.1. Cross section classification and corresponding resistances

o Cross section classification

According to EN 1999, the cross-sections of frame elements (columns, beams or beam-columns) are
classified into four classes (similarly to steel elements, as stated by EN 1993), according to their
sensitivity to local buckling effects (i.e., the slenderness of their compression components).

The susceptibility to local buckling of a flat wall without reinforcement is expressed by the slenderness
parameter 𝛽, which is defined as shown in Table 1, where 𝑏 and 𝑡 represent the width and the thickness
of the concerned wall cross-section, respectively, and 𝜂 represents the gradient stress factor:

Table 1: Slenderness parameter – 𝛽 (adapted from [4])

𝛽
Flat internal parts/outstands with no stress gradient 𝑏 ⁄𝑡
Internal parts with a stress gradient that results in a
0,40𝑏⁄𝑡
neutral axis at the centre
Internal parts with stress gradient 𝜂𝑏⁄𝑡

The classification of the cross-sections components is established according to the slenderness

parameter (defined in terms of the buckling class classification, the existence or not of welds and if the
component is internal or external), as provided in Table 2 (where 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 and 𝛽3 are reference values):
 Table 2: Cross-section classification according to the slenderness parameter (adapted from [4])

Condition Section Class

𝛽 ≤ 𝛽1 Class 1
𝛽1 < 𝛽 ≤ 𝛽2 Class 2
𝛽2 < 𝛽 ≤ 𝛽3 Class 3
𝛽 > 𝛽3 Class 4

For class 4 sections, the local buckling effects must be explicitly considered in the reduction of the
sectional resistance. Thus, the non-uniform distribution of stresses in the concerned components should
be replaced by a uniform distribution acting on the effective section. The effective section is obtained by
considering a local buckling coefficient, 𝜌𝑐 , which operates as a reduction factor of the components
thickness, so that an effective thickness is considered (𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝑐 𝑡). Therefore, the 𝜌𝑐 coefficient is a
function of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 coefficients (defined in terms of the buckling class classification, the existence or
not of welds and if the component is internal or external), the cross-section slenderness parameter and
the coefficient 𝜀 = √250⁄𝑓0 .

Below 4 class (𝛽 ≤ 𝛽3 ) Class 4 (𝛽 > 𝛽3 )

𝐶1 𝐶2
𝜌𝑐 = 1,0 𝜌𝑐 = −
(𝛽 ⁄𝜀 ) (𝛽 ⁄𝜀)2

Taking column A as an example, its flanges are classified into Class 4 due to:

𝑏𝑓 102,5
𝛽𝑓 = = = 6,8 > 𝛽3𝑓 = 6𝜀 = 5,9
𝑡 15

This means that the effective thickness of the flanges is equal to:

𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝑐 𝑡 = 0,941 × 15 = 14,1 𝑚𝑚.

o Heat Affected Zones

The Heat Affected Zones (designated by HAZ), represent areas where there is a decrease in resistance
due to the action of the heat that results from the application of welds [6].

Therefore, the flexural resistance of aluminium profiles can be affected by the application of welds,
especially if they are located in the flange-web connection. Placing welds far enough from this
connection is one way to get around with the problem, reducing this effects, as illustrated in Figure 2 [3].

Figure 2: Strength reduction of an aluminium profile due to welds [3]

As shown on Figure 2, it is considered that the HAZ extends by a distance, denoted by 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 , any direction
from a weld.

Figure 3: The extent of heat affected zones (HAZ) [4]

Generally, for the most common welding types (TIG and MIG) and for top aligned welds (two valid heat
paths) or angle welds (T-junctions, with three valid heat paths) in 6xxx or 7xxx series alloys, and in 3xxx
and 5xxx series alloys in the work-hardened, the 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 distance is obtained as follows:

o For MIG welds laid on unheated material and with interpass cooling not higher than 60 °C:

0 < 𝑡 ≤ 6 𝑚𝑚: 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 = 20 𝑚𝑚

6 < 𝑡 ≤ 12 𝑚𝑚: 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 = 30 𝑚𝑚
12 < 𝑡 ≤ 25 𝑚𝑚: 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 = 35 𝑚𝑚
𝑡 > 25 𝑚𝑚: 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 = 40 𝑚𝑚
o For TIG welds:

0 < 𝑡 ≤ 6 𝑚𝑚: 𝑏ℎ𝑎𝑧 = 30 𝑚𝑚

o Resistance of cross-sections to bending moments

Regarding the cross-sectional flexural strength, the design value of the acting bending moment must be
lower than the design value of the bending moment resistance, which can be calculated for a section
with or without holes. Thus, the bending moment resistance depends upon the section flexural modulus
and the shape factor (defined according to the section class as well as the existence or not of welds),
as shown in Table 3. The partial safety factors 𝛾𝑀1 and 𝛾𝑀2 are taken with the values 1.10 and 1.25,
respectively.

