Air Change in Hydraulic Concrete Due To Pumping

AIR CHANGE IN HYDRAULIC CONCRETE
DUE TO PUMPING
by
Fane R. Sellers, P.E.
A thesis submitted to the Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering

and The Graduate School of The University of Wyoming
an partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Laramie, Wyoming
December 2002
CONTENTS
CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF PHOTOS .......................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1
1.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................................2
1.2 Research Objective ......................................................................................3
1.3 Report Organization.....................................................................................4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................5
2.1 Fundamentals of Air Entrainment................................................................6
2.1.1 Importance of air entrainment in concrete .......................................7
2.1.2 Mechanism of air entrainment .........................................................8
2.2 Measurement of Air Content .......................................................................9
2.3 Pumping Concrete......................................................................................10
2.3.1 Developments in pumping .............................................................11
2.3.2 Pumpable mixes .............................................................................11
2.4 Current Practice of Testing Air Content of Pumped Concrete ..................12
2.5 Some Possible Causes of Air Change due to Pumping..............................15
2.5.1 Large drop......................................................................................15
ii
2.5.2 High pressure .................................................................................17
2.5.3 Pump set-up ...................................................................................18
2.6 Effects of Concrete Materials on Air Content ...........................................18
2.6.1 Cementitious admixtures ...............................................................19
2.6.2 Chemical admixtures .....................................................................19
2.6.3 Aggregates .....................................................................................19
2.6.4 Others.............................................................................................20
2.7 Summary ....................................................................................................21
3 DATA COLLECTION ..........................................................................................22
3.1 Data Collection in Phase I..........................................................................22
3.1.1 Testers ............................................................................................26
3.1.2 Samples ..........................................................................................26
3.1.3 Tests ...............................................................................................26
3.2 Data Collection in Phase II ........................................................................28
3.2.1 Sampling methods..........................................................................29
3.2.2 Control project ...............................................................................30
3.3 Summary ....................................................................................................35
4 DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................36
4.1 Analysis of Phase I Data ............................................................................36
4.1.1 General trend of air change............................................................36
4.1.2 Influential Factors ..........................................................................38
4.1.2.1 Probable Influential Factors...............................................39
4.1.2.2 Possible Influential Factors................................................41
iii
4.1.2.3 Improbable Influential Factors...........................................42
4.2 Analysis of Phase II Data...........................................................................44
4.2.1 Sampling methods..........................................................................44
4.2.2 Control project ...............................................................................47
4.2.2.1 Effects of testers and pots ..................................................50
4.2.2.2 Effects of ambient temperature and pump pressures .........53
4.2.2.3 Effects of configuration and position.................................55
4.2.2.4 Statistical models for air change ........................................59
4.2.2.5 Slump measurements .........................................................64
4.3 Summary and Discussions .........................................................................65
4.3.1 Data analysis for Phase I................................................................65
4.3.2 Data analysis for Phase II ..............................................................67
4.3.2.1 Sampling methods..............................................................67
4.3.2.2 Control project ...................................................................67
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................69
5.1 Conclusions................................................................................................69
5.1.1 Conclusions for Phase I .................................................................69
5.1.2 Conclusions for Phase II ................................................................70
5.2 Recommendations......................................................................................72
5.3 Future Research .........................................................................................73
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................74
APPENDIX A PHOTOS ...................................................................................................78
A.1 Photos from Phase I of the Study....................................................................78
iv
A.2 Photos from Phase II of the Study (Control Project) ......................................86
APPENDIX B RAW DATA OF PHASE I......................................................................100
APPENDIX C RAW DATA OF PHASE II ....................................................................108
APPENDIX D RESULTS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM
CONTROL PROJECT.........................................................................................115
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Freeze-Thaw Deterioration of a Concrete Railing [4]........................................7
Figure 2.2 Example of a Z-Capable Pump.........................................................................17
Figure 3.1 Form Used in the Data Collection of the Study ...............................................25
Figure 3.2 Layout of the Control Project ...........................................................................32
Figure 3.3 Schematic Illustration of Boom Extension and Position..................................33
Figure 4.1 Air Content before Pumping verses Air Content after Pumping......................38
Figure 4.2 Air Change versus Drop Distance ....................................................................40
Figure 4.3 Air Change versus Water Added at Site...........................................................42
Figure 4.4 Air Change versus Slump.................................................................................43
Figure 4.5 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals by Collection Methods for Mean Air
Loss before Pumping .............................................................................................46
Figure 4.6 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean by Collection Methods Air
Loss after Pumping ................................................................................................46
Figure 4.7 Measured Air Content after Pumping versus that before Pumping..................49
Figure 4.8 Air Loss versus Air Content before Pumping ..................................................49
Figure 4.9 Relative Air Loss versus Air Content before Pumping ....................................50
Figure 4.10 Observations Arranged by Testers, Adjusted by Unit Means ........................52
Figure 4.11 Observations Arranged by Pots, Adjusted by Unit Means.............................52
Figure 4.12 Air Loss versus Temperature..........................................................................54
Figure 4.13 Air Loss versus Average Pump Pressure........................................................54
vi
Figure 4.14 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean Air Loss by Configuration
(treatment) at 6.8% Initial Air Content ..................................................................56
Figure 4.15 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean Air Loss by Position at 6.8%
Initial Air Content ..................................................................................................57
Figure 4.16 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for ZNA Mean Air Loss by Position at
6.8% Initial Air Content.........................................................................................58
Figure 4.17 Measured Air Loss versus Air Loss Predicted Using Air Loss Model in
Equation [4.1] ........................................................................................................61
Figure 4.18 Measured Air Loss versus Air Loss Predicted Using Relative Air Loss Model
in Equation [4.2] ....................................................................................................62
Figure 4.19 Slump after Pumping versus Slump before Pumping ....................................65
vii
LIST OF PHOTOS
Photo A.1 Estes Park A-Frame Configuration...................................................................79
Photo A.2 A-Frame Configuration Pumped from the Hill Down into the Foundation
Forms .....................................................................................................................79
Photo A.3 A-Frame Pumping a Bridge Deck from Below ................................................80
Photo A.4 Extended A-Frame Pump .................................................................................80
Photo A.5 Collapsed A-Frame Pump (1)...........................................................................81
Photo A.6 Collapsed A-Frame Pump (2)...........................................................................81
Photo A.7 A-Frame Pumping in between Floors...............................................................82
Photo A.8 A-Frame Half-Way Extended...........................................................................82
Photo A.9 A-Frame Alternate Configuration Three-Quarters Extended ...........................83
Photo A.10 A-Frame Fully Extended ................................................................................83
Photo A.11 Z-Boom Configuration Half-Way Collapsed .................................................84
Photo A.12 Z-Boom Configuration Mostly Collapsed ......................................................84
Photo A.13 Z-Boom Configuration Two-Thirds Extended ...............................................85
Photo A.14 A-Frame Configuration with No Attachments ...............................................87
Photo A.15 Sampling of the Concrete after the Pump.......................................................87
Photo A.16 Concrete Sampling, Strip Layout and Single 90º Attachment........................88
Photo A.17 Testing Air Content of Samples .....................................................................88
Photo A.18 Half-Way Extended A-Frame Configuration .................................................89
Photo A.19 Double 90º Attached to the End of the Boom ................................................89
Photo A.20 Single 90º About to Be Attached to the End of the Boom .............................90
viii
Photo A.21 Single 90º in Use for Placing Concrete ..........................................................90
Photo A.22 Single 90º Elbow with A-Frame Configuration .............................................91
Photo A.23 Sampling from a Single 90º Elbow.................................................................91
Photo A.24 A-Frame Fully Extended ................................................................................92
Photo A.25 Hose on the Ground Placement Technique ....................................................92
Photo A.26 Sampling from the Hose on the Ground .........................................................93
Photo A.27 Hose on the Ground, Collapsed A-Frame Configuration ...............................93
Photo A.28 Pressure Gages for the Concrete Pump ..........................................................94
Photo A.29 Sampling from the Hopper prior to Pumping .................................................94
Photo A.30 Slump Test ......................................................................................................95
Photo A.31 Extended Z-Boom Configuration ...................................................................95
Photo A.32 Two-Thirds Extended Z-Boom Configuration ...............................................96
Photo A.33 Sampling from a Double 90º Elbow ...............................................................96
Photo A.34 Double 90º Attachment...................................................................................97
Photo A.35 Collapsed Z-Boom Configuration ..................................................................97
Photo A.36 Half-Way Extended Z-Boom Configuration ..................................................98
Photo A.37 Extended Z-Boom Configuration ...................................................................98
Photo A.38 One-Fourth Extended Z-Boom .......................................................................99
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Survey Results on Testing Air Content of Pumped Concrete ...........................14
Table 3.1 Projects for Phase I of the Study........................................................................23
Table 3.2 Types of Construction Projects for Phase I of the Study...................................24
Table 3.3 ASTM Test Methods Used in Data Collection..................................................28
Table 3.4 Types of Projects for Phase II............................................................................28
Table 4.1 Average Differences in Percent Air Content of Various Collection Methods ..45
Table 4.2 Average Differences in Percent Air Content of Various Testers and Pots........51
Table 4.3 Summaries of ANOVA Results on Air Loss and Relative Air Loss .................56
Table 4.4 Constants for Calculation of Air Loss and Relative Air Loss ...........................60
Table 4.5 Percent Air Losses for Various Configurations and Positions Using the Air
Loss Model in Equation [4.1] ................................................................................63
Table 4.6 Percent Air Losses for Various Configurations and Positions Using the Relative
Air Loss Model in Equation [4.2] ..........................................................................64
Table B.1 Data from Summer 2000 Testing....................................................................101
Table C.1A Collection Methods before Pumping............................................................108
Table C.1B Collection Methods after Pumping...............................................................109
Table C.2 Control Project ................................................................................................110
Table D.1 Results of ANOVA on Air Loss .....................................................................116
Table D.2 Results of ANOVA on Relative Air Loss.......................................................117
x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Hardened Portland cement concrete is made up of several components which
include cement, fly ash, aggregate, trapped water, additives and air voids. As concrete is
subjected to freeze-thaw conditions, the trapped water within it expands and begins to
form ice. The volume of ice can be up to 9% larger than the same amount of water [1].
With 9% expansion, the freezing water would crack the concrete and cause it to
deteriorate over time. Deicing chemicals may accelerate the deteriorating process. Air
bubbles, trapped in hardened concrete, allow the freezing water to have a release without
breaking the concrete. Therefore, air content in concrete is very important to the
durability of concrete in resisting freeze thaw cycles and deicing chemicals.
On the other hand, too much air in concrete can have detrimental effects to the
longevity of concrete. Concrete with too much air does not have sufficient binding of the
cement particles to hold up under repeated loadings. The required air content of a
concrete mixture depends upon the application of the concrete and the location of the
pour, whether the pour is in hot or cold climates. Concrete that will never go through
freeze-thaw cycles does not need as many air voids as concrete that will be subjected to
multiple freeze-thaw cycles, i.e., concrete placed in hot regions.
The specifications of the Wyoming Department of Transportation (WYDOT),
requires 4.0-7.0% air content in the “in place” concrete [2] for Quality Control and
Quality Assurance (QC/QA). Concrete can have up to 3.0% air voids just due to the
mixing process. An air entraining agent is added to the mix prior to mixing to increase
1
the air voids in the concrete. The air entraining agent causes more bubbles to form
during the mixing process which allows for more air voids during and after hardening.
Concrete has many uses and often has to be placed in locations that are impossible
to reach with the cumbersome concrete trucks. Historically, concrete has been placed
using wheel borrows and crane buckets when the trucks can not get close enough. The
invention of the hydraulic concrete pump has proven to be a time and energy saver. The
concrete pump allows for concrete to be placed in very tight locations by the use of a
boom which can be extended partially or completely as is necessary. Concrete pumps
come in various sizes which are measured in reference to the length of the boom.
In the process of concrete pumping, testing has shown that the air content changes
from before to after the pump. This change has caused questions to be raised on what to
do if the concrete falls outside the limits allowed in the specifications and who is
responsible for the problem. Many DOT’s have chosen to take tests and samples at the
point of placement because of the air change that occurs in the concrete placing
equipment, but this has become difficult and dangerous to employees that have to cross
bridge decks and steel to get samples.
1.1 Problem Statement
The problem that has motivated this research study consists of the following:
• A certain amount of air is important to the strength and durability of concrete. In
particular, an amount of air above a base content is vital for concrete to resist
freeze-thaw cycles and deicing chemicals.
2
• Pumping of hydraulic concrete is one of the most common practices for placing
concrete. While the air content before pumping is relatively easy to control by
design, the change in air content during pumping has not been well understood.
The air content in placed concrete is uncertain without testing.
• Testing at the point of discharge of the pump is costly and dangerous at some
locations. Therefore, it is highly advantageous to establish the correlation
between the air content before and after pumping to eliminate or reduce after-the-
pump testing, based on the understanding of various influential factors.
1.2 Research Objective
This research study was performed in two phases. The data for Phase I was
collected in the summer of 2000, while those for Phase II was collected in the summer
2001. The study had several objectives, which evolved as the study progressed. In Phase
I, the objective was to obtain as much information about the air change across a concrete
pump as possible. As the research progressed, it was determined that projects with no
entrained air were not of interest to this study because all WYDOT projects are required
to have entrained air. It was also noted that projects with extra additives, such as
plasticizers, were beyond the scope of this research. On the other hand, sampling
methods were brought into question and were examined in Phase II.
Specifically, the objectives of Phase I of the study were to:
• Gain an understanding of the factors that affect air content in pumped concrete.
• Provide guidelines for the data collection for Phase II of the study.
The objectives of Phase II of the study were to:

