Work Addiction in the Age
of Information Technology:
Bonnie Garson
Bonnie Garson is Associate Professor,
Reinhardt College, Georgia, USA, and was
Visiting Professor, IIM Bangalore, from June to
September 2004. bonniegarson@yahoo.com
IIMB Management Review, March 2005
Addiction is any process over
An Analysis
‘The new economy democratizes and glamorizes imbalanced lifestyles.
Extreme work, like extreme sports, is spreading.’
– Badaracco, 1999, ‘How Free are Free Agents?’
T he International Labour Organisation studied 240 countries between 1980
and 1997. It found that US workers put in an average of 1,966 hours at
work in 1997, which is 83 hours more than in 1980, while
Japanese workers, once considered notorious workaholics, reduced their
number of hours worked from 2,121 in 1980 to 1,889 in 1987. Although
working more hours, American productivity growth has slowed from 6.8% in
manufacturing in the first three months of 1999 to a rate of 4.8% in September
19991. According to a study reported in 1992 by the Economic Policy
Institute2, the average American worker logs in about 140 more hours on the
job each year than two decades ago. Between 1980 and 1985, workers’
compensations claims related to stress tripled. According to Fassel 3, workers
who regularly work long hours end up costing their company money.
Working more may not translate into being more productive. Loss of peak
performance may be the cost of having workaholics in the organisation. Work-
addictive behaviours on the part of managers and employees alike may lessen
productivity and interfere with the development of skilful, highly motivated,
collaborative, and synergistic teams. Many popular writers 4, and a variety of
newspaper accounts5 have remarked on the increase in the number of hours
worked and a rising incidence of work addiction in the US workforce.
Much has been written about work addiction, but little research has been
conducted into the phenomenon. Numerous anecdotal accounts of the negative
results of work addiction and prescriptions for ‘recovery’ are based upon
personal experience rather than on controlled studies. This paper seeks to
activate research by (a) defining work addiction, (b) describing types of
workaholics and their characteristics, (c) describing the cultural and
organisational trends relating to work addiction, (d) describing the potentially
detrimental impact of work addiction on the addict, the job, and the family,
15
 which we are powerless. It masks
feelings so that the addict does not
have to deal with them, dulls and
distorts reality, and interferes with
accurate information processing.
According to Shaef, work addiction
is one of a number of process
addictions that a person can get
‘hooked’ on.
(e) summarising prescriptions for change, and (f)
recommending future research.
Defining Work Addiction
In order to examine the effects of work addiction, we must first
define it. Addiction, as defined by Schaef 6, is ‘any process over
which we are powerless. It takes control of us, causing us to do
and think things that are inconsistent with our personal values
and leading us to become progressively more compulsive and
obsessive.’ Addiction masks feelings so that the addict does not
have to deal with them, dulls and distorts reality, and interferes
with accurate information processing. According to Shaef, work
addiction is one of a number of process addictions, including
accumulating things, money, gambling, sex, religion, and worry
which are a specific series of actions or interactions that a person
can get ‘hooked’ on.
In 1971, Oates7 coined the word ‘workaholism’ to mean
addiction to work. He referred to it as a dependence on
overwork or a compulsion similar to dependence on
overeating (food addiction) and psychologically similar to
drug dependency. Similar to the alcoholic and drug addict,
the workaholic ‘is a person whose need for work has
become so excessive that it creates noticeable disturbance
or interference with his bodily health, personal happiness,
and interpersonal relations, and with his smooth social
functioning’. Work addiction, like food addiction and
alcoholism, is about escaping reality.
Workaholics are people who devote more time and thought to
their work than the situation demands8. The typical
behavioural characteristics of addiction are: (1) lives that are
unmanageable and powerlessness to control the addiction,
16
Characteristics of Workaholics
(2) increased involvement in the addictive process, (3)
becoming dominated by the addiction at the expense of
personal values and morality, (4) self-centredness,
dishonesty, and having an illusion of control, and (e)
progressive isolation from family, friends, and society9.
Dependency on the amount of time spent working appears to
be the defining feature of work addiction10. The Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 11 specifies seven
diagnostic criteria of ingestive (substance) dependence, two
of which were widely observed in clinical and practitioner
accounts of work addiction: (1) work addicts spend a great
deal of time in work activities, and (2) they give up important
social, family, or recreational activities in order to maintain
their work time. In a study12 of senior-level executives in the
Fortune 500 and Service 500 lists, the average workweek was
56 hours in 1979 and 60 hours in 1984. Doerfler and
Kammer13 found 23% of their sample of attorneys,
physicians, and psychologists/therapists to be workaholics.
According to Joyner14, 73 million-plus baby-boomers
perfected the 50-hour workweek.
The consensus appears to be that regularly working more than 50
hours per week, rarely taking vacations, a high frequency of
thinking about work while not at work, and a high frequency of
getting up early in the morning are the initial signs of work
addiction. Much of the popular literature suggests that work
addicts are mentally engaged in or obsessed with work even
when they are not working 15. Workaholics Anonymous16 suggests
that the following employee behaviours and characteristics are
signs of work addiction:
• getting more excited about work than anything else
• regularly working through lunch or reading work-
related materials during meals
• working or calling the office frequently during time off
• difficulty delegating work to others
• working more than 55 hours per week
• working far beyond what is reasonably expected to
meet the job requirements
• finding it ‘necessary’ to work late and on weekends
• appearing exhausted or high strung
• seeming not to have a personal life outside of work
• taking work home regularly
• underestimating how long a project will take and then
rushing to complete it.
Work Addiction in the Age of Information Technology: An Analysis
Workaholics seem to make invidious comparisons
between themselves and others as to the amount of work
accomplished. The workaholic tends to talk about the long
hours s/he spends at work, and compare the quality of his
or her work favourably with that of others17.
The chronic workaholic is an around-the-clock person
whose life is his or her work. Work addiction becomes a
way of life, leading to the erosion of other values, family,
friendships, and spiritual associations. Excessive work
interferes with intimate relationships, with close
friendships, and collegial relationships. Some workaholics
fall in love with their jobs and the rewards it brings.
Workaholics addicted to success neglect their private lives.
Workaholics are typically people-pleasers and say ‘yes’ to
avoid rejection. They are other-directed, that is, their
behaviour is determined by external factors rather than by the
autonomous self. Many are anxious, insecure, propelled into
working harder by feelings of inadequacy, and compulsive
overcommitment. Workaholics tend to be perfectionists,
demanding the same perfection from those around them as
from themselves. Perfectionist workaholics prefer to do
everything themselves rather than to delegate. They are
usually disorganised, inefficient, and over-controlling18.
Oates19 described four types of workaholics. While the
‘dyed-in-the-wool’ workaholic has all the characteristics
described above, the ‘situational workaholic’ is new on the
job, overworks out of real need or for financial reasons,
and will correct this course of action as s/he becomes
established. The ‘pseudo workaholic’ appears to have
‘dyed-in-the-wool’ characteristics, but they are actually
superficial—they are competitive accommodations to the
organisational culture and/or behaviours to move up the
ladder. The ‘escapist posing as a workaholic’ would rather
be on the job than at home. A chaotic marriage or other
problems create the preference for work.
Machlowitz20 described the positive workaholic as content
with the lifestyle, and asserted that the desire of
workaholics to work long hours and to work hard is
intrinsic. Their work habits usually exceed the demands of
the job and the expectations of the people for whom they
work. Those who portray a positive work addiction
describe joy, creativity, and an urge for control over their
work, and the drive to get to the top of their field.
Machlowitz concluded that reinforcement for workaholism
includes acclaim, passionate involvement and gratification,
high income, and aesthetic pleasure in work.
IIMB Management Review, March 2005
The American culture attitude
Workaholics are typically other-
directed, that is, their behaviour is
determined by external factors rather
than by the autonomous self. Many
are anxious, insecure, and propelled
into working harder by compulsive
overcommitment. Workaholics tend to
be perfectionists, but are usually
disorganised, inefficient and over-
controlling.
Developmental Stages of Work Addiction
Clinical research indicates that process addictions like
workaholism tend to emanate from the family of origin 21. Work
addiction has hidden beginnings in economic, cultural, and
emotional deprivation in childhood. According to Ulrich and
Dunne22, ‘family dynamics from the past, as well as those from
the present, have a dramatic impact not only on the career issues
faced by the individual but upon the work setting as well’.
Typically, the workaholic has been brought up in a family in
which: (1) one or both parent(s) was workaholic, or alcoholic, (2)
family dysfunctionality included oppressive rules that prevented
open expression of feeling and direct discussion of personal and
interpersonal problems; set up unrealistic standards of
perfectionism; and in which approval of the child by the parent
required continuing good grades and acts of accomplishment 23. In
a person’s 20s and 30s, workaholism can become acute in the
presence of institutional deprivation of approval and appreciation.
It also becomes aggravated in a person’s 40s and early 50s if
there is a health crisis and/or interpersonal crisis. If workaholism
is not reversed or arrested in the 40s and early 50s, it can become
chronic and may led to death in one form or another in the late
50s and/or 60s24.
Organisational Culture
Organisations promise power, money, and influence; some
offer recognition, approval, and caring, which some people
long for and have not received in their families. Schaef and
Fassel25 assