Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003
ROPES AND WIRES
ROPES
Ropes can be made from almost any pliable
material, but is generally composed of vegetable
fibres . i.e. ( natural fibres) ,synthetic fibre,or
steel ,iron or copper wire.
Natural Fibres Ropes
Consists of 2 types:
1. Hard fibres - Manila, Sisal and Coir
2. Soft fibres - Hemp,Jute,Flax and Cotton. manila and now found at sea around edges of
Figure 6-20. Some commonly used sizes of
manila line.
1 a)Manila
Manila is made from Abaca fibre, which comes
from a plant belonging to banana family.Its color
varies from ivory white to darkish brown.It is
available in various grades, the inner fibres of the
leaf being, much finer than those removed from
the outer edges.
As a rope it is smooth,glossy,strong,flexible,very
durable,easy to handle and has a very high
resistance to sea water rotting.It is the most
common natural fibre in use at sea.It will stretch
about 10 – 20 % of its length.
1b)Sisal
The fibre is taken from Aloe leaves in the
pineapple family.Very good sisal has strength
equal to medium grade manila and was used when
Manila was extremely scarce also it is relatively
cheaper then Manila.As a rope, it has an attractive 3. Polyamide ( Nylon )
creamy white colour,very brittle,glossy and
generally swells more than Manila when wet.It is
is not a smooth rope and has hairy surface.
1c)Coir
It is a hard fibre from the coconut shell after the
shell has been water soaked for many months.It is
very elastic,red in colour,rough to handle and is
extremely resistant to se water rotting.It is
principally used as towing and harbour spring. It
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is about half the weight of Manila and roughly
1/6th as strong. Its elasticity is about 45 %.
2a)Hemp
This is a soft fibre which comes from
Italy,India,Balkan’s St.Helena and New Zealand.It
is a tough fibre of an Asiatic herb viz ‘(Canabis
Satira )’.Italian hemp generally regarded as best
quality hemp and having strength 1/5th than top
grade Manila.It is largely been superceded by
awning and sails, small cordage, high grade twine
and wire cores of wire ropes. Also used for
making the hand lead line.
2b)Jute
It is weaken than hemp and is used for the
manufacture of Hessian and cores of the wire
rope.
2c)Flax
It is a long silky fibre from the plant of genus
‘linun’ . It is used for sail and tarpaulin canvas. It
is ideal for use as a sewing twine due to its high
resistance to abrasion.
2d)Cotton
It is very soft rope and get easily soiled.It is not
strong and rots very easily.At sea it is used as an
ornamental rope.
SYNTHETHIC FIBRE ROPES
1. Polypropylene
It is the lightest synthetic rope.It stretches 40
% but absorbs only 0.1% water and has a low
melting point of approximately 165 degree C,
highly resistant to acids,alkalis and oils but
may be affected by bleaching agents and some
industrial solvents.It has wide shipboard use.
2. Polyester ( Terylene )
Ropes made of this fibre are soft,pliable and
immensely strong.They are waterproof and
their surfaces dry quickly.They resist
acids,oils and organic solvents but are attacked
by alkalis.They are stronger than poly
propylene.
This is the strongest of the synthetic
fibre.Absorbs very little moisture and has
exceptional resistance to substantial loading.It
is resistant to alkalis,oils and organic solvents
but is attacked by acids.It has great elasticity
of approximately 33-40% of its length.
Note: All synthethic fibres are highly
resistant to rot and midew.
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Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003 Page 2 of 6