3
• Confirm the findings from Phase I.
• Examine the effect of sampling methods before and after the pump on the change
in air content of hydraulic concrete.
• Quantify the magnitude and significance of the factors that affect the change in air
content of hydraulic concrete.
• Establish a reliable correlation of air change with major influencing factors to
eliminate or significantly reduce after the pump concrete testing.
1.3 Report Organization
A literature review was performed to determine the base of knowledge that exists
about air change in hydraulic concrete due to pumping. The literature review is included
in Chapter 2. The data collection methods used in both Phase I and Phase II are
discussed in Chapter 3. After the data was collected, statistical analysis was performed
and the results summarized in Chapter 4. Conclusions and recommendations for the
WYDOT are presented in Chapter 5. References used throughout the report are included
at the end of the report. Appendices have been included showing many of the photos
(Appendix A) along with brief descriptions of the various parts of the research, copies of
the raw data (Appendices B and C for Phases I and II, respectively) collected in this
study, and results of statistical analysis of data from the control project (Appendix D).
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
It has long been known that entrained air, the small bubbles of air added to
concrete during the mixing process, increases the resistance to scaling caused by freeze-
thaw cycles and deicing chemicals [3]. Increases in air content beyond a base level of
4.0% and up to 7.0% may yield 10% to 20% improvements in long-term durability for
the freeze-thaw effect alone [4]. The durability will be further improved when the
deicing chemicals are involved. Concrete in colder climates, such as that in Wyoming, is
often subjected to many of these freeze-thaw cycles and deicing chemicals during its
service life, therefore a certain level of air content is desired in the concrete. On the other
hand, excessive air content causes reduced strength and should also be avoided [5, 6].
The Wyoming Department of Transportation (WYDOT) requires the air content of “in
place” concrete to be 4% to 7.0% [2].
Recently, it has become a concern how placement processes affect the air content
in air-entrained concrete. Pumping as a means of placing freshly mixed concrete has
been widely used in large projects due to the economy and convenience in construction
[5, 6]. A major concern is the effects of pumping on air content [7-19]. This is because
the air content of concrete before pumping is relatively easy to control. Once the effect
of pumping is understood, the air content in placed concrete can be better predicted.
The placement of most bridge decks is done with a pump, since it is easier to
access the large elevated area, rather than with other methods such as chute or crane and
bucket. When the pump is used to place concrete, air content may be changed; then the
5
effectiveness of the air entrainment is lost. In this case air content is particularly
important because one bad truckload may cause a whole bridge to be rebuilt after only a
few years of use. The expense that the state could incur because of improper air content
could be avoided by having better understanding of the effects of pumping on air content
and corresponding quality control.
2.1 Fundamentals of Air Entrainment
Air content may help alleviate scaling of concrete by two mechanisms. First, air
entrainment helps to prevent scaling caused by freeze-thaw cycles. Concrete used for
pavement and structures in cold climates is often subjected to freezing at night and then
thawing during the day. Multiple daily cycles may occur due to solar heating and then
cooling under cloud cover. These cycles can occur numerous times during a winter
season. If these cycles occur while the concrete is saturated, scaling and severe
deterioration can occur. This deterioration is caused when water trapped in the concrete
expands up to 9% as it freezes [1]. This expansion causes pressure to be exerted on the
walls of the pores in the concrete. When this pressure exceeds the strength of the
concrete, significant deterioration occurs [3]. Figure 2.1 shows the effects of freeze-thaw
on a concrete railing.
Second, air entrainment helps to prevent scaling caused by deicers. Deicers are
used to increase the friction on bridge decks during the time that ice is on the bridge.
Deicers can accelerate the deterioration of the concrete. This is due to the increased
osmotic and hydraulic pressures in excess of the normal hydraulic pressures that occur in
the saturated concrete when deicers are used on the concrete [1]. These increased
6
pressures can cause an already frozen and stressed piece of concrete to exceed its
strength. Once the strength of the concrete has been exceeded, it ruptures and portions of
concrete spall off leaving a substantial crater. When this occurs multiple times, the
surface of the concrete slab may become so covered with craters that there is no surface
left. At that point, there is no way to fix the slab and it can only be replaced.
Figure 2.1 Freeze-Thaw Deterioration of a Concrete Railing [3]
2.1.1 Importance of air entrainment in concrete
For the past 50 years, air has been incorporated into concrete [3]. Air is added in
order to minimize or prevent the effects of freeze-thaw cycles and deicing chemicals.
Since 1938, the Portland Cement Association has been experimenting with admixtures
that are used to produce a stable system of air voids, termed “entrained air” [3]. These
bubbles are usually very small but densely grouped, about one million in one cubic inch
7
of properly entrained concrete [3]. This air is different from the large air voids that are
removed from the concrete during placement by vibratory compaction methods.
Vibration causes large air voids to rise to the surface allowing the concrete to settle into
the forms.
Entrained air increases the freeze-thaw resistance by providing spaces within the
concrete that act as reservoirs for freezing water moving within the structure. This
relieves the pressure that the freezing water exerts on the concrete as it expands. The
spacing and size of the air voids affect the amount these air voids are able to prevent
scaling. This is because air voids that are not big enough or spaced too far apart will not
be able to hold the water when it freezes. When this occurs, the benefits that are obtained
by adding the air to the concrete are lost. The following guidelines regarding air voids
have been found to provide adequate freeze thaw resistance [1]:
1. Calculated spacing factor, L, (average maximum distance from any point in
cement paste to the edge of the nearest air void) – less then 0.008 inch.
2. Specific surface, α (surface area of the air voids) – 600 square inches per cubic
inch of air-void volume, or greater.
3. Number of voids per linear inch of traverse, n, – at least one and a half to two
times greater than the numerical value of the percentage of air in the concrete.
2.1.2 Mechanism of air entrainment
Air entrainment can be accomplished in one of two ways. The first is by adding
air-entraining admixtures. Air-entraining admixtures include wood resins, synthetic
detergents, salts of sulfonated lignin, salts of petroleum acids, salts of proteinaceous
8
material, fatty and resinous acids and their salts, alkylbenzene sulfonates, and salts of
sulfonated hydrocarbons [1]. Entrained air is added to concrete during the mixing
process by adding an air-entraining admixture to the mix. Air-entraining agents are made
up of molecules that are attracted to water at one end and air at the other [3].
Some common air-entraining agents being used today include: Daravair, Daravair
1000, Master Builders Microair and Master Builders MBVR. They are mostly a soapy
substance. They work by stabilizing the bubbles that are normally formed during mixing
in two ways. First, by reducing surface tension of the mixing water, allowing for the
bubbles to form more easily. Second, by stabilizing the air bubbles by attaching to the
cement grains contained within the mortar of the concrete. After the air voids have been
established, they are left behind when the concrete hardens [3].
The second but less common method used to entrain air in concrete is by using an
air-entraining cement. An air-entraining cement is one that has air added to it during its
production. This is accomplished by using air-entraining additions that are ground with
the cement clinker during production [1].
2.2 Measurement of Air Content
In order for quality of concrete to be assured throughout any construction project,
samples must be taken at regular intervals. There are two methods for testing these
samples. The first method is the Air Void Characteristics of Hardened Concrete,
governed by (American Society for Testing and Materials) ASTM C 457. It is used to
determine the void spacing factor, specific surface of entrained air, and number of voids
per inch of traverse [1]. The second method used in determining air content involves
9
freshly mixed concrete. There are four tests that are used to determine air content in
freshly mixed concrete [1]. These are listed below along with their ease of testing.
1. Volumetric method (ASTM C 173) – for field-testing of all types of aggregates.
2. Gravimetric method (ASTM C 138) – impractical for field testing but can be done
in laboratory.
3. Chace air indicator (AASHTO T 199) – easy way to test approximate air content.
4. Pressure method (ASTM C 231) – for field-testing of concrete that is not made
with highly porous and lightweight aggregates (This method was used in this
research study).
2.3 Pumping Concrete
Originally, concrete was placed using a crane and bucket or wheelbarrow when
the ready-mix truck could not reach the placement site. With the advent of concrete
pumps, these placement jobs have been made easier [7]. This is because a concrete pump
can easily reach all areas of the job site. Additionally, a pump can continuously place
concrete while other placement techniques can not. These breaks in placement slow
down production and can create cold joints within the pour.
The concrete pump is able to place the concrete in a manner that is easier to finish
than other placement techniques also, the pump can deposit the concrete close to its final
position thus eliminating the need to move it while it is in the form. These benefits have
made pumping the preferred method for the placement of concrete in hard to reach
places.
10
2.3.1 Developments in pumping
During the first application of pumped concrete, the pumps were piston driven
with metal pipelines. These pipelines were hard to maneuver because sections had to be
removed and elbows added in order to change the discharge point. This process meant
that the pumping operations had to be stopped while changes were made. The changing
of pipes was also complicated by the fact that 6 to 8 inch diameter pipes had to be used to
pump concrete thus increasing the weight of the pipe sections and making them even
harder to move. These large pipes were required because a pumpable mix design had not
been developed [7]. Modern advances in mix design and pump design have resulted in
smaller pipes and more versatile configurations such as A-frame and Z-capable booms.
2.3.2 Pumpable mixes
In order for concrete to be able to travel through a pump, it must first have a mix
that can be placed using this technique. A pumpable mix is dense, cohesive, and has
sufficient mortar [7]. Mortar requirements change as the pump type changes. Mortar
requirements may be as high as 57% by weight for a low-pressure pump with a 4-inch
diameter line or as low as 52% by weight for a high-pressure pump with a 5-inch line [7].
A cohesive mix is one that does not allow the aggregate to separate from the mortar as it
is being pumped. When this separation occurs, the aggregate becomes lodged in the line
and stops the pump from operating [7]. In order to prevent clogging, the mix design must
ensure that well-graded aggregate is used.
11
2.4 Current Practice of Testing Air Content of Pumped Concrete
Wyoming is not the only state that is interested in concrete pumping techniques.
In July 2000, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) conducted a survey
of the specifications governing concrete pumping in the United States and Canada [20].
The main objective of the survey was to determine how various states handled the testing
of freshly pumped concrete. The NJDOT shared the results of its survey with UW’s
research team. These are summarized below.
A total of 22 states and one Canadian province replied to the survey. Of those
responding, 17 specify testing concrete at point of placement (after the pump). Only six
specified testing at the point of discharge of the concrete truck. Table 2.1 shows the
states that replied and where they test. Several of the states stated that, while testing at
the point of discharge of the pump is preferable, safety issues prevent testing after
pumping. Four agencies reported that a pump will be investigated for significant air loss,
rather than placing that burden on the concrete supplier. Two states, Connecticut and
Texas, allow for point of discharge of concrete pump testing if correlation tests have been
established. Five states (North Carolina, Michigan, Hawaii, Arizona, and Missouri) have
specifications for one side of the pump, but will test both points of discharge if a
significant problem dictates so. One state, New York, always tests both ends of the pump
and will reject the pump if there are significant problems with air content. Tennessee
specifies point of discharge of the pump testing, but also has a specification clause for
pumping concrete. The clause has three different methods, one of which must be used at
the discharge point of the pumped concrete:
12
1. A metal loop consisting of four 90-degree elbows shall be placed in the line just
before the rubber discharge hose.
2. A minimum of 3 meters (10 feet) of line lying horizontally just prior to the
discharge point.
3. A rubber discharge hose configured into a "J" shape or loop, either of which
prevents a loss in the pressure of the discharge line.
Many states have specifications in place to take care of the need of sampling in a
consistent manner to give them the results desired. Wyoming currently obtains samples
at discharge end of the pump similar to some other states [2].
13
Table 2.1 Survey Results on Testing Air Content of Pumped Concrete
Testing before Pumping Testing after Pumping
Georgia Alaska
Hawaii Arizona
Michigan Arkansas
Mississippi Connecticut
Missouri* Idaho
New York* Kansas
Maryland
Montana
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
Tennessee
Texas
Washington*
Wisconsin
Wyoming
New Brunswick, Canada*
* Indicates that a pump truck will be rejected if there are significant changes in air
content between truck discharge and point of placement.
14
2.5 Some Possible Causes of Air Change due to Pumping
According to the extensive background research performed in this study, it was
apparent that air change does occur in pumped concrete. Several contributing factors
stood out. Each of them will be highlighted in the following sections and possible
solutions presented where known.
2.5.1 Large drop
There have been many theories as to how air is lost in concrete when it is
pumped. These are mostly based on the concrete being impacted against a hard surface,
causing the air bubbles in the concrete to pop and therefore losing a substantial amount of
air [8]. This type of hard hit is often caused when the concrete is allowed to fall
unimpeded from the high point in the pump to the placement site. Some possible fixes
for a large drop include.
1. Use a pump capable of Z configuration (Figure 2.2) can be used to slow down the
decent of the concrete in the pump. Instead of just allowing the concrete to free
fall the pumps boom can force the concrete to zigzag down the pipe. By making
the concrete zigzag it is not allowed to reach a speed that would cause the bubbles
to pop as they strike the form bottom [9].
2. Add a tremie. This should have the same effect that a Z-capable boom would
have in that it would not allow the concrete to gain enough speed to break the air
bubbles.
3. Limit the drop. This can be accomplished by configuring the pump in such a way
that the concrete does not get pumped any higher than necessary. In order for this
15
to happen, the pump may have to be parked farther from the placement site. This
placement will cause the pump to be stretched out instead of being bunched up
and extended high in the air.
4. Introduce a kink in the hose. This can be accomplished by tying a cable to the
boom and the end of the pipe tight enough to keep a kink in the hose. It has been
suggested that this helps to decrease air change much in the same way that a Z-
boom or squeeze tube would in that it does not allow the concrete to move fast
enough to break the bubbles [10]. Also a 90o angle or two can replace the kink in
the hose and should have the same effects.
None of these methods have been tested, previous to this study, to see how
effective they may be. In this research study, some of these methods were tested. These
will be explained hereafter.
16
Figure 2.2 Example of a Z-Capable Pump
2.5.2 High pressure
Pumped concrete can be subjected to high pressures [11]. When the air-entrained
concrete in the pump is exposed to this high pressure, it can cause the air bubbles to
dissolve into the mix water. When this happens, the bubbles may not reform once the
pressure is released, thus resulting in air change in the concrete. Results of previous
laboratory tests indicated that the value of spacing factor increases linearly with the
increased pressure on the concrete [18].
The best way to prevent this type of air change is to pump the concrete at as low a
pressure as possible. This can be accomplished by using a more pumpable mix, reducing
boom angles, slowing pump rate, and using pump aids to reduce friction.
17
2.5.3 Pump configuration and attachment
There are different configurations of the pump when pumping hydraulic concrete.
In investigating the influence of pump pressure, previous research was found that the
characteristics of the pump set-up or configuration can have a significant effect on the air
content that is reflected by the value of the spacing factor after pumping [18]. The in-situ
test results suggest that the stirring of concrete, during and after pumping, contribute to
the reduction of the detrimental influence of pumping by subdividing the large air voids
into smaller ones. These results also suggested that the attachments to the pump have an
effect on the air content. In order to quantify the effects of pump configurations and
attachments that are commonly used, specially designed experiments should be carried
out. This was investigated in the control test of Phase II.
2.6 Effects of Concrete Materials on Air Content
The concrete materials used have been suggested to be one possible cause of air
change in pumped Portland cement concrete [12]. The variability in the Portland cement,
for example, can cause air content changes. Some of the cement characteristics that can
affect air content include alkali content, fineness, cement content, and contaminants [3].
The exact effects of these variabilities are not known. Generally, it has been shown that
air content will decrease with increased cement content and with increased cement
fineness. Air content has been shown to increase with an increase in cement alkali
content. Contaminates can change air content in either direction. The best way to
prevent change due to contamination is to ensure the cement is transported and stored in
isolated containers. Other materials that may also affect the air change of concrete
18
include cementitious admixtures, chemical admixtures, and aggregates which will be
discussed further in the following sections.
2.6.1 Cementitious admixtures
Cementitious admixtures can be incorporated in concrete mixes. These
admixtures include fly ash, furnace slag, and silica fume. Each can have an effect on air
content, most often a decrease in air content in the concrete. The exact amount of change
in air content varies with the amount and fineness of the admixture used. Therefore,
when cement substitutes are used, tests should be performed to ascertain the effect of the
particular admixture.
2.6.2 Chemical admixtures
Chemical admixtures can also affect the air content of concrete. Typical chemical
admixtures that may change air content include water reducers, retarders, and
accelerators. Water reducers and retarders, especially those with lignosulfonates, will
increase air in concrete. Accelerators will only slightly increase air content. Accelerators
must be about 2% by weight to increase air content 0.5% [3].
2.6.3 Aggregates
Aggregates that are added to the Portland cement can also change the air content
of the cement. The characteristics of the aggregate that have been shown to change air
content include maximum size, sand to total aggregate ratio, and fine aggregate grading.
As the maximum size of aggregate increases the air content requirement decreases. The
19
sand to total aggregate ratio causes air content to increase as sand content increases, and
the middle fractions of the fine aggregate tend to promote air entrainment [13].
2.6.4 Others
Some other characteristics of cement that have been shown to affect air content
include water chemistry, water to cement ratio, and slump. The chemistry of the water
that is added to the cement can change the air content. This is especially true when the
water that is used contains organic material such as algae. Algae may cause the air
content to increase.
The presence of hard water usually does not affect air content if it is used in the
cement mix. However, hard water can cause a loss in air content if it is used to dilute air-
entraining agents before they are added to the mix [3].
Water-cement ratio affects the air content of a cement mixture. High water-
cement ratio will cause the air content of the cement to increase. This occurs because
when there is a high water-cement ratio the air-entraining agent has more water to
generate air with, therefore increasing the air content [3].
Slump may be an indicator in the air content of the cement in that an increase in
slump generally indicates an increase in water-cement ratio and therefore an increase in
air content. This increase is caused in the same way as the increase that is seen when
water-cement ratio is increased.
20
2.7 Summary
Air content in concrete is a very important aspect of its ability to withstand the
forces exerted by freeze-thaw cycles and osmotic pressures by deicing chemicals in
colder climates. The placement of concrete in colder climates must be closely monitored
to ensure the proper amount of entrained air has been added to the concrete in order to
prevent scaling. Air entrainment is accomplished through the use of air-entraining
admixtures, which provide spaces within the concrete for the expansion of water. The air
content of hydraulic concrete can be measured using air pots.
Concrete pumps have evolved technologically to the point that they are the only
economically feasible means of placing concrete in tight locations. Placing concrete via a
pump requires a pumpable mix and close monitoring of the air content of the concrete
mix after the pump. Since pumping is an easy way for concrete to be placed, it is
imperative to know how the pumping of air-entrained concrete can affect the air content
in concrete. Theories concerning air losses within the concrete mix during pumping
include: the large drop within the boom, high pressure within the pipes, pump
configurations and attachments and the materials used in the concrete mix.
21
CHAPTER 3
DATA COLLECTION
The data used in this study was collected in two phases. Thirty-one projects were
tested during Phase I of the study. In addition to bridge deck projects there were water
treatment plants, residential buildings, and business buildings. The main objectives of
Phase I was to determine which factors affected the change in air content in hydraulic
concrete. The findings from Phase I then drove the test methods and types of projects for
Phase II.
Phase II consisted of five projects. The five projects were divided into two
groups. Four of the projects were bridge decks used for looking into the effects of
sampling collection methods. The remaining project was a parking lot used for
investigating the effects of configuration and attachment under controlled conditions.
The data collection for Phases I and II was conducted during the summer of 2000
and 2001, respectively. Appendix A to this report shows many of the photos, which were
taken during both phases, along with brief descriptions.
3.1 Data Collection in Phase I
The 31 projects were selected in Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming. Table 3.1
shows the location, type of construction and testing date of each project. Table 3.2
summarizes the types of construction.
22
Table 3.1 Projects for Phase I of the Study
Project Number Location Type of Construction Testing Date

1 Estes Park, CO Residential Slab 19-May-00
2 Broomfield, CO Water Treatment 22-May-00
3 Morrill, NE Bridge Deck 26-May-00
4 Ft. Collins, CO Residential Wall 2-Jun-00
5 Broomfield, CO Residential Slab 5-Jun-00
6 Cheyenne, WY Internal Slab 7-Jun-00
7 Ft. Collins, CO Water Treatment 7-Jun-00
8 Arvada, CO Water Treatment 9-Jun-00
9 Cheyenne, WY Business Wall 13-Jun-00
11 Ft. Collins, CO Residential Wall 20-Jun-00
12 Laramie, WY Bridge Deck 22-Jun-00
14 Denver, CO Business Wall 27-Jun-00
15 Denver, CO Outside Deck 28-Jun-00
16 Denver, CO Footer 29-Jun-00
17 Green River, WY Bridge Deck 7-Jul-00
18 Thornton, CO Internal Slab 12-Jul-00
19 Laramie, WY Bridge Deck 14-Jul-00
20 Ft. Collins, CO Residential Wall 19-Jul-00
21 Rawlins, WY Water Treatment 21-Jul-00
22 Englewood, CO Internal Slab 24-Jul-00
23 Laramie, WY Bridge Deck 27-Jul-00
24 Ft. Collins, CO Residential Wall 28-Jul-00
25 Boulder, CO Water Treatment 31-Jul-00
26 Ft. Collins, CO Residential Wall 2-Aug-00
27 Boulder, CO Water Treatment 7-Aug-00
28 Laramie, WY Internal Slab 8-Aug-00
29 Rawlins, WY Bridge Deck 23-Aug-00
30 Laramie, WY Bridge Deck 14-Sep-00
31 Rawlins, WY Bridge Deck 7-Oct-00
23
Table 3.2 Types of Construction Projects for Phase I of the Study
Type of Project Number of Projects
Bridge Decks 8
Water Treatment Plants 6
Residential Walls 5
Internal Slabs 4
Business Walls 4
Residential Slabs 2
Outside Deck 1
Footer 1
Total Projects 31
All data was collected in accordance with ASTM specifications and all testers
were ACI (American Concrete Institute) certified. The following data was obtained at
every project: air content, slump, unit weight of concrete before and after the pump,
concrete temperature, ambient temperature, and pump pressure. The pump configuration
was drawn and photos were taken to obtain the slope of the boom and the approximate
height of the drop. Pump boom length and type of pump were also obtained for the
projects. Concrete mix design data was obtained where available. Figure 3.1 shows the
form used in the data collection.
24
Revision Date: 5/23/2000
CONCRETE TESTING FORM
Testers: .
Location of Test: (Before/After the Pump) Truck ID Number: .
Date: Ambient Temperature: Weather: .
Air Pot:
Number: Tare Weight: lbs. Capacity: ft³
Concrete:
Final Weight: lbs. Unit Weight: lbs/ft³
Slump: in. Concrete Temperature: Air Content: %
Batch Number: Supplier: .
Phone Number: .
Fax Number: .
Water Added at the Site: gal.
Pump:
Brand: Type: .
Age: Owner: .
Configuration:
Diagram:
Number of Boom Segments: .