Table 3: Values of the shape factor 𝛼 (adapted from [4])

Cross section class Without welds With longitudinal welds

1 𝑊𝑝𝑙 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑊𝑝𝑙,ℎ𝑎𝑧 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙
2 𝑊𝑝𝑙 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑊𝑝𝑙,ℎ𝑎𝑧 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙
3 𝛼3,𝑢 𝛼3,𝑤
4 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,ℎ𝑎𝑧 ⁄𝑊𝑒𝑙
 Sections with holes Other sections
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 𝛼𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜
𝑀𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑜,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀1

Considering column A of the worked example, for instance, the bending moment resistance for bending
about the cross-sectional major axis (Y-Y), for a section without holes, is equal to:

𝛼𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜 0,952 × 72,9 × 104 × 260

𝑀𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑜,𝑅𝑑 = = = 164,1 𝑘𝑁𝑚 > 𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 70,8 𝑘𝑁𝑚
ϒ𝑀1 1,10

o Resistance of cross-section to axial compression

The design value of the cross-sectional resistance to axial compression can be calculated for a section
with unfilled holes or without holes. Thus, the axial force resistance depends on the cross-sectional area,
the characteristic value of the strength for bending and overall yielding in tension and compression, 𝑓0 ,
as well as the characteristic value of the strength for the local capacity of a net section in tension or
compression, 𝑓𝑢 :

Sections with unfilled holes Other sections

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑜
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑁𝑐,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀2 𝛾𝑀1

o Shear resistance of plate girders

The worked example involves the use of plate girders with stiffeners at supports. This type of beams is
characterized by one tension flange, one plate web and another compression flange. Due to the
slenderness of the plates, the shear buckling resistance must be considered.

Regarding the web contribution, the factor for shear buckling, 𝜌𝑣 , is determined according to Table 4:

Table 4: Factor 𝜌𝑣 for shear buckling (adapted from [4])

Ranges of 𝝀𝒘 Rigid end post Non-rigid end post

𝜆𝑤 ≤ 0,83⁄𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
0,83⁄𝜂 < 𝜆𝑤 < 0,937 0,83⁄𝜆𝑤 0,83⁄𝜆𝑤
𝜆𝑤 ≥ 0,937 2,3⁄(1,66 + 𝜆𝑤 ) 0,83⁄𝜆𝑤

The slenderness parameter, 𝜆𝑤 , is given by the following expression:

𝑏𝑤 𝑓𝑜
𝜆𝑤 = 0.35 √
𝑡𝑤 𝐸
The cross-sectional shear resistance is determined by the sum of the web contribution, 𝑉𝑤,𝑅𝑑 , and the
flange contribution, 𝑉𝑓.𝑅𝑑 , as shown below.

Web contribution to the design value Flanges contribution to the design value
of the shear force resistance of the shear force resistance
2
𝑓𝑜 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓2 𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝐸𝑑
𝑉𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑤 𝑉𝑓.𝑅𝑑 = [1 − ( ) ]
√3𝛾𝑀1 𝑐ϒ𝑀1 𝑀𝑓.𝑅𝑑

In the worked example, the slenderness parameter of beam D is given by:

𝑏𝑤 𝑓𝑜 364 260
𝜆𝑤 = 0,35 √ = 0,35 √ = 1,553 > 0,937
𝑡𝑤 𝐸 5 70000

Then, considering rigid end posts, the web contribution to the shear resistance is equal to:

𝑓𝑜 260
𝑉𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑤 = 0,716 × 5 × 370 = 180,7 𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 = 126,9 𝑘𝑁
√3𝛾𝑀1 √3 × 1,10

o Flange buckling verification in the web plan

In order to prevent the buckling of the compression flange in the plan of the web, the following condition
must be verified:

𝑏𝑤 𝑘𝐸 𝐴𝑤
≤ ×√
𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑓𝑐

For beam D in the worked example, for instance, the previous expression is satisfied:

𝑏𝑤 364 𝑘𝐸 𝐴𝑤 0,55 × 70000 370 × 5

= = 72,8 < ×√ = ×√ = 116,3
𝑡𝑤 5 𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑓𝑐 260 200 × 15

o Resistance to transverse loads applied through a flange

The web local buckling resistance of extruded beams, subjected to transverse loads applied to the flange,
may be determined by expressions given in EN 1999, unless the lateral flange displacement is not
allowed, which can be provided by their own stiffness or by bracings.