Preservation Of Fibre Rope ( General ) d) Mooring ropes should never be

1. When removing the rope from a new coil,take knotted.Knots considerably weaken a rope
the end from the inside so that the turns can be even after they are removed.
taken off anticlockwise for a right hand rope e) A left-hand laid rope should not be
and clockwise for the left hand rope to avoid coupled to a right – hand laid rope.
disturbing the lay.
2. Avoid subjecting the ropes to bad nips. ( eg. f) Regular inspection of mooring lines is
Sharp edges ) required.Weak points and potential areas
3. The diameter of the sheaves to be used with of failure may be noticed,allowing repair
the fibre ropes should be at least 10 times the or retirement of the rope before it parts in
diameter of the rope. service.
4. Avoid chafage.
5. Inspect frequently for excess wear and Cautions when using Fibre Ropes
damage. When using a fiber rope under strain, a few
number of person as necessary should remain in
Care Of Natural Fibre Ropes the vicinity.No one should be allowed to stand in
1. Natural fibres ropes should be stowed away in a well the bight of a rope or across the rope understrain.
ventilated space and either hung from wooden pegs or Synthetic fibre rope unlike natural fibre rope gives
stowed down on gratings.
2. Do not stow in the vicinity of boilers and other sources
no audible warning or visual warning when
of heat excessive heat will cause dryness which makes approaching its breaking point and as the stretch
the fibres brittle. will be recovered almost instaneously when the
3. The life of manila and sisal is shortened by the rope parts there will be considerable recoil.
action of salt water so after immersion in sea Strength Of Fibre Rope
water,they should be hosed preferably with fresh The strength of fibre rope is in the following
water.Before stowing away,the ropes should be descending order Nylon, Terylene,
clean and dry. Polypropylene, Manila, Hemp, Sisal, Coir, Jute,
3. Do not surge ropes from drums as far as and Cotton.
possible. Breaking Strength.
Refers to the tension at which the line will part
Care,Handling and Inspections Of Synthetic
when a load is applied. Breaking strength has been
Fibre Rope
determined through tests made by rope
a) Special fibre is not so important with man
manufacturers, and tables have been set up to
made fibre ropes but they should not be
provide this information.
stowed near boilers or other sources of
The term breaking or ultimate strength is the load
heat.They should not be covered by
or weight applied to the material when testing it to
tarpaulin when on deck as they can harmed
destruction.
by excessive exposure to sunlight.
Splicing a rope reduces its strength by 1/10 th and
b) Extreme care should be exercised when
knots reduce the strength by ½.The breaking or
easing out synthetic ropes from around
ultimate strength would depend on the quality of
bitts,cleats or other holding devices to
the fibre and processes of manufacture.However
avoid sudden slipping of the line.The low
given below are formula to estimate the breaking
coefficient of friction between synthetic
stress of some of the fibre ropes in tonnes.
ropes and steel and the large elongation of
1. Manila 2 x DxD/300
synthetic ropes under load may cause this
sudden slippage.Nylon and polypropylene
2. Polypropylene 3 x DxD/300
are particularly critical in this respect.
c) Due to high stretch of synthetic ropes,large
3. Terylene 4 x DxD/300
amounts of energy are stored in a line
under load.Sudden failure of the rope
4. Nylon 5 x DxD/300
would cause a snapping back of the
( D is the Diameter of the rope in mm )
line,possibly with resulting casualties to
personnel.
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Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003 Page 3 of 6

SAFE WORKING LOAD

Briefly defined, the “safe working load” (SWL) of
a line is the load that can be applied without
causing any kind of damage to the line. Note that
the safe working load is considerably less than the
breaking strength. A wide margin of difference
between breaking strength and safe working load
is necessary to allow for such factors as additional
strain imposed on the line by jerky movements in
Figure 6-21. Parts of a wire rope.
hoisting or bending over sheaves in a pulley
block.
Wire ropes are referred to by two numbers, the
The Safe Working Load ( S.W.L ) may be first indicates the number of strands, including a
taken as 1/6th of the breaking stress. strand which may be used for the central heart,
Example 1: Given a 40mm polypropylene rope, and the second indicates the number of wires to
estimate its breaking stress and the S.W.L? the strand.
Breaking Stress = 3xDxD/300 = 3x40x40/300
= 16 tonnes Types of Lay
S.W.L = Breaking Stress/6 = 16/6
= 2.67 tonne
The SAFETY FACTOR of a line is the ratio
between the breaking strength and the safe
working load. Usually, a safety factor of 4 is
acceptable, but this is not always the case. In other
words, the safety factor will vary, depending on
such things as the condition of the line and
circumstances under which it is to be used. While
the safety factor should NEVER be less than 3, it
often should be well above 4 (possibly as high as
8 or 10). For best, average, or unfavorable Ordinary Lay
conditions, the safety factor indicated below may The wires are twisted in the opposite direction
often be suitable. BEST conditions (new line): to the strands. Right hand rope is normally
4 ,AVERAGE conditions (line used, but in good used ,in which the wires are twisted left
condition): 6, and UNFAVORABLE conditions handed and the strands are twisted right
(frequently used line, such as running rigging): 8. handed.
Lang’s Lay
WIRE ROPES. The direction of twist of the wires is the same
as the direction of the strands. This lay
Wire rope used for marine purposes usually provides a greater wearing surface but should
consists of six strands laid up around a central only be used when both ends of the and the
heart of fibre, or about a seventh wire strand Each load are secured againts rotation. It is not
strand is made up of several wires twisted around likely to be used for marine.
a central fibre core or around a single center wire.
The number of wires to the strand varies from 7 to
41, the number being governed by size of the rope
and also by the purpose for which it is required.
Increasing the number of wires to the strand for
the same size of rope gives greater strength and
flexibility.