Slope of Boom: Length of Boom: .
Concrete Flow (Steady Stream or Broken Stream): .
Drop Distance in the Boom: .
Figure 3.1 Form Used in the Data Collection of the Study
25
3.1.1 Testers
All the testers (operators) were trained and ACI certified in testing procedures. In
order to make the test results as consistent as possible, only five people were involved in
testing of Phase I of the study.
3.1.2 Samples
The general requirements outlined in ASTM C172 were followed in the sampling
process. Concrete samples obtained before the pump were placed in 5-gallon buckets to
bring them from the pump hopper to the test equipment. The concrete was lifted out of
the hopper with a shovel and placed in the 5-gallon bucket.
Concrete samples obtained after the pump were placed in 5-gallon buckets to get
the sample from the construction site to the test equipment. Nevertheless, most samples
were obtained by placing the bucket near the outflow end of the pump and swinging the
pump over the bucket while it was flowing and filling the bucket. Stopping the pump and
swinging the boom and then starting the pump again to fill the containers was used to
obtain some samples.
3.1.3 Tests
Air content of hydraulic concrete: Air content of concrete was obtained in
accordance with ASTM C231 “Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed
Concrete by the Pressure Method” using Type B air meter [21]. Air content and weight
measurements were taken before and after the pump. Simultaneous testing was carried
out so that the concrete was as close to the same on each side of the pump as was
26
possible. In order to eliminate some of the errors associated with field testing of
concrete, the air meters were frequently calibrated. For testing in this study (both Phases
I and II), calibration was performed once a week. The calibration was accomplished in
accordance with the annex “Calibration of Apparatus”, a part of ASTM C231.
Slump of concrete: The slump of concrete was taken using ASTM C143
“Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete”. Again, the slump
was taken before the pump and after the pump. The equipment used for testing was a
standard slump cone, a tamping rod and a scoop.
Unit weight of concrete: The weight of concrete was measured by weighing the
concrete while in an air pot with a given volume and a known empty weight. This
allowed the computation of the unit weight of the concrete. This test was accomplished
according to ASTM C138 “Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and
Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete”.
Temperature of concrete: Concrete temperature was sampled in accordance
with ASTM C1064 “Standard Test Method for Temperature of Freshly Mixed Portland
Cement Concrete”. Temperatures were taken from before and after pumping samples.
The equipment used for this test was a thermometer capable of measuring the
temperature of the freshly mixed concrete to ±1°F and having a range of temperature
from 0° to 120°F.
Table 3.3 summarizes the test methods used in the data collection process.
27
Table 3.3 ASTM Test Methods Used in Data Collection
Test ASTM Designation
Sampling ASTM C172
Air Content ASTM C231
Slump ASTM C143
Unit Weight ASTM C138
Temperature ASTM C1064
3.2 Data Collection in Phase II
Five projects in Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming were tested in Phase II of the
study. The test methods followed were the same as summarized in Table 3.3. The
breakdown of these projects is shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Types of Projects for Phase II
Type of Project Number of Projects
1 (before pumping)
Sampling Methods
3 (after pumping)
Configuration and Attachment 1
Total Projects 5
28
3.2.1 Sampling methods
Four bridge deck projects were tested for the purpose of looking into the effects of
sampling collection methods. One project was used for testing air change due to
sampling methods of concrete before the pump. Three testers and three pots were used in
the testing. The sampling methods used were shovel to collection vessel, chute to
collection vessel (no drop), chute to collection vessel (2-foot drop) and chute to collection
vessel (5-foot drop). The descriptions of the methods of sampling before the pump are
shown below:
• Shovel to collection vessel: The concrete is scooped from the hopper with a
shovel and gently placed in the collection vessel one scoop at a time until the
vessel is filled sufficiently for a slump and air content test.
• Chute to collection vessel (no drop): The collection vessel is placed directly
beneath the end of the chute and the concrete is allowed to flow directly into the
collection vessel.
• Chute to collection vessel (2-foot drop): The collection vessel is placed beneath
the end of the chute and the chute is raised until there is 2 feet between the end of
the chute and the top of the collection vessel. The concrete is then allowed to
flow into the collection vessel dropping 2 feet through open air.
• Chute to collection vessel (5-foot drop): The collection vessel is placed beneath
the end of the chute and then the chute is raised until there is 5 feet between the
end of the chute and the top of the collection vessel. The concrete is then allowed
to fill the collection vessel while falling 5 feet through open air into the vessel.
29
There were four collection methods used in the sampling of concrete after
pumping, which were tested for three projects. The four methods used in sampling
concrete after the pump were: swing pump, hose to collection vessel, and gently shovel
from placed concrete and slopped shovel from placed concrete. The following are
descriptions of the methods of sampling after the pump:
• Swing pump over: The collection vessel is placed on the ground and the outflow
end of the pump is swung over to the collection vessel, which is filled with
minimal drop.
• Hose to collection vessel: The collection vessel is placed directly under the end
of the output hose and filled.
• Gently, shovel from placed concrete: The collection vessel is placed on the
ground and the concrete is also placed on the ground. A shovel is then used to
pick up the concrete and place it gently into the collection vessel.
• Slopped, shovel from placed concrete: The collection vessel and the concrete
are placed on the ground. A shovel is then used to lift the concrete to the
collection vessel and then the concrete is slopped into the collection vessel with
some force.
3.2.2 Control project
In January 2001, a meeting was held between WYDOT and the University of
Wyoming Research Team. It was decided at the meeting that a control project should be
conducted. This control project would focus on the effects of the configurations and
attachments of the boom on the changes in air content.

30
Five boom configurations and attachments were considered in the project. They
were:
• Double 90° (D90).
• Single 90° (S90).
• Hose on Ground (HOG).
• Z-boom No Attachments (ZNA).
• No Attachments A-frame (NAA).
For photos of each configuration, see Appendix A to this report.
The control project was a parking lot located at St. Paul's Newman Center at 1800
E. Grand Avenue in Laramie, Wyoming. The parking lot was 106.4 feet wide along
Grand Avenue and 110.0 feet long with a slab thickness of about 4.0 inches. This project
was constructed on August 16-17, 2001. It was designed to have 15 strips that were
about 7.0 feet wide. Figure 3.2 shows the layout of the control project. Air content, as
well as slump, measurements were taken from three positions for each strip, totaling 45
locations, to get a full range of motion for each configuration and attachment. The
position represented the distance between the pump and the location where concrete was
placed, which indirectly reflected the extension or shape of the boom. The extensions of
the boom, the corresponding positions, and the estimated distances were:
• “fully extended”, Position 1, 82.5 feet.
• “half-way extended”, Position 2, 55.0 feet.
• “closed in” (“completely collapsed”, “crowded”), Position 3, 27.5 feet .
Figure 3.3 schematically illustrates the extension and distance for each position.
31
Figure 3.2 Layout of the Control Project
32
Figure 3.3 Schematic Illustration of Boom Extension and Position
33
A total of seven testers were involved in the project, four from the UW Research
Team and three from WYDOT. Six of the testers (oval symbols in Figure 3.2) performed
air content and unit weight testing using six pots (rectangular symbols in Figure 3.2),
while the remaining tester performed slump testing. The testers were all ACI/WYDOT
certified and the pots were calibrated just prior to the control project in accordance with
ASTM calibration procedures. The testers and pots were switched with locations
regularly to reduce possible biases. Additional personnel were present for various
activities, from picture taking to equipment washing to make sure everyone was in the
correct position at the correct time.
The concrete used in this experiment met all WYDOT specifications for bridges.
The same mix was used in the whole experiment to eliminate the mix design as a factor.
Three air content measurements were made at each of the 45 locations, one before
pumping and two after pumping. (Positions T1, T2 and T3 in Figure 3.2 indicate
Positions 1, 2 and 3 where air content before pumping was taken.) Ambient temperature
and pump pressures were recorded to determine if they affect air changes in pumped
concrete. In addition, two slump measurements were made at each location, one before
pumping and the other after pumping. The test methods followed were the same as
summarized in Table 3.3. The sampling method for air content used for before the pump
was “shovel to collection vessel”. The sampling method used after the pump was “hose
to collection vessel”. The samples before and after were taken at the same time for each
location, which ensures that the concrete is the same for before and after testing.
34
3.3 Summary
Comprehensive data concerning air content of hydraulic concrete before and after
pumping was collected from a total of 36 construction projects in two phases. Additional
information that may relate to the change in air content of concrete, such as slump, unit
weight, and concrete temperature, was also collected for possible use in establishing the
correlation in the present study or in the future. All tests were performed in accordance
with ASTM standards to assure precision and accuracy of the data. The analysis of the
data will be presented in the next chapter.
35
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS
After the data was collected from Phases I and II, computerized data bases were
created. These data bases are summarized in Appendices B and C for Phases I and II,
respectively. A comprehensive statistical analysis was then performed on the data.
Minitab and Excel software was used in the statistical analysis.
4.1 Analysis of Phase I Data
Phase I of the research study was conducted in the summer of 2000. This phase
of the study was designed as a field evaluation. All testing was performed in the field at
actual construction sites. By using field evaluation, eventual application of the results to
the operations of Wyoming Department of Transportation (WYDOT) can be easily
obtained. One objective of Phase I was to narrow down the number of factors that affect
the air change in hydraulic concrete due to pumping. By narrowing down the number of
factors, cost in Phase II of the study can be decreased and the amount of useful data
increased.
4.1.1 General trend of air change
Before any analysis could be accomplished, the data that was gathered for Phase I
was evaluated. Projects that were found to be a no air mix were eliminated from the
analysis since WYDOT requires air in all concrete mixtures. Also, one project, Project
19, was eliminated because air was being added to the mix after before-pumping testing.
36
Figure 4.1 shows the air content before pumping verses the air content after
pumping with an equality line X = Y. Data points above the reference line reflect
concrete that gained air through the pump while points below the line reflect concrete that
lost air through the pump.
It can be seen, from Figure 4.1, that air is usually lost through the pumping
process, although occasionally the concrete may gain air. The average air change was
calculated to be a loss through the pumping process, although occasionally air can be
gained. Eleven of the fifty-nine tests shown in Figure 4.1 gained some air with an
average air gain of 0.69%. Nine of the eleven tests were outside the 4% to 7% required
by specifications. The estimated average loss of air for a site is 1.06%, which agreed
with a previous finding (1.0%) reported in the literature [5, 6]. A 95% confidence
interval for the mean loss is 0.62% to 1.48%. This confidence interval shows a rather
large spread for the average air change. The significant scatter of data points indicates
that other factors should be considered to statistically explain the air change in concrete
due to pumping in addition to the air content before pumping. Accompanied by the loss
of air is an average loss of slump of 0.6 inch, which is also in agreement with a finding
(0.5 inch) in the literature [5, 6].
The scattering data in Figure 4.1 suggests that the air content before the pump is
not an adequate independent measure of air content after pumping. The air content after
cannot be accurately predicted by just knowing the air content before. There are other
factors that affected the air content of pumped concrete.
37
10.0
Test Data
Equality
Air Content after Pumping (%) 8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Air Content before Pumping (%)
Figure 4.1 Air Content before Pumping verses Air Content after Pumping
4.1.2 Influential Factors
Further analysis was conducted to determine the factors affecting air change in
concrete due to pumping. Since WYDOT requires that air content in concrete be equal to
or greater than 4% [2], projects with air contents below this were not included in the
regression analysis. For further details, consult with “Evaluating the Air Content
Changes in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping”, An Interim Report Submitted to
Wyoming Department of Transportation, May 2000 [22]. The average air loss after
removing those less than 4.0% air content before pumping is 1.23%, which is a slight
38
increase compared to the overall 1.06%. With the 1.23% air loss, the average slump loss
remained unchanged at 0.6 inch.
The data that was used to perform the analysis were coded into Excel so that
discrete variables are converted to a usable format by coding these variables into a
number that can be plotted against air change. The air change is then plotted against each
of the variables that were included in this phase of the study. These plots were examined
to see if there was any discernable pattern. When a pattern was detected that variable
was then used as a continuous variable in the regression analysis.
Factors affecting air change were classified into three categories. They were
probable, possible and improbable influential factors as obtained through the statistical
analysis [22].
4.1.2.1 Probable Influential Factors
A total of five probable influential factors were identified:
1. Drop distance – the distance from the highest point of the boom in which the
concrete is allowed to free fall to the discharge point.
2. Boom slope - the slope at which the boom angles off the back of the pump.
3. Length of boom – the length from the truck to the discharge end of the boom.
4. Amount of air entrainment admixture in mix design.
5. Collection method – how the samples were collected.
Probable influential factors are factors that strongly suggest influence on a
consistent basis. The first probable influential factor was drop distance. Usually, the
larger the drop distance is for the concrete, the more the amount of air loss. Another
39
factor is boom slope, which has values that ranged from zero to ninety degrees.
Typically, steep slopes showed a significant air loss and shallow slopes showed air gain
or very low air loss. Length of the boom (total boom length) is an additional factor when
considering air change due to pumping. However, length of boom may be more of an
influence on other factors, such as drop distance, than an independent factor itself.
A further factor is the amount of air added as an admixture in the original
concrete mix. It is difficult to ascertain the absoluteness of this effect, because it was
difficult to obtain all mix designs from all projects. The final probable influential factor
is collection method. It varied from having the bucket directly in the hopper gathering
concrete straight from the chute to a five-foot drop to the bucket from the chute. A drop
of more than two feet seemed to influence air to be lost from the concrete.
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Air Change (%)
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Drop Distance (ft)
Figure 4.2 Air Change versus Drop Distance
40
Figure 4.2 shows one of the probable influential factors, drop distance from the
highest point of the boom to the point of concrete placement, plotted against percent air
change.
4.1.2.2 Possible Influential Factors
A total of three possible influential factors were found:
1. Precipitation.
2. Amount of water added at site.
3. Pump size.
Possible influential factors were factors that showed statistical significance and
thus had a definite effect on air change but were not quite as significant statistically as
the probable factors. The first possible influential factor is precipitation. A slight
relationship to air change was found when it was whether raining or sprinkling during a
given project. Another possible influential factor is the amount of water added at the
site. While it did not affect all projects the same, in a few instances it seems to have
had an effect on air content as shown in Figure 4.3 as an example. The last possible
influential factor is pump size. Once again, size may be more of an influence on other
factors rather than a factor on its own.
41
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Air Change (%)
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Water Added (gal)
Figure 4.3 Air Change versus Water Added at Site
4.1.2.3 Improbable Influential Factors
A total of seven improbable influential factors were found:
1. Slump.
2. Concrete temperature.
3. Water-cement ratio.
4. Gradations.
5. Specific gravity.
6. Pump age.
7. Number of pump segments.
42
Improbable influential factors are factors that, from the collected data, statistically
have no effect on air change. The first improbable factor is slump. Slump change did not
correlate to any air change as shown in Figure 4.4. Another improbable factor is concrete
temperature. Change in temperature has no correlation on air change for the ranges of
temperatures observed in this study (40° F to 85° F). The next improbable factor is
water/ cement ratio. From the mix designs received, no relationship was found between
the water-cement (or cementitious material) ratio and any air loss incurred on the project.
Also, along the same lines as water/cement ratio, gradations and specific gravity were
found to be improbable correlations. The apparent lack of relationship between the mix
design and air change of a project could be a result of limited data or it could be the result
of no actual relationship existing.
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Air Change (%)
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Slump (in)
Figure 4.4 Air Change versus Slump
Another improbable influential factor is pump age. While the national survey, discussed
in the literature review, indicated that certain states were concerned with a pump’s age,
43
the data from this summer did not indicate that pump age affected air change. A further
improbable influential factor is the number of pump segments. Pump segments along
with concrete flow were too constant to show and differences that would indicate they
affect air change.
4.2 Analysis of Phase II Data
4.2.1 Sampling methods
The data for the examination of the effects of sampling methods on air content
was from four projects at different construction sites. Three testers were involved in the
project testing. In each project, three replicate tests were conducted for each method.
Four methods were used for before pumping and four methods were used for after
pumping.
Before pumping sampling methods were:
• Shovel to collection vessel.
• Chute to collection vessel, no drop.
• Chute to collection vessel, 2-foot drop.
• Chute to collection vessel, 5-foot drop.
After pumping sampling methods were:
• Swing pump over.
• Hose to collection vessel.
• Gently, shovel from placed concrete.
• Slopped, shovel from placed concrete.
44
Statistical analyses indicated that the sampling collection method slightly affect
the measured air content. Table 4.1 shows the differences on average in percent air
content of all the methods used.
Table 4.1 Average Differences in Percent Air Content of Various Collection
Methods
Before Shovel Chute no drop Chute 2-foot Chute 5-foot

