Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures
Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the
effective use of Admixtures
Ravindra Gettu, Radhakrishna G. Pillai, Manu Santhanam and B. S. Dhanya
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Department of Civil Engineering, Chennai, India
Abstract
The present work examines the impacts – economic,
environmental and social – on sustainability that are
affected by the judicious use of chemical and mineral
admixtures in concrete. The paper covers the selection
of superplasticizer, optimization of the superplasticizer
dosage, and the development of flowing and self
compactable concretes. Later, the paper examines the
effect of the partial replacement of portland cement (OPC)
with mineral admixtures or supplementary cementitious
materials on durability parameters such as resistivity,
permeability, and non-steady state migration coefficient;
replacement of cement with Class C and F fly ash, and slags
are discussed. The paper makes a case for the optimal
usage of superplasticizers and mineral admixtures to
enhance the durability of concretes – which is essential
for more sustainable concrete technology.
Keywords
Sustainability, durability, admixtures, superplasticizers,
fly ash, slag.
Introduction
Economic, environmental and social are the three groups
of factors that impact sustainability, all three of which
need to be considered in the analysis of the sustainability
of any technology, product or process. It is also important
to note that the impacts can be either positive or negative.
When the technology of concrete is examined, it is seen
that through the effective use of chemical admixtures
(e.g., super plasticizers) and mineral admixtures (e.g., fly
ash and slag), sustainability can be boosted (i.e., made
more positive) in all these three important factors.
In terms of the economic impact, the benefits arise from
lower initial cost (due to substitution of cement with
supplementary materials, faster construction and better
mechanical properties), longer life (due to improved
durability) and reduced maintenance.
In terms of the environmental impact, the use of fly ash and
slag to partially replace cement reduces the CO2 emissions
and energy consumption associated with a unit quantity
of binder in the concrete. Further, the incorporation of
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superplasticizers permits the incorpopration of these
waste materials without increasing the water demand in
the concrete and lowers energy consumption (due to the
reduction or elimination of vibration).
In terms of the social impact, self-compacting and other
flowing concretes can be beneficial during construction
by reducing the noise pollution and disturbance to the
neighbours and by improving the working conditions
(resulting in lower of health costs and absenteeism).
Further, the increase in durability of the concrete and
the consequent increase in the useful life of a structure
reduces the worry and stress associated with repair and
maintenance works. Also, in the case of housing, longevity
of a building gives more peace and security to the owner.
This paper discusses various measures to select the
appropriate type and dosage of superplasticizer through
simple test procedures, and compatible combinations
of cement-superplasticizer. Examples of the use of
superplasticizer in self-compacting concrete for reducing
costs and environmental impact are also presented.
Further, the paper demonstrates the enhancement of
durability parameters upon the use of fly ash, slag, and
their combinations as mineral admixtures in concrete.
Thoughts on Concrete Sustainability
Sustainable development is that which meets the demands
of the present generation without negatively affecting the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Development has always involved construction, that of
housing, factories, schools and other buildings; bridges,
roads, ports and other transportation infrastructure;
and many other structures. As part of this ongoing
development, concrete has become the most popular and
widely used construction material in the world due to ease
in fabrication, mouldability, longevity and relatively low
cost.
As proposed earlier, all analyses of sustainability should
consider the three governing features: environmental,
economic and social impacts, all of which are equally
important for technology to be used effectively and
efficiently, in line with the so-called triple bottom line
of sustainability, instead of focussing exclusively on the
negative impact of the technology on the environment.
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Consequently, the following points are significant when
we discuss the sustainability of concrete technology.
Environmental Impact
Positive impact
ll Concrete has the lowest embodied energy of all the
commonly used construction materials. According
to Scrivener [1], the embodied energy (per unit mass)
of concrete is about 1 MJ/kg, which is much less than
that of steel (10-35 MJ/kg) or glass (15 MJ/kg). This
makes it a good choice when sustainable construction
is considered.
ll Raw materials are available in most places for
significant volumes of concrete to be produced for a
long time. This indicates that the construction sector
can be expected to continue using concrete for many
decades to come, in the forms and ways that are
similar to those of the present.
Both the above points imply that any improvement in the
way concrete interacts with the environment will have
significant impact on sustainability. It is emphasized,
consequently, that there is no such thing as an improvement
too small to consider implementing.
Negative impact
ll Cement production in the world is about 3 billion
tonnes per annum and seems to continue to increase.
The production of portland cement involves extremely
resource and energy intensive processes, where every
tonne of cement requires about 1.5 tonnes of raw
materials, such as limestone, clay, gypsum and water.
ll Cement manufacturing accounts for about 5% of CO2
emissions in the world. In the production of every
tonne of cement clinker approximately one tonne of
carbon dioxide (CO2) is release into the environment.
Thus, the manufacture of portland cement is a
significant contributor to atmospheric pollution and
the greenhouse effect.
ll Concrete usage estimates vary from 10 to 30 billion
tonnes per annum. In any case, the amount of material
is tremendous, and is more than any other family of
manufactured products.
These numbers emphasize the imperative and immediate
need for critically examining ways to decrease the
negative impact of concrete. Most importantly, lowering
the concrete usage, by any and all means possible, is
essential. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an important
tool for the quantitative evaluation of the negative impact
of concrete technology as such [2], or a concrete, structure
or project on the environment.
Economic Impact
Positive impact
ll Construction provides livelihood to a large percentage
of the population, especially in developing countries.
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The construction industry the world over employs
more people than any other sector and affects many
more people directly or indirectly. This is all the more
important for construction with concrete as it provides
the opportunity for unskilled and low-skilled labour
to be extensively employed. Very often governments
use construction projects to revive the economy and to
provide sustenance to poorer classes.
ll Construction spending continues to increase globally
at the rate of 3-4%. This implies that construction will
have a major impact on the economy and well being of
people for a long time.
ll Proper rational optimization of the concrete composition
with the appropriate use of mineral and chemical
admixtures can reduce the cost of the concrete used,
as well that of the entire project.
What becomes evident is that any savings in costs and any
increase in the economic yield through concrete usage are
important considering the humongous volumes involved.
Economic benefits can arise from using less material,
requiring less energy in the processes of manufacture
and construction, increasing the useful life of the concrete
in the application and helping reduce expenditure in the
construction and maintenance. Even in the case of using
a higher performance concrete with a higher unit cost,
the project may have tangible and intangible benefits (e.g.,
faster construction, earlier removal of formwork, fewer
defects, better finish) leading to an overall decrease in the
project cost.
Negative impact
ll Water ingress, carbonation, chloride and sulphate
attack, and alkali-aggregate reactions, coupled with
cracking and inadequate compactness, can lead to
deterioration that compromises service life and safety.
The nature of concrete construction is such that the
use of defective or inappropriate materials, techniques
or design leads to recurring and often exorbitant
expenditure, primarily due to the inability to replace
concrete parts or elements easily. Consequently, poor
construction with concrete can lead to high repair and
rehabilitation costs.
ll Cost cutting often results in bad quality. This is normally
because budget constraints, mismanagement and
unethical practices result in the use of material
components and concrete of lower quality and
performance. Consequently, the economic yield is
much lower than projected when the useful life of the
application is considered.
ll It can be said, without much doubt, that poor
construction has more economic consequences
in construction with concrete than with any other
construction material. These necessitate, especially in
countries where corruption is high or the construction
sector is less organized, less mechanized and/or more
 Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures
dependent on small enterprises, the better control
over the concrete performance through updated codes
of practice and elaborate tender documents.
The economic impact of construction with reference to
any project should be properly assessed through life cycle
cost analysis where the costs incurred over the service life
are taken into account, along with the initial costs.
Social Impact
Positive impact
ll Concrete is a long term investment that is within reach
for most due to the versatility of concrete construction
facilitated by the availability of different grades and
performance levels, possibility of phasing works, and
the ability to build and maintain with low costs and
unsophisticated technology. This is mostly evident in
the housing sector, where concrete gives the home-
owner the assurance that no further major investments
would be needed in his/her lifetime. Similarly, major
infrastructure nowadays is designed for life spans of
100+ years giving a sense of permanence and reflecting
the development of a nation.
ll Concrete provides a feeling of security to the user in
terms of safety against the elements of nature and
intruders. In many societies, moving into a “concrete”,
albeit reinforced concrete, building is considered a
status symbol and a demonstration of well being.
In most countries, it can be said, with some exaggeration,
that there is a strong dependence of the individual and
the society at large on concrete for welfare, health and
comfort.
Negative impact
llThe statement “Cities are becoming concrete jungles”
is now a cliché. However, it is made more and more apt
by haphazard unplanned construction with concrete,
which is practically impossible to undo, especially in
many countries and cities that are developing rapidly.
Since the reuse of concrete is not a large-scale reality
today, demolition generates a lot of debris, delays,
noise and pollution, in addition to risks for workers and
surrounding structures. Aesthetics are often ignored
in the name of austerity leading to dwelling areas
becoming uninspiring and even unpleasant.
ll Quality of concrete is not assured for the user. Since
concrete is not a well-defined product and does not
come with easy methods of determination of quality,
the owner or user is unable to verify if the performance
requirements are met and often goes with the cheapest
option.
ll Maintenance works can produce disruption of personal
and work routines leading to loss of time. Further, in the
case of housing, inhabitants suffer stress associated
with repair works, deteriorated state of buildings and
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the uncertainty of the remaining life.
Regulation and standardization, as well as the
encouragement of organized production of concrete and
reinforced concrete elements, will go a long way in helping
reduce the negative impact of construction on society.
More Sustainable Concrete
In a simplified, or rather over-simplified, statement
based on the above arguments, it can be said that that
future concrete construction should require less raw
material and energy, and should produce less waste and
emissions, while maximising the cost-effectiveness and
social wellbeing over the entire life of the application, in
order to become more sustainable.
Further, some (again, oversimplified!) action points
that could help in making concrete construction more
sustainable (inspired by Mehta) [3,4] are:
ll Use less clinker and water, and more “waste” material
in concrete production.
ll Increase the useful life of the project significantly
ll Increase overall cost-effectiveness
ll Improve defect-tolerance or insensitivity to defects,
especially in terms of durability
Choice of Type and Dosage of
Superplasticizer
The incorporation of a superplasticizer in concrete helps
make the technology more sustainable in many ways. In
the fresh state, the concrete is made more uniform and
homogenous while mixing. The reduction in the water
content of the concrete and higher workability leads to better
constructability, and enhanced mechanical properties and
durability. Furthermore, the superplasticizer becomes
essential when some fine waste materials (e.g., fly ash, rice
husk ash, slag) are used. It also increases the tolerance
to non-ideal aggregates and makes it easier for good
concrete to be produced even when the sand or coarse
aggregates are of poor gradation. Last but not the least,
the use of superplasticizers result in flowing concretes
that improve working conditions at the construction site
by decreasing noise and pollution, and demanding less
effort for placing and compacting.
Though the primary purpose of a superplasticizer is to
provide high workability, its incorporation in concrete
could also affect, sometimes negatively, the hardening
and hardened state properties [5–7]. Moreover,
phenomena such as loss in the workability of concrete,
rapid/slow setting, air entrainment, excessive bleeding
and segregation could result from the improper use of
superplasticizers. This section discusses the need for
a good understanding of the cement-superplasticizer
interaction for better high performance concrete, and
for the proper selection of superplasticizer-cement
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combinations. The methodology for the determination
of the saturation dosage of superplasticizer through
the Marsh cone test for different combinations is also
reviewed.
The effectiveness of the admixture depends on various
factors such as the chemical nature and molecular weight
of the polymer, particle size distribution and composition
of the binder, water-cement ratio, dosage of admixture,
temperature and environmental conditions [8]. Different
admixtures behave significantly differently from each
other even though they are nominally of the same
chemical family. Also, different cements of the same
type can behave very differently. Such discrepancies are
more evident in concretes with low water/cement ratios
and high admixture dosages. This implies that we need
simple and objective procedures to choose compatible
type and dosage of superplasticizer for a given cement.
Furthermore, such procedures can help increase the
cost-effectiveness since the products on the market can
vary in cost by up to four times, though with significantly
different efficacy.
Ideally, the incorporation of the superplasticizer should
make the cement paste system behave in a linearly viscous
manner [9]. However, the use of a viscometer to verify this
on the construction site is not practical due to the need
for sophisticated equipment and trained personnel. The
Marsh cone test is promoted here as a good alternative as
it is simple, fast and does not need expensive equipment.
Moreover, comparisons between the results from Marsh
cone tests and those from viscometer based studies
are available. In addition to optimizing the rheology of
the cement paste system, the superplasticizer should
help maintain the flowability of fresh concrete over the
necessary time period while not excessively affect its
setting time and early strength gain [10].
The Marsh cone test has been used to evaluate the
relative fluidity and to determine the saturation dosage
[11–16]; a brief description of the test method is given in the
following sections. Further details about the Marsh cone
test, influence of saturation dosage of superplasticizer on
the flow behaviour of the paste, effect of time on the flow
behaviour of superplasticized paste and the correlation
between empirical tests results with rheological
parameters using viscometer studies have been published
elsewhere [17].
In the present study, a metal Marsh cone (as per the
European EN 445 standard) with a nozzle of diameter 8 mm
has been employed (Figure 1). An initial volume of 1000 ml of
paste is poured into the cone and the time required for 500
ml to flow out of it is measured. The test gives the fluidity
of the paste in terms of the flow time; higher the flow time,
lower is the fluidity of the paste. As seen in Figure 1, the
saturation point is the dosage beyond which further addition
of superplasticizer does not increase fluidity significantly
but could result in segregation [13]; the saturation dosage
RN Raikar Memorial International Conference & Dr. Suru Shah Symposium on
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Fig. 1: Marsh cone apparatus and typical Marsh cone flow time
versus superplasticizer dosage (sp/c) curve
can be taken as the optimum superplasticizer dosage for
a given cement paste. The objective method proposed by
Gomes et al. [14] can be used for calculating the saturation
dosage; the internal angle (α) corresponding to each
data point is calculated and the superplasticizer dosage
corresponding to an internal angle of 140°± 10° is taken as
the saturation dosage.
The cement-superplasticizer combinations that do not
exhibit a well-defined saturation point may indicate
incompatibility. The superplasticizer dosage can be chosen
by considering the saturation point as the optimum for the
given cement type, water-cement ratio (w/c) and mineral
admixture content. Note that the superplasticizer dosage
is expressed here as the ratio, by weight, between the solid
material and the cement content, and is denoted as sp/c.
The paste is considered here as the phase that should
be studied for evaluating the above-mentioned aspects,
instead of the mortar, since the sand content is not defined
until the optimization of the concrete is complete, and the
a priori assumption of the mortar composition will limit
the scope of the optimization of the paste solely in terms of
the fluidity. Nevertheless, the methodology used here can
be applied to mortars and similar trends can be obtained.
The Marsh cone flow time curves for different types and
dosages of superplasticizers with a typical cement are
shown in Figure 2 along with the saturation dosages. The
results show that fluidity increases with an increase in
the dosage of superplasticizer up to the saturation point,
after which the curves remain relatively flat, for all the
superplasticizer types. However, the saturation dosage
varies with the type (and brand) of superplasticizer.
The lignosulphonate-based product LS-C1, though not
expected to be as effective as the other products, shows a
response that is similar to those of the naphthalenes (SNF)
and melamines (SMF). Most of the admixtures based on
naphthalenes and melamines exhibit similar flow time
curves, except for SNF-C1, which yields lower flow times
 Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures

test results for cements with different fineness. Though

the final flow time (or fluidity) is the same, the dosage
needed to achieve that level increases with the fineness
(see legend for Blaine fineness values in m2/kg). So,
when the cement is changed in a project, Marsh cone
tests can quickly indicate the changes to be made in the
superplasticizer dosage avoiding wastage in material
and time with respect to the production and supply of
concrete.
More importantly, in view of optimizing the composition
of concrete and its cost, it has to be recognized
that environmental conditions can also affect the
superplasticizer performance. Figure 4 shows Marsh cone
flow time curves with different dosages of superplasticizer
at various ambient temperatures. It can be observed that
the fluidity is lower (i.e., the flow time is higher) at higher
temperatures when the dosages of superplasticizer are
Fig. 2: Marsh cone flow time curves for different superplasticizers
low. The fluidity generally increases at higher temperature
with higher dosages of superplasticizer. The lower fluidity
and a comparatively low saturation superplasticizer dosage observed at higher temperatures and lower dosages of
of 0.16%. In comparison, the superplasticizers based on superplasticizer may be due to the higher water demand
polycarboxylates (PCEs) are more effective, as expected, of cement at higher temperatures and the insufficient
with lower saturation dosages than the other products; quantity of superplasticizer to disperse the cement
PCE-D1 gives the lowest saturation dosage of 0.07%. The particles efficiently.
pastes with low dosages of SMF-S1 exhibit high flow times
indicating poorer dispersion of the cement particles at
such dosages. Also, at saturation, superplasticizers have
different flow times indicating their different effectiveness.
These trends are in accordance with the basic actions of
the different families of superplasticizers [5]. Using the
information from curves such as those in Figure 2, the
dosage can be chosen for use in concrete and a cost-
effective choice of product can be made.
As mentioned earlier, the characteristics of the cement
can influence the effectiveness of the superplasticizer.
For example, higher fineness of cement can lead to more
water demand and superplasticizer adsorption due to
higher surface area. Consequently, finer cements require
higher superplasticizer dosages which can be anticipated
from the Marsh cone test, as seen in Figure 3 that shows