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Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003
Inspection of wire lines and guideline for
removal from service
Figure 4.15: Wire Rope Lay
Guidelines for Handling,Inspection and
Removal From Service of Wire Mooring Lines
Handling
- Prevent kinking of lines. When unreeling
the reel should be mounted on a spindle
and the line pulled directly off the reel not
over the end.
- If a loop forms, it should be thrown out
immediately before any load is placed on
the line.
- The direction of the coiling of the first
layer of a line on a plain winch drum
depending on the lay of the line.
- Wire lines should be lubricated
periodically. Proper lubrication reduces the
abrasive effect of individual wires sliding
one another and helps to prevents
corrosion. Wire lines are lubricated during
manufacture but the lubrication is lost
during usage, particularly in marine
applications. Ideally the line should be
lubricated every two or three months.
Several patent varieties of wire line oil are
available and the lubricant may be brushed
on, or a box lubricator used. Mooring line
manufacturer’s recommendations should
be followed.
 The ends of a wire should be periodically
reversed, thereby evenly distributing wear
on the wire mooring line.
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- When points of wear develop on wire
lines, the wire up to and including the
sections of wear should be cut off and
removed.
Since wire lines do deteriorate in service,
regular inspection is necessary to assess
damage to the wire and to perform remedial
action. The following guidelines with respect
to inspection are presented :
- The wire diameter should be checked. A
marked decrease in wire diameter is sign
that the line should be removed from
service. Diameter decrease could be
indicative of core deterioration, or internal
wear and wire failure or internal corrosion.
- The wires of the outer layer should be
inspected for wear and breaks. If
lubrication has been good and operating
conditions such that the inside wires are
intact, the reserve strength of the inside
wires is maintained. Thus, only an
appropriate strength reduction due to the
broken outer layer wires is deducted from
the rope strength.
- Inspect wire rope frequently, when in use,
for sign of rust, crushing and broken wires.
Wires should checked for abrasion. If the
outside wires show a considerable loss of
metallic area, the line should be removed
from service.
- Look for fatigue breaks at or near the
valley positions of the strands. If one
fatigue break of this type is noted, the line
should be removed from service, since
further deterioration of this type has
doubtlessly taken place where it cannot be
easily detected.
Replace wire if number of broken wires in
any length of eight times diameter equal to
ten percent of total numbers of wires.
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Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003 Page 5 of 6

Construction Of Wire Ropes in Marine Use Cargo Lashings

F.S.W.R. ( 6x 12 ) for size 8 – 16mm and 6x24
for larger sizes.

Figure 6-22.Two common types of wire rope.

Standing rigging.
In standing rigging the wire is none flexible,
and under circumstances it is a permanent Figure 6-23. Correct and incorrect methods of
fixture of the vessel in that it does nit or will measuring wire rope.
not be moving at any time.
There are exceptions to this, e.g. preventer back Strength Of Wire Ropes
stays to a mast when operating a heavy lift The breaking stress of Wire Ropes in tonnes is
derrick, ship’s guard rails being remove to allow given approximately by the following formula:
access. 1. For Wire Rope of ( 6 x 12 ) = 15 x D x D
Examples in use would be the shrouds to port and / 500
starboard of the mast, forestay, backstay, triatic or 2. For Wire Rope of ( 6 x 24 ) = 20 x D x D
what used to be called jumper stay, ship’s wire / 500
guard rails etc. 3. For Wire Rope of ( 6 x 37 ) = 21 x D x D
S.W.R 6 x 7 construction, / 500
S.W.R. 7 x 7 up to rope diameter 28 mm 4. And the Safe Working Load = 1/6 of the
S.W.R 6 x 19 construction,
breaking stress.
S.W.R.7 x 19 up to rope diameter 32 – 48 mm
S.W.R 7x 37 for rope diameter over 52mm
Example: Given a Wire Rope of ( 6 x 12 ) ,
Diameter = 20mm: Find the breaking stress and
Running rigging.
the S.W.L for the Wire Rope.
In running rigging the wire that passing over
the sheave or about a drum where safety of life
Breaking Stress = 15 x 20 x 20 / 500
concerned.
= 15 x 400 /500 = 12 tonnes.
Examples in use would be seen in life boat falls,
topping lift for derricks and cranes etc.
F.S.W.R 6 x 12 construction (Cargo lashing)
S.W. L =1 / 6 x Breaking Stress
F.S.W.R 6 x 18, (Cargo lashing)
= 12 / 6 = 2 tonnes.
F.S.W.R 6 x19, (Cargo lashing)
F.S.W.R 6 x 24, (Cargo handling)
Assignment :
F.S.W.R 6 x 36, ( Boat falls)
1. Calculate the breaking stress and Safe
F.S.W.R 6 x37 construction. (mooring)
working load , atleast for 3 different type
For Cargo Handling
of wires or ropes.
F.S.W.R 6x 24 ( in some cases like cranes,
2. Calculate the breaking stress and S.W.L
ESFSWR ) 6x37 may be used.
for the following ropes and wires.
For Mooring Ropes
a. Given a 40mm diameter
F.S.W.R. 6x37 for general use with
polypropylene rope, estimate its
powered winches ; 6x36 ropes with wire care
breaking stress and safe working
should be used for rope size up to 40 mm .
load.
For Boat Falls
b. Find the size of the smallest manila
( 17x7 ) or ESFSWR ( 6x36 ) for rope sizes up to
rope suitable for a load of 2 tonnes.
16mm and 6x36 for larger sizes.
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Malaysian Maritime Academy/Seamanship/May2003 Page 6 of 6

c. Find the breaking stress and safe

working load of 6 x 24 , 24mm
diameter wire rope.
d. Find the breaking stress and safe
working load of 6 x 37 , 20 mm
diameter wire rope.

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