Pumping
0.38 -0.02 -0.15 -0.22
Shovel Shovel
Swing pump Hose
After (gentle) (slopped)
Pumping
0.20 0 -0.01 -0.18
The values in the table are the differences in percent air content relative to the
mean (so that the sum of the differences in each case is zero). For example, “shovel to
collection vessel” measures more air than does “chute to collection vessel 5-foot drop” by
0.6% in the case of the before, while “swing pump over” measures more than does
“slopped shovel from placed concrete” by nearly 0.4% air content in the case of the after.
Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show the 95% confidence intervals for mean air loss by collection
methods before and after pumping, respectively.
45
95% Confidence Intervals for Means by Collection Method
Before Pumping
7.0
Mean Air Content
6.5
6.0
Shovel Chute, 0 Drop 2 ft. drop 5 ft. drop
Collection Method
Figure 4.5 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals by Collection Methods for Mean Air
Loss before Pumping
95% Confidence Intervals for Means by Collection Method

After Pumping
4.85
4.75
Mean Air Content
4.65
4.55
4.45
4.35
4.25
4.15
Swing Hose Shovel Shovel

Pump (gentle) (slop)
Collection Method
Figure 4.6 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean by Collection Methods Air
Loss after Pumping
46
4.2.2 Control project
The control project consisted of 15 strips. In each strip, three testing positions
were selected, totaling 45 locations. Three air content measurements were made at each
location, one for before pumping and two for after pumping. Ambient temperature and
pump pressures were recorded to determine if they affect air changes in pumped concrete.
In addition, two slump measurements were made at each location, one before pumping
and the other after pumping.
Six ACI certified testers were involved and six calibrated air pots were used in the
project testing. The testers and pots were switched regularly with strips and positions, in
an attempt to look into the possibility of systematic errors that may be introduced by the
testers and pots and to reduce the errors introduced if they do exist.
The variables considered in this control project for the response of change in air
content are:
• Tester: six levels (1-6).
• Pot: six levels (1-6).
• Position: three levels, which reflects of the extension of the boom (1-3).
• Configuration and attachment of boom: 5 levels
Double 90° (D90).
Single 90° (S90).
Hose on Ground (HOG).
Z-boom No Attachment (ZNA).
No Attachment A-frame (NAA).
• Temperature of environment: (continuous).

47
• Pump pressures (continuous): 3 variables:
Minimum pump pressure.
Average pump pressure.
Maximum pump pressure.
Figures 4.7 through 4.9 show all the measured data in different ways. Figure 4.7
is the air content before pumping versus the air content after pumping and Figure 4.8
presents the air content before pumping versus the air change (air content before minus
after pumping). Finally Figure 4.9 illustrates the air content before pumping versus the
relative air change (air loss divided by air content before pumping). Each before
measurement was used twice for the two measurements after pumping. These figures
indicate that the air content after pumping, as well as air loss and relative air loss, is a
function of the air content before pumping. The dispersion of the data is the effects of
various influencing factors in addition to the nature of the measurement. The average air
loss for the control project was 0.57%, which is about half of that for Phase I, 1.23%.
This reduction should be mainly attributed to the configurations and attachments that
were believed to produce less air loss and used in the control project for testing.
48
10.00
Test data
Position 1
8.00 Position 2
Position 3
Equality
Air Content after Pumping (%) 6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Figure 4.7 Measured Air Content after Pumping versus that before Pumping
4.00
Test data Position 1

3.00
Position 2 Position 3
2.00
Air Loss (%)
1.00
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
Figure 4.8 Air Change versus Air Content before Pumping
49
0.80
Test data Position 1
0.60
Position 2 Position 3
0.40
Relative Air Loss
0.20
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
-0.20
-0.40
Figure 4.9 Relative Air Change versus Air Content before Pumping
4.2.2.1 Effects of testers and pots
The multiple measurements of air content after pumping made it possible to
evaluate the errors introduced by the testers and pots. Comparisons of tester and pot
scores against averages at each location were made. Figures 4.10 and 4.11 show the
deviations of testers and pots calculated.
It is seen from Figure 4.10 that, although the effects of testers and pots are
statistically discernible, the magnitudes of these effects are, as expected, minimal. The
variation exhibited by each tester was substantially greater than was the variation among
testers; the range of the six tester means was 0.22%, while the ranges for individual
testers varied between 0.55% and 0.90% air content. Similarly, as shown in Figure 4.11,
variation by each pot dominated variation between pot means; the range of the six pot
50
means was 0.24%, while the ranges for individual pots varied between 0.50% and 1.30%
air content.
Table 4.2 shows the average results for various testers and pots. The values in the
table are differences in percent air content relative to the average. For example, Tester 1
overestimates the air content with respect to the average by 0.09%. In other words,
−0.09% should be added to the reading to obtain the average that is believed to be closer
to the true air content.
Table 4.2 Average Differences in Percent Air Content of Various Testers and Pots
Tester 1 2 3 4 5 6
Difference -0.09 -0.12 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.02
Pot 1 2 3 4 5 6
Difference 0.15 -0.09 -0.05 -0.06 -0.06 0.11
51
Deviations for Testers: Square = Mean
0.5
Residual
0.0
-0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tester
Figure 4.10 Observations Arranged by Testers, Adjusted by Unit Means
Deviations for Pots: Square = Mean
0.5
Residual
0.0
-0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6
Pot Number
Figure 4.11 Observations Arranged by Pots, Adjusted by Unit Means
52
In summary, individual testers and pots were substantially less consistent than
were the averages of testers or pots. Even though small differences between means are
statistically detectable, differences are not important from the standpoint of practice.
Tester training and pot calibration can effectively standardize results. Within the
measurement capabilities of current methods, testers and pots are consistent.
Adjustments for pot and tester effects are very small and are inconsequential in
terms of subsequent analyses. In the following analyses, unadjusted data is used because
adjusted analyses are more complex yet give essentially identical results. All conclusions
based on adjusted and unadjusted scores are the same.
4.2.2.2 Effects of ambient temperature and pump pressures
Ambient temperature was measured in the control project. Statistical analysis on
the temperature data indicated that the changes in air content are not related in any way
with temperature within the range of temperatures and under the conditions where tests
were conducted. Figure 4.12 illustrates the air loss versus the temperature in which, no
pattern of variation can be observed, further confirming the conclusion.
In this project, three pump pressures were recorded. They were the minimum
pressures, the average pressures and maximum pressures. The average pressure
represents the pressure at normal operation of the pump, while the maximum and
minimum pressures are the irregularities around the average. Analyses of the pressure
measurements indicated that none of the three pressures has any significant relationship
with the air changes. Figure 4.13 is an example, in which the air loss shows little pattern
with respect to the average pump pressure contrary to one previous hypothesis.
53
4
3
dAC (%)
2
Air Change
-1
-2
45 55 65 75
Temp (F)
Temperature
Figure 4.12 Air Loss versus Temperature
3
dAC (%)
2
Air Change
-1
-2
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
PPave
Average Pump Pressure (psi)
Figure 4.13 Air Loss versus Average Pump Pressure
54
4.2.2.3 Effects of configuration and position
After eliminating the temperature and pump pressure factors, statistical analysis
was performed on the air content data to investigate the effects of configurations and
attachments of boom and position. The position factor reflected distance of the pump
from the location where concrete was placed, which indirectly reflects the extension or
shape (slope and drop distance from the highest point) of the boom relative to the site.
Position 1 in the project was the “fully extended”, Position 2 the “half-way extended”,
and Position 3 the “closed in (completely collapsed, crowded)” sites.
Results of the analysis indicated that both the configuration and position are
statistically significant in changes in air content due to pumping in addition to air content
before pumping. Table 4.3 present summaries of the results of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using Generalized Linear Model (GLM) for responses of air loss and relative
air loss, respectively. The p-values are as low as from 0.000 to 0.002 for these factors
with respect to the responses, so that the conclusions are the same whether the response
air loss was used or whether the response relative air loss was used. Details of the
ANOVA results are found in Appendix D to this report.
Less air loss is present when using HOG and D90 than when using ZNA or NAA.
Significantly more air is lost at Position 3 than is lost in earlier positions. There is no
discernible interaction between the configuration and position, that is, the change in air
loss measured between positions is judged to be the same on average, regardless which of
the five configurations is viewed. It is noticed in particular that use of the hose on the
ground resulted in ambient air mixing with the concrete, causing an average air gain
(seen in a negative percent loss). Figures 4.14 and 4.15 graphically display the air loss in
55
percentage for the five configurations and for the three positions with 95% confidence
intervals for means at 6.8% air content before pumping, which is the median of all
measurements, respectively.
Table 4.3 Summaries of ANOVA Results on Air Loss and Relative Air Loss
P-Value
Factor
Air Loss Relative Air Loss
Configuration and Attachments 0.000 0.000
Position 0.002 0.001
Air Content before Pumping 0.000 0.001
95% Confidence Intervals for Mean Air Loss by Treatment
1
Air Loss
HOG D90 S90 ZNA NNA