The design value of the resistance to transverse loads is given according to the effective length for
resistance to transverse loads, 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 , the web thickness, 𝑡𝑤 , as well as the characteristic value of strength
of the web material, 𝑓𝑜𝑤 = 𝑓𝑜 .

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑤
𝐹𝑅𝑑 =
ϒ𝑀1

The design value of the resistance to transverse loads of beam F, e.g., is equal to:

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑤 94,9 × 6 × 260

𝐹𝑅𝑑 = = = 134,6 𝑘𝑁 > 𝐹𝐸𝑑 = 3,0 𝑘𝑁
ϒ𝑀1 1,10
3.2. Resistance of structural elements to buckling
o Resistance to lateral-torsional buckling of uniform beams

For elements laterally unrestrained and subjected to bending about the cross-sectional major axis, the
design lateral-torsional buckling resistance moment, which depends on the reduction factor for lateral
torsional buckling, 𝜒𝐿𝑇 , the shape factor given in Table 3, 𝛼, and the elastic section modulus, 𝑊𝑒𝑙 , is
given by:
𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝛼𝑊𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
ϒ𝑀1

The design lateral-torsional buckling resistance moment of beam F, e.g., is given by:

𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝛼𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑜 1,0 × 0,969 × 1873305 × 260

𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = = 429,3 𝑘𝑁𝑚 > 𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 62,4 𝑘𝑁𝑚
ϒ𝑀1 1,10

o Resistance to flexural buckling of uniform compression elements

For elements subjected to uniform compression, the design buckling axial force resistance, which
depends on the factor 𝜅 that takes into account the weakening effects due to welds, the relevant buckling
mode reduction factor, 𝜒, and the effective cross-section area, 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 , is given by:

𝜅𝜒𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑜
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀1

The design buckling axial force resistance of column A, e.g., is equal to:

𝜅𝜒𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑜 1,0 × 0,788 × 7120 × 260

𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = = 1326,3 𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 154,2 𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑀1 1,10

o Flexural buckling resistance of columns subjected to bending and axial compression

For an element with open doubly symmetry cross section, bending about the cross-sectional major axis
(Y-Y), the following condition must be verified (considering the conditioning section of the beam-column):

𝜉𝑦𝑐
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦.𝐸𝑑
( ) + ≤ 1,0
𝜒𝑦 𝜔𝑥 𝑁𝑅𝑑 𝜔0 𝑀𝑦.𝑅𝑑

Considering column A in the worked example, for instance, this condition is verified:

𝜉𝑦𝑐 0,8
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦.𝐸𝑑 154,2 70,8
( ) + =( ) + = 0,945 < 1,0
𝜒𝑦 𝜔𝑥 𝑁𝑅𝑑 𝜔0 𝑀𝑦.𝑅𝑑 0,788 × 0,630 × 1682,9 0,630 × 164,1

o Flexural or flexural-torsional buckling resistance of columns subjected to bending and

axial compression

In general, for an element with open cross section symmetrical about its major axis, the following
condition must be verified (considering the conditioning section of the beam-column):

𝜂𝑐 ϒ𝑐
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦.𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧.𝐸𝑑 𝜉𝑧𝑐
( ) +( ) +( ) ≤ 1,0
𝜒𝑧 𝜔𝑥 𝑁𝑅𝑑 𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝜔𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝑀𝑦.𝑅𝑑 𝜔0 𝑀𝑧.𝑅𝑑
For column A, for instance, this condition is verified:

𝜂𝑐 ϒ𝑐
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑦.𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧.𝐸𝑑 𝜉𝑧𝑐
( ) +( ) +( ) =
𝜒𝑧 𝜔𝑥 𝑁𝑅𝑑 𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝜔𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝑀𝑦.𝑅𝑑 𝜔0 𝑀𝑧.𝑅𝑑

0,954 1,0 0,954

154,2 70,8 0
=( ) +( ) +( ) = 0,845 < 1,0
0,954 × 0,630 × 1682,9 1,0 × 0,630 × 164,1 0,630 × 53,8

3.3. Connections

The connections between aluminium structural elements are treated analogously to the connections
between steel elements. However, there are some specific aspects that need to be considered,
particularly with regard to the marking and preparation of the joined surfaces as well as the suitability of
the material to be used in the connection.