Fig. 3: Influence of cement fineness on fluidity of paste with

a PCE-based superplasticizer (Blaine fineness values in the Fig. 4: Effect of temperature on the fluidity of cement pastes with
legend are in m2/kg) (a) PCE and (b) SNF based superplasticizers

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There are two competing mechanisms coming to play in importantly, the variation of the Marsh cone flow time with
this system, the decrease in fluidity (or consistency) of the the superplasticizer dosage has the same trend as those
superplasticized cement paste due to a higher water demand exhibited by the yield stress and plastic viscosity. It can be
of the cement and the increase in fluidity probably due to a seen that all three parameters decrease with an increase
decrease in viscosity or an increase in the effectiveness of in superplasticizer dosage until the saturation dosage
the superplasticizer at higher temperature [18]. Generally, and remain practically constant after that. Figure 6 also
lower temperature decreases the fluidity, which cannot be shows the trend of the mini-slump spread, where it is
compensated with the addition of superplasticizer beyond seen to increase with the superplasticizer dosage until the
the saturation dosage. Higher temperature increases saturation dosage, after which it is practically constant.
superplasticizer adsorption, which increases the initial
fluidity and increases the superplasticizer demand for flow
retention over a certain range of temperature. Further, it
can be seen that the paste with the PCE is less sensitive to
temperature than the paste with SNF, as indicated by less
difference between the curves for the former.
The Marsh cone results have been correlated with those
from more rational tests with viscometers [9,16]. Using a
coaxial viscometer and applying different shear rates to the
paste and measuring the corresponding shear stresses,
the rheological behaviour can be studied. Generally, a
loading-unloading cycle is applied to the paste, preceded
by some pre-shearing, and the response during unloading
is used to determine the rheological parameters. Figure 5
shows the result of applying three cycles to a cement paste
with an SNF at a dosage slightly lower than the saturation
dosage. The third unloading curve has been fitted with
the Bingham model to get its parameters: the yield shear
stress and the plastic viscosity.
Fig. 6: Comparison of Marsh cone flow time with mini-slump spread
and rheological parameters

It has also been shown through creep-recovery and

stress relaxation tests, using a dynamic shear rheometer
[9], that the saturation superplasticizer dosage marks the
transition in the paste behaviour to a viscous response.
When the stress pattern shown in Figure 7 is applied, the
shear strain responses could be viscoelastic as in Figure
8(a) (SNF) or viscous as in Figure 8(b) (PCE) depending
on whether the dosage is below or above the saturation
dosage. Consequently, the two curves are different though
the superplasticizer dosage is the same, reflecting the
higher efficiency of the PCE to facilitate a linear viscous
paste at a lower dosage.

Fig. 5: Typical shear stress-strain rate cycles for a superplasticizer

cement pasteers

In order to validate the use of Marsh cone (and also

another simple test known as the mini-slump test),
relationships with the rheological parameters of cement
pastes have been established as shown in Figure 6 [10].
It can be seen that the Marsh cone flow time increases Fig. 7: Applied creep-recovery stress pattern in a dynamic shear
as the yield stress and plastic viscosity increase. More rheometer

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 Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures

Having established that the saturation dosage from the

Marsh cone test denotes the transition to viscous behaviour
in the paste, it is necessary to know if there is direct
interdependence between the behaviour of the paste and
concrete. In general, there is good correlation between the
change in slump of the concrete and paste flow time with
superplasticizer dosage, as seen in Figure 9. Therefore,
the use of the saturation dosage of superplasticizer in
the concrete results in a good slump to start with. It
also facilitates fewer trials and faster mix optimization.
Nevertheless, the presence of aggregates with high
absorption capacity can increase the superplasticizer
demand in concrete, and this may have to be accounted for
in the final mixes. There is sufficient evidence that the use
of a rational method for choosing the superplasticizer type
and dosage can help achieve the desired level of workability Fig. 9: Correlation between the flow of paste and slump of
in concrete without wasting material and money. concrete

Effect of Fly Ash and Slag on concrete

durability
This section of the paper discusses studies that are
closely related to the sustainability of concrete technology
in two aspects: the use of waste material in concrete
and the increase in the durability of reinforced concrete
structures.
Test variables and materials
The work presented here deals with the effects of fly ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly  ash-slag
combinations on concrete durability parameters. Various
concretes were prepared using these materials and the
Wenner resistivity tests, Rapid Chloride Permeability
Tests (RCPT), and Accelerated Chloride Migration Tests
(ACMT) were performed.
The experimental programme included 13 concrete mixes
having a water binder ratio of 0.5 and total binder content
310  kg/m3. In addition to the ordinary portland cement
(53 grade, conforming to Indian Standard IS 12269),
three mineral admixtures (i.e., slag, class C fly ash,
class F fly ash) were used at 0, 15 and 30% replacement.
Table 1 provides the physical and chemical properties of
the binders used. Note that slag from two sources were
employed.
All the concretes were prepared with a fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate ratio of 40:60. The coarse aggregates

Table 1
Specific gravity and Blaine specific surface of binders
as per IS 4031

Specific surface
Binders Specific gravity
(m2/kg)

Class F fly ash 2.49 330

Class C fly ash 2.46 390

Slag (Sources A & B) 2.86 360

Fig. 8: Creep and recovery of pastes with 0.05% dosage of (a) SNF
Ordinary portland cement 3.15 340
and (b) PCE

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used were combinations of 20 mm down and 10 mm
down fractions, in proportions of 60:40. A sulphonated
naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF) based admixture was
used to obtain slump values between 80-150 mm.
Wenner resistivity test and results
This method is standardized as ASTM G57 - 95a [19] for
the measurement of soil resistivity. Although not yet
standardized for the characterization of concrete, the
test method is widely used [20-22]. Andrade et. al. [22]
have developed a tool to predict the service life based on
resistivity test.
Figure 10 shows the experimental; setup used for
performing the 4-probe Wenner resistivity test. In this
configuration, four equally spaced point electrodes
are pressed on to the concrete surface. The two outer
electrodes induce current whereas the two inner
electrodes measure the potential drop. The resistivity, ρ, is
equal to 2πaR, where α is the spacing between the adjacent
electrodes and R is the resistance (measured as the ratio
of potential difference to current). The term ρ is dependent
on the quantity and conductivity of pore solution and size,
interconnectivity and tortuosity of pores [23]. A resistivity-
based classification criterion for concrete quality has been
developed by the RILEM TC 230-PSC [24], Committee on
Performance Specifications for Concrete (see Table 2).
Due to the pozzolanic reaction of mineral admixtures,
there is more calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) formation and
a decrease in the calcium hydroxide content. This leads
to more impermeable pore structure and more compact
interfaces between the cement paste and the aggregates.
Further, the resistivity of the concrete is also increased by
the modification of the microstructure. Since the corrosion
of steel reinforcement in concrete is an electrochemical
process, any significant increase in the resistivity of the
concrete can be expected to retard the corrosion of the
rebars.
For the present study, the resistivity measurements were
made on 150 mm cubes. The cubes were fully saturated
Fig. 10: The Wenner resistivity test setup
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Session I Paper T8
Table 2
Concrete quality classification based on resistivity [24]
Resistivity (kΩ cm) Concrete Quality
> 100 Good
50 - 100 Normal
10 - 50 Poor
< 10 Very poor
so that the effect of pore solution is nullified. Thus, the
resistivity obtained can be deemed to be an indicator of
the pore structure development and the pore solution
conductivity.
In this study, twelve resistivity measurements
were taken on the six sides of each cube specimen
(150×150×150mm) and the average values are presented
in Figure 11. The black and grey bars indicate results
from specimens with curing period of 28 and 90 days,
respectively; the regions between the horizontal lines
indicate the four classifications (i.e., ‘Good’, ‘Normal’,
‘Poor’, and ‘Very poor’) as shown in Table 2. Figure 11
shows that the concrete with no mineral admixture
(i.e., plain OPC mix) exhibits the worst performance
(i.e., lowest electrical resistivity).
In general, it is observed that the resistivity is enhanced
as the cement replacement level by the mineral
admixture increases from 15 to 30%, and further to
50%. Among the concrete mixes tested, most mixes
fell in the ‘Poor’ category; only two concretes could
be classified as ‘Good’, with 50% slag and 50% class
F fly ash (both with 90  days of curing). When cured
for only 28 days, these two concretes exhibited only
‘Normal’ and ‘Poor’ performances, respectively. No
significant increase in resistivity is observed by partial
replacement of cement with only Class C fly ash and 28
days of curing. However, by curing these Class C fly ash
concretes for up to 90 days, the resistivity increased
slightly. The replacement with a combination of 20%
fly ash and 20% slag also resulted in an increase in the
resistivity. In addition, as the curing period is increased
from 28 to 90 days, the fly ash mixes exhibited better
durability performances than the OPC mixes.
In general, increasing the mineral admixture content
seems to be the strategy to adopt for enhanced durability,
especially when fly ash and/or slag are used as mineral
admixtures. Moreover, it may worth examining the
appropriateness for considering a later reference age
for durability characterization since the interior of the
concrete will remain moist for several months under
normal conditions. Insistence on longer curing periods
may not be implementable due to practical reasons.
 Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures
Fig. 11: Wenner resistivity test results
Rapid chloride permeability test and results
The Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) was originally
proposed by Whiting in 1981 [25] and is standardized by
ASTM (ASTM C 1202) [26] and AASHTO (AASHTO 277)
[27]. Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram of the RCPT
set up.
This test involves the application of a potential of 60 Volts
on a vacuum saturated cylindrical concrete specimen for
6 hours. For each mix, three specimens of 50 mm thickness
were cut from a cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height
200 mm. The curved surface of the specimens was coated
with epoxy. Then, the specimens were vacuum saturated
with Ca(OH)2 solution. Then, one side of the specimen was
exposed to 3%  NaCl solution and the opposite side was
exposed to 0.3M NaOH solution. The 60 V potential gradient
is applied across the specimen and the resulting current
is measured at an interval of 30 minutes. From the data,
the total charge passed (in Coulombs) is calculated. Table
3 indicates the classification of chloride ion penetrability
in concrete based on the charge passed as given in ASTM
C 1202.
Fig. 12: Schematic of Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) setup
Organised by
India Chapter of American Concrete Institute
Table 3
Concrete quality classification based on resistivity [24]
Total charge passed
Chloride ion penetrability
(Coulombs)
> 4000 High
2000 - 4000 Moderate
1000 - 2000 Low
100 - 1000 Very Low
< 100 Negligible
Figure 13 provides the average permeability of three
specimens of various concretes. The black and grey bars
indicate results from specimens with curing period of 28 and