NAA
Treatment
Figure 4.14 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean Air Loss by
Configuration (treatment) at 6.8% Initial Air Content
56
95% Confidence of Mean Air Loss by Position
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Air Loss
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3
Position
Figure 4.15 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for Mean Air Loss by Position at
6.8% Initial Air Content
Comparisons of means were made using Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference.
According to this criterion, it cannot be distinguished between HOG and D90, between
ZNA and NAA, or between S90 and any of the other values. It is, clear, however, that
HOG and D90 lose less air than do ZNA and NAA. Also based on Tukey's Honestly
Significant Difference, Positions 1 and 2 both experience less air loss than does Position
3. Positions 1 and 2 do not differ statistically.
One observation from Figure 4.14 is that both ZNA (Z-boom No Attachments)
and NAA (No Attachments A-frame) produced highest air losses. The ZNA shows
slightly less air loss although the difference between the two configurations is statistically
insignificant. It was the attachments, D90 (Double 90°), S90 (Single 90°), and HOG
(Hose on Ground), that played key roles in reducing the air losses to various degrees.
57
Figure 4.16 shows the statistical 95% confidence intervals by position at 6.8%
initial air for mean air loss of ZNA only. Wider intervals and more overlapping among
the intervals can be observed, compared to those in Figure 4.15 in which data for all five
configurations and attachments were used in the analysis.
1.5
Air Change (%)
1.0
0.5
1 2 3
Position
Figure 4.16 Statistical 95% Confidence Intervals for ZNA Mean Air Loss by
Position at 6.8% Initial Air Content
58
4.2.2.4 Statistical Models for air change
Regression analyses gave the following statistical model for air loss as a function
of configuration, position, and air content before pumping:
∆AC = −3.79 + ac + ap + 0.638 ACbef [4.1]
where ∆AC = air loss (air content before minus air content after pumping) in %,
ac, ap = constants for configuration and position, respectively (Table 4.4), and
ACbef = air content before pumping in %.
The coefficient of determination for equation [4.1] was computed as R²=0.76185
showing that the equation accounts for 76% of the air loss variation when adjustments for
air content before the pump, configuration and position are taken into account. The other
24% consists of other factors which could not be isolated or that were not analyzed in this
study in addition to any random effects present in the system. Equation [4.1] is a good
representation of the factors that affect air losses across a pump.
The equation for relative air loss is given by:
∆ACR = −0.471 + ac '+ ap '+0.08 ACbef [4.2]
where ∆ACR = relative air loss (∆AC divided by ACbef), dimensionless,
ac′, ap′ = constants for configuration and position, respectively (Table 4.4), and
ACbef = air content before pumping in %.
Air loss can be calculated by ∆ACR from Equation [4.2] times ACbef.
The coefficient of determination for equation [4.2] was computed as R²=0.76431
showing that this equation also accounts for 76% of the variation. The equation for
59
relative air loss is equivalent to the direct measure of change in air content across the
pump.
Table 4.4 Constants for Calculation of Air Loss and Relative Air Loss
Configuration Position
D90 S90 HOG ZNA NAA 1 2 3
ac, ap -0.413 -0.095 -0.664 0.320 0.852 -0.225 -0.105 0.330
ac′, ap′ -0.057 -0.014 -0.112 0.05 0.133 -0.037 -0.013 0.049
It is noticed that the differences in air loss can be up to 1.52% (HOG versus
NAA) due to differences in configurations and attachments of the boom. The maximum
difference in air loss is 0.56% (Position 1 versus Position 3) for the difference in position.
The air loss due to air content before pumping is 0.64% per percent on average
(Parameter b in Equation [4.1]).
Figures 4.17 and 4.18 show the measured air loss versus air loss predicted using
the air loss and relative air loss models in Equations [4.1] and [4.2], respectively. There
are 89 valid measurements of air loss in control project. For air loss model in Equation
[4.1], 26 or 29.2% have residuals (measured minus predicted) that are outside ±0.5%; 5
or 5.6% have residuals that are outside ±1.0%. For the relative air loss model in Equation
[4.2], 26 or 29.2% have residuals (measured minus predicted) that are outside ±0.5%; 6
or 6.7% have residuals that are outside ±1.0%. The complexity introduced in the relative
60
air loss model does not result in a better prediction for the data available, making
Equation [4.1] the preferred for its simplicity.
Tables 4.5 and 4.6 show the air losses calculated using Equations [4.1] and [4.2],
respectively, at selected values of air content before pumping for various configurations
and positions. A negative air loss implies a gain of air content. The differences result
from the differences in the models. The results in the table include the extremes of
observation and thus reflect the greatest disagreements between models that will be seen
for data within the scope of inference. It is noted that the models in the equations are
valid in the range of air content before pumping, which is from 5.3% to 8.1%. Excessive
extrapolation should be avoided.
3.00
Data
Equality
2.00
Predicted Air Loss (%)
1.00
0.00
-1.00
-1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Measured Air Loss (%)
Figure 4.17 Measured Air Loss versus Air Loss Predicted Using Air Loss Model in
Equation [4.1]
61
3.00
Data
Equality
2.00
Predicted Air Loss (%)

1.00
0.00
-1.00
-1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Measured Air Loss (%)
Figure 4.18 Measured Air Loss versus Air Loss Predicted Using Relative Air Loss
Model in Equation [4.2]
62
Table 4.5 Percent Air Losses for Various Configurations and Positions Using the Air
Loss Model in Equation [4.1]
%AC
Position HOG D90 S90 ZNA NAA
Before
5.0 -1.49 -1.24 -0.92 -0.51 0.03
6.0 -0.85 -0.60 -0.28 0.13 0.67

1
7.0 -0.21 0.04 0.36 0.77 1.30
8.0 0.43 0.68 0.99 1.41 1.94
5.0 -1.37 -1.12 -0.80 -0.39 0.15
6.0 -0.73 -0.48 -0.16 0.25 0.79

2
7.0 -0.09 0.16 0.48 0.89 1.42
8.0 0.55 0.80 1.11 1.53 2.06
5.0 -0.93 -0.68 -0.37 0.05 0.58
6.0 -0.30 -0.04 0.27 0.69 1.22

3
7.0 0.34 0.59 0.91 1.33 1.86
8.0 0.98 1.23 1.55 1.96 2.50
63
Table 4.6 Percent Air Losses for Various Configurations and Positions Using the
Relative Air Loss Model in Equation [4.2]
%AC
Position HOG D90 S90 ZNA NAA
Before
5.0 -0.98 -0.71 -0.49 -0.18 0.24
6.0 -0.67 -0.35 -0.08 0.30 0.80

1
7.0 -0.19 0.19 0.49 0.94 1.52
8.0 0.46 0.89 1.24 1.75 2.41
5.0 -0.86 -0.59 -0.37 -0.06 0.36
6.0 -0.53 -0.20 0.06 0.44 0.94

2
7.0 -0.03 0.35 0.66 1.10 1.69
8.0 0.65 1.08 1.43 1.94 2.60
5.0 -0.59 -0.31 -0.10 0.22 0.64
6.0 -0.20 0.13 0.39 0.77 1.27

3
7.0 0.36 0.74 1.05 1.49 2.08
8.0 1.09 1.53 1.88 2.38 3.05
4.2.2.5 Slump measurements
Figure 4.19 shows the slump values before and after pumping. Little systematic
changes in slump can be observed. In fact, the average slump before pumping is 4.93
inches, while the average slump after pumping is 4.97 inches—virtually the same as that
before pumping—in the control project, although there was a 0.57% average air loss.
64
10.0
Slump
Equality
8.0
Slump after Pumping (in) 6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Slump before Pumping (in)
Figure 4.19 Slump after Pumping versus Slump before Pumping
4.3 Summary and Discussions
4.3.1 Data analysis for Phase I
The analysis on air change of the data in Phase I of the study indicated that,
generally, air content before pumping is higher than that after pumping. The average air
change was calculated to be a loss through the pumping process, although occasionally
air can be gained. The average loss of air is 1.06%, which agreed with a previous finding
(1.0%) reported in the literature [5, 6]. A 95% confidence interval for the mean loss is
0.62% to 1.48%. This confidence interval shows a rather large spread for the average air
change, indicating that other factors, in addition to the air content before pumping, should
be considered to statistically explain the air change in concrete due to pumping.
65
Accompanied by the loss of air is an average loss of slump of 0.6 inch, which is also in
agreement with a previous finding (0.5 inch) in the literature [5, 6].
The analysis performed on the data with air content that is equal or greater than
4.0% [2] indicated that the average air loss after removing those less than 4.0% air
content before pumping is 1.23%, which a slight increase compared to the overall 1.06%.
This increase is attributed to the fact that air loss is proportional to the air content before
pumping, which is quantified in the data analysis of the control project. With the 1.23%
air loss, the average slump loss remained unchanged to be 0.6 inch.
Based on the analysis, the factors that affect the air change can be classified into
three categories: probable influential factors, possible influential factors, and improbable
influential factors. Eight factors were found to have either probable or possible
influence:
1. Drop distance.
2. Boom slope.
3. Length of boom.
5. Collection method.
6. Precipitation.
8. Pump size.
Dividing the factors into three categories gave focus to what should be looked at
in more depth. The improbable factors allow less focus to be put on areas of less
significance.
66
4.3.2 Data analysis for Phase II
4.3.2.1 Sampling methods
Results of the analysis indicated that sampling collection (sampling) methods
have a moderate effect on the air content. Maximum differences of 0.6% for the four
methods used before pumping and 0.4% for the four methods used after pumping were
observed. In general, gentler handling of the material results in higher air content
measurements that are believed to be closer to the true values. Standardization of the
method is recommended to provide a basis for comparison.
4.3.2.2 Control project
Errors in measuring air content introduced by the testers and pots were found to
be minimal. Training and certification of the tester, calibration of the pot, and switching
testers and pots when taking multiple measurements are an effective way to minimize
systematic (patterned) errors.
Ambient temperature and pump pressures were analyzed. They did not appear to
be influencing factors to the changes in air content due to pumping for the data available.
Changes in air content are significantly affected by the configuration and
attachment of the boom, the extension or shape of the boom (reflected by the position),
and the air content before pumping. The differences in air loss can be up to 1.52% (HOG
versus NAA) due to differences in configurations and attachments of the boom; and the
maximum difference in air loss is 0.56% (Position 1 versus Position 3) for the difference
67
in boom extension; while the air loss due to air content before pumping is 0.64% per
percent on average.
Both ZNA (Z-boom No Attachments) and NAA (No Attachments A-frame)
produced highest air losses. The difference between the two configurations is statistically
insignificant. It was the attachments, D90 (Double 90°), S90 (Single 90°), and HOG
(Hose on Ground), that played key roles in reducing the air losses to various degrees.
Two models were developed for the prediction of air loss, an air loss model and a
relative air loss model. The models developed in the control project are valid in the range
of air content before pumping from 5.3% to 8.1%. Excessive extrapolation should be
avoided. Comparisons indicated that these models give nearly identical predictions, and,
hence, the air loss model in Equation [4.1] is the preferred for its simplicity. Using the
air loss model, 29.2% of the predictions have residuals outside ±0.5%, and 5.6% have
residuals outside ±1.0% air loss.
Analysis on slump data showed no appreciable changes in slump due to pumping.
This contradicts the finding in Phase I, a reduction of 0.6 inch, which is believed to be
due to the special configurations and attachments used in the control project.
68
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research study investigated the change in air content of hydraulic concrete
due to pumping. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase I was used to gain an
understanding of the factors that affect air content in pumped concrete. Based on Phase I,
Phase II established the correlation between the air change and various influential factors
during the pumping process.
5.1 Conclusions
5.1.1 Conclusions for Phase I
Based on the analysis of data collected from 31 construction projects, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
• Analysis on all data collected in Phase I indicates that the change in air content of
hydraulic concrete is typically a loss through the pumping process, although
occasionally it can be a gain. The average loss of air is 1.06%. Accompanied by
the loss of air is an average loss of slump of 0.6 inch.
• The 95% confidence interval for the mean air loss is 0.62% to 1.48%. This
confidence interval implies a large spread for the average of 1.06%, indicating
that there are other factors affecting the air change, in addition to the air content
before pumping.
69
• Analysis on the data with air content that is equal or greater than 4.0% indicates
that the average air loss is 1.23%, which a slight increase compared to the overall
1.06%. This increase is attributed to the fact that air loss is proportional to the air
content before pumping. With the 1.23% air loss, the average slump loss
remained unchanged to be 0.6 inch, the same as that when the data for air content
before pumping below 4.0% was not removed.
• There are many factors that affect the air change in concrete due to pumping.
These factors can be classified by regression analysis into three categories:
probable, possible, and improbable influential factors. Eight factors were found
to have either probable or possible influence, which should be looked at in more
depth:
1. Drop distance.
2. Boom slope.
3. Length of boom.
5. Collection method.
6. Precipitation.
8. Pump size.
5.1.2 Conclusions for Phase II
The following conclusions can be drawn from the analysis performed in Phase II
of this study:
70
• Concrete sampling methods have a moderate effect on the measured air content
for the methods tested. The maximum difference in measured air content is 0.6%
for before pumping and 0.4% for after pumping. In general, gentler handling of
the material, such as “shovel to collection vessel” and “chute to collection vessel
without drop”, results in higher air content measurements.
• Errors in measuring air content introduced by the six testers and six pots are found
to be minimal. It should be mentioned here that all testers used in this experiment
were ACI certified and the Pots were calibrated before testing.
• The ambient temperature ranged from 40° F to 80° F and the pump pressures do
not appear to be significant influencing factors to the change in air content of
pumped concrete under normal operating conditions. Temperatures beyond the
ranges represented in this study may have a significant effect on the air change in
hydraulic concrete and should be studied in future studies.
• The change in air content of concrete is significantly affected by the configuration
and attachment of the boom, the extension or shape of the boom (reflected by the
position), in addition to the air content before pumping.
▪ For the configurations and attachments tested, namely, Double 90° (D90),
Single 90° (S90), Hose on Ground (HOG), Z-boom No Attachment (ZNA),
and No Attachment A-frame (NAA), the differences in air loss can be up to
1.52% (HOG versus NAA) due to differences in configuration and attachment
of the boom. While NAA loses most air on average, HOG shows a slight air
gain.
71
▪ The maximum difference in air loss is 0.56% (“closed in” versus “fully
extended”). The closer the location is to the pump, the more the air loss.
▪ The air loss due to air content before pumping is found to be 0.64% per
percent on average for the data available.
• Both ZNA (Z-boom No Attachments) and NAA (No Attachments A-frame)
produced highest air losses. The difference between the two configurations is
statistically insignificant. It was the attachments, D90 (Double 90°), S90 (Single
90°), and HOG (Hose on Ground), that played key roles in reducing the air losses
to various degrees.
• Two models, an air loss model and a relative air loss model were developed for
the prediction of air change. They are both functions of boom configuration and
attachment, boom extension, and air content before pumping. These models are
valid at the range of air content before pumping from 5.3% to 8.1%.
Comparisons indicate that these models give nearly identical predictions, which
makes the air loss model in Equation [4.1] preferred for its simplicity.
• Analysis on slump data in the control project shows no significant changes in
slump due to pumping.
5.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are made based on the results of the entire
research study:
72
• It is recommended that the sampling procedures be standardized with gentler
methods. For sampling before pumping, “shovel to collection vessel” or “chute to
collection vessel with 2-foot or less drop” is appropriate. For sampling after
pumping, “swing pump over”, “hose to collection vessel”, or “gently shovel from
placed concrete” can be used.
• The pump pressure does not have to be taken into account since little effect on the
air content in concrete during pumping could be established.
• It is recommended that the boom attachment of hose on the ground or double 90°
elbow be used to produce the least air change across a concrete pump. Since it is
difficult to use a hose on the ground, a double 90° elbow the preferred choice.
• The air change caused by the boom configuration should be taken into account.
The completely closed in (collapsed) position should be avoided to reduce air
losses.
5.3 Future Research
The models work well within the ranges of temperatures, slumps, and other
variables that are in the specifications. Extreme conditions should be studied in the
future to determine if the models are valid for those conditions. Concrete mixes that
have additives, such as silica fume or plasticizers should also be studied to determine
if they fit the models. Finally, concrete mixes with light-weight aggregates should be
studied to determine if they comply with the models.
73
REFERENCES
1. Kosmatka, Steven, and William C. Panarese. Design and Control of Concrete
Mixtures, Thirteenth Edition. Skokie, Illinois. Portland Cement Association,
1988.
2. State of Wyoming, Department of Transportation, Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, 1993 Edition.
Adopted by the Transportation Commission of Wyoming on December 10, 1992.
3. Whiting, David, and Nagi Mohamed. Manual on Control of Air Content in
Concrete. Skokie, Illinois, Portland Cement Association, 1998.
4. Walls, Richard A., Jr., and Steven M. Cramer. Effects of Water-Cementitious
Materials Ratio and Air Content on the Freeze-Thaw Durability of Portland
Cement Concrete—Preliminary Findings. Preprint, 79th Annual Meeting,
Transportation Research Board (CD ROM), Washington, D.C., January 9-13,
2000.
5. Yazdani, N., M. Bergin, and G. Mujtaba. Variations in the Short- and Long-Term
Characteristics of Bridge Concrete due to Transportation Techniques.
Transportation Research Record 1698, TRB, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 2000, pp 36-44.
6. Yazdani, Nur, Mike Bergin, and Ghulam Mujtaba. Effect of Pumping on
Properties of Bridge Concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 12,
No. 3, ASCE, Reston, VA, 2000, pp. 212-219.
74
7. Crepas, Robert. Pumping Concrete: Techniques and Applications, Third Edition.
Elmhurst: Crepas and Associates, 1997.
8. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. What, Why & How? Loss of Air
Content in Pumped Concrete. Concrete in Practice, CIP 21, Silver Spring,
Maryland, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 1992.
9. Lessard, M., M. Baalbaki, and P-C. Aitcin. Effect of Pumping on Air
Characteristics of Conventional Concrete. Transportation Research Record 1532,
TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp 9-14.
10. Hover, Kenneth. Tests of Pumping Air-Entrained Concrete. American Concrete
Pumping Association, 1995.
11. Pleau, R., M. Pigeon, A. Lamontagne, and M. Lessard. Influence of Pumping on
Characteristics of Air-Void System of High Performance Concrete.
12. Whiting, D., and D. Stark. Control of Air Content in Concrete. National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 258. Transportation Research
Board. National Research Council. Washington, D.C., May 1983.
13. Wilk, W., and G. Dobrolubov. Influence of Sands Used in Switzerland on the
Durability of Air-Entrained Concrete. Air Sampling, Quality Control, and
Concrete. Transportation Research Record 613, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1976, pp. 37-43.
14. Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute. Guide for Pumping Lightweight
Concrete. Concrete Construction, Vol. 37, February 1992, pp. 96-98.
75
15. Yingling, James, Gary M. Mulling, and Richard D. Gaynor. Loss of Air in
Pumped Concrete. Concrete International: Design and Construction, Vol. 14, No.
10, October 1992, pp.57-61.
16. Hover, K. The Influence of Handling on Air-Entrained Concrete. Report to the
American Pumping Association, 1993.
17. Hover, Kenneth C., and Roger J. Phares. Impact of Concrete Placing Method on
Air Content, Air-Voids System Parameters, and Freeze-Thaw Durability.
18. Boulet, Daniel, Richard Pleau, and Michel Lessard. Influence of Pumping on the
Characteristics of the Air-Voids System of Concrete. Proceedings of the 1997
Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Part 7 (of 7),
Sherbrooke, Canada, May 27-30, 1997.
19. Nelson, Mark D., Christina Spindler, Khaled Ksaibati, and Charles W. Dolan.
Evaluating the Air Content Changes in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping. 81st
Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Board, Paper No. 02-3276,
Washington, D.C., January 13-17, 2002.
20. Connolly, Eileen, New Jersey Department of Transportation. Personal Interview.
6 July 2000.
21. American Concrete Institute. Concrete Field Testing. Farmington Hills,
Michigan, 1999.
76
22. Nelson, Mark, Christina Spindler, Khaled Ksaibati, and Charles Dolan.
Evaluating the Air Content Changes in Hydraulic Concrete due to Pumping. An
Interim Report Submitted to Wyoming Department of Transportation, May 2000.
77

Air Change in Hydraulic Concrete Due To Pumping

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AIR CHANGE IN HYDRAULIC CONCRETE

A thesis submitted to the Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF PHOTOS .......................................................................................................... viii

1.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................................2

1.2 Research Objective ......................................................................................3

1.3 Report Organization.....................................................................................4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................5

2.1 Fundamentals of Air Entrainment................................................................6

2.1.1 Importance of air entrainment in concrete .......................................7

2.1.2 Mechanism of air entrainment .........................................................8

2.2 Measurement of Air Content .......................................................................9

2.3 Pumping Concrete......................................................................................10

2.3.1 Developments in pumping .............................................................11

2.3.2 Pumpable mixes .............................................................................11

2.4 Current Practice of Testing Air Content of Pumped Concrete ..................12

2.5 Some Possible Causes of Air Change due to Pumping..............................15

2.5.1 Large drop......................................................................................15

2.5.3 Pump set-up ...................................................................................18

2.6 Effects of Concrete Materials on Air Content ...........................................18

2.6.1 Cementitious admixtures ...............................................................19

2.6.2 Chemical admixtures .....................................................................19

2.6.3 Aggregates .....................................................................................19

2.7 Summary ....................................................................................................21

3 DATA COLLECTION ..........................................................................................22

3.1 Data Collection in Phase I..........................................................................22

3.1.1 Testers ............................................................................................26

3.1.2 Samples ..........................................................................................26

3.1.3 Tests ...............................................................................................26

3.2 Data Collection in Phase II ........................................................................28

3.2.1 Sampling methods..........................................................................29

3.2.2 Control project ...............................................................................30

3.3 Summary ....................................................................................................35

4.1 Analysis of Phase I Data ............................................................................36

4.1.1 General trend of air change............................................................36

4.1.2 Influential Factors ..........................................................................38

4.1.2.1 Probable Influential Factors...............................................39

4.1.2.2 Possible Influential Factors................................................41

4.2 Analysis of Phase II Data...........................................................................44

4.2.1 Sampling methods..........................................................................44

4.2.2 Control project ...............................................................................47

4.2.2.1 Effects of testers and pots ..................................................50

4.2.2.2 Effects of ambient temperature and pump pressures .........53

4.2.2.3 Effects of configuration and position.................................55

4.2.2.4 Statistical models for air change ........................................59

4.2.2.5 Slump measurements .........................................................64

4.3 Summary and Discussions .........................................................................65

4.3.1 Data analysis for Phase I................................................................65

4.3.2 Data analysis for Phase II ..............................................................67

4.3.2.1 Sampling methods..............................................................67

4.3.2.2 Control project ...................................................................67

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................69

5.1.1 Conclusions for Phase I .................................................................69

5.1.2 Conclusions for Phase II ................................................................70

5.3 Future Research .........................................................................................73

APPENDIX A PHOTOS ...................................................................................................78

A.1 Photos from Phase I of the Study....................................................................78

APPENDIX B RAW DATA OF PHASE I......................................................................100

APPENDIX C RAW DATA OF PHASE II ....................................................................108

APPENDIX D RESULTS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM

Figure 2.1 Freeze-Thaw Deterioration of a Concrete Railing [4]........................................7

Figure 2.2 Example of a Z-Capable Pump.........................................................................17