The worked example presents some welded connections. Thus, the resistance safety check must be
done not only with respect to the welds but also to the adjacent HAZ.

o Longitudinal welds on the web of a beam

For the design of longitudinal welds on the web of a beam, in case of double fillet welded joint and
loaded parallel to the weld axis, the minimum thickness of each weld is given by the following expression:

2 𝜏𝐸𝑑 𝑡
𝑎≥√
3 𝑓𝑤
𝛾𝑀𝑤

The thickness adopted for each weld in beam D, for instance, satisfies this condition:

2 𝜏𝐸𝑑 𝑡𝑤 2 65,9 × 5
𝑎 = 3,0 𝑚𝑚 > √ =√ × = 1,6 𝑚𝑚
3 𝑓𝑤 3 210
ϒ𝑀𝑤 1,25

In order to guarantee the safety check on the HAZ adjacent area, the design value of the acting shear
stress in the connection, parallel to the weld axis, 𝜏ℎ𝑎𝑧,𝐸𝑑 , must be lower than the design value of the
shear stress resistance on the HAZ:
𝑓𝑣.ℎ𝑎𝑧
𝜏ℎ𝑎𝑧,𝐸𝑑 ≤
𝛾𝑀𝑤

Regarding Beam D, the previous condition is satisfied:

𝑓𝑣.ℎ𝑎𝑧 107
𝜏𝐸𝑑 = 65,9 𝑀𝑃𝑎 < = = 85,4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ϒ𝑀𝑤 1,25

o Column base connection

The design resistance condition of a fillet weld on a column base is expressed by:

𝑓𝑤
√𝜎⊥𝐸𝑑 2 + 3(𝜏⊥𝐸𝑑 2 + 𝜏‖𝐸𝑑 2 ) ≤
𝛾𝑀𝑤
At the most tensioned fibre on one flange of column B base, e.g., this expression is satisfied:

𝑓𝑤 210
𝜎1,𝐸𝑑 = √𝜎⊥𝐸𝑑 2 + 3(𝜏⊥𝐸𝑑 2 + 𝜏‖𝐸𝑑 2 ) = √18,82 + 3(18,82 + 02 ) = 37,5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 < 𝜎𝑅𝑑 = = = 168 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ϒ𝑀𝑤 1,25

4. Conclusions and future developments

The aluminium, or more precisely the aluminium alloys, has gained space in the construction market.
Aluminium is, undoubtedly, a material with advantageous structural applications, particularly because
of its high resistance to corrosion, its lightness (three times lighter than steel) and its incombustibility,
factors which greatly increase its ability to be used as in structural elements, either because the material
cost or considering the maintenance cost. Another factor that makes aluminium highly competitive,
compared to some other materials, is related to its adaptability, allowing it to be used in the design of
any type of cross section and choosing the most suitable alloy for each purpose, from a large range of
varieties.

Regarding connections, the welded ones in particular require more specialized manpower than in steel
structures, where the process is already widespread in industry, thus leading to higher costs.

Aluminium is a relatively new material in the construction industry, but it is rather possible that its use
as a structural material grows in the following years, due to its features. Therefore, a continued analysis
and further studies on the subject are justified, with particular focus on the structural connections.

5. References

[1] DAVYSON, S. Aluminium by Sam Davyson. Consultado em Outubro de 2015. Disponível em:
http://sam.davyson.com/as/physics/aluminium/site/index.html.

[2] SOETENS, F. & SNIJDER, H. H. (2006). New Challenges for Aluminium Structures: An Introduction.

[3] AluMatter. Consultado em Outubro de 2015. Disponível em:

http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=215&pageid=2144417089.

[4] CEN, European Committee for Standardization – Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures –
Part1-1: General structural rules.

[5] European Aluminium. Consultado em Outubro de 2015. Disponível em:

http://www.european-aluminium.eu/about-aluminium/history.

[6] GITTER, R. (2008). Design of Aluminium structures: Selection of Structural Alloys. Structural
Design according to Eurocode 9: Essential Properties of Materials and Background Information.
Disponível em:
http://www.eurocodes.fi/1999/1999-1-1/background/Gitter_2008.pdf.