90 days, respectively. In Figure 13, the regions between the
horizontal lines indicate the four classifications (i.e., ‘High’,
‘Moderate’, ‘Low’, ‘Very low’, and ‘Negligible’ permeabilities)
as shown in Table 3. It should be noted that the lower the
permeability, the better will be the quality of the concrete.
Among the 13 types of concretes cured for 28  days,
‘Moderate’, ‘Low’, and ‘Very low’ permeabilities were
exhibited by 5, 5 and 3 concretes, respectively. Considering
28 days of curing (i.e., black bars), almost all concretes
exhibited lower permeability with the replacement of fly
ash and/or slag. For example, concretes with 15 and 30%
slag replacement exhibited either ‘Low’ or ‘Moderate’
permeabilities, and concretes with 50% slag replacement
exhibited ‘Very low’ permeability.
As observed in the case of Wenner resistivity data, an
increase in the curing period from 28 to 90 days, resulted
in reduction in permeability – indicating an increase in
concrete quality. As concluded earlier, both the addition
of mineral admixtures and increase in curing period
significantly enhance the durability of concrete systems
exposed to chloride environments.
Fig. 13: Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) results
9
Technical Papers
Fig. 14: Schematic of Accelerated Chloride Migration Test
(ACMT) setup
Accelerated chloride migration test (ACMT) and
results
The ACMT was developed by Tang and Nilsson in 1992
[28]. This test was standardized by the Nordic Innovations
Centre, Norway, as NT BUILD 492 [29]. The general test
principles, specimens and specimen preparation methods
are similar to that of the RCPT. However, differences exist
in the magnitude and duration of potential gradient and
the concentration of solutions used. Figure 14 shows the
ACMT set up.
The ACMT uses a 30  Volt potential gradient across the
vacuum saturated concrete specimen, one side of which
is in contact with 0.3M NaOH solution and the other
side with 10%  NaCl solution. The potential is applied for
a duration that varies from 6 to 96 hours, with 24 hours
being most common. After this, the specimens are split
and silver nitrate solution is sprayed at the split surface.
Chlorides at the split surface react with silver nitrate and
form white precipitate of silver chloride. The depth of the
silver chloride indicates the depth of chloride penetration,
from which the non-steady state diffusion coefficient
can be calculated [29]. Based on the non-steady state
migration coefficients obtained from the ACMT, the RILEM
TC 230 PSC [24] is developing a classification criteria
(unpublished) for concrete quality (See Table 4).
Table 4
Concrete quality classification based on resistivity [24]
Non-steady state migration
Concrete quality
coefficient (× 10 -12 m2/s)
<2 Very good
2–8 Good
8 – 16 Normal
> 16 Poor
RN Raikar Memorial International Conference & Dr. Suru Shah Symposium on
10
Session I Paper T8
Fig. 15: Accelerated Chloride Migration Test (ACMT) results
The results of RCPT and ACMT depend on the composition
of the pore solution, as well as on the pore structure.
The addition of mineral admixtures can change the pore
solution composition and enhance the chloride binding
capacity [30]. The ACMT results presented in Figure 15
strongly supports this argument.
Figure 15 provides the non-steady state migration
coefficient of concretes with various levels of replacement
of cement with fly ash and slag; average of three test
results are provided. The horizontal line indicates the four
quality levels shown in Table 4. As with the case of Wenner
resistivity and RCPT data, the ACMT data also indicate that
the replacement with mineral admixtures and enhanced
curing period improve the resistance of concrete against
chloride penetration. For example, in the case of Slag B,
the quality for concretes with 15, 30, and 50% replacement
is ‘Poor’, ‘Normal’, and ‘Good’, respectively. For the case
of concretes with class F fly ash, it is observed that more
than 28 days of curing is required to enhance the quality
from ‘Normal’ to ‘Good’. With 28 days of curing, the best
performance is exhibited by concretes with 50% slag,
50% class F fly ash, and combination of 20% slag and 20%
class F fly ash. Upon extended curing up to 90 days, all the
three ternary blends tested exhibited ‘Good’ quality.
Conclusions
It has been put forward in this paper that the judicious
use of a superplasticizer, fly ash and slag can contribute
significantly in making the concrete more sustainable.
In terms of the environmental benefits, the use of the
superplasticizer, fly ash and slag can lead to savings in
raw material due to enhancement of the properties and
service life, can facilitate the use of mineral admixtures
and can decrease the energy requirement for placing
concrete. The economic benefits include those due to the
decrease in labour requirement, extension of service life,
faster construction and savings in material. The social
impact can also be positive due to the faster construction
ADVANCES IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY OF CONCRETE
 Improving the Sustainability of Concrete Technology through the effective use of Admixtures
of structures, reduction in noise and improvement of
the work environment, less repair, better aesthetics and
higher quality.
Acknowledgements
The first part of this paper is based on material developed initially
for keynotes lectures given by the first author at the Concrete
Institute of Australia Conference, Concrete 2011: Building a
Sustainable Future, held at Perth, Australia, in 2011 and at
the 3rd International conference on Sustainable Construction
Materials Technology, SCMT3 held at Kyoto, Japan in 2013, giving
a review of research works in each of which the first author with
his co-workers have attempted to identify simple methods of
assessing and demonstrating the benefits of superplasticizers
over the past fifteen or so years. The second part of the paper
is based on ongoing work at IIT Madras for assessing the effect
of mineral admixtures on durability parameters of concrete for
which partial funding from the Lafarge Research Centre (France)
is gratefully acknowledged. The authors sincerely thank many
project associates, students and staff who have participated in
these studies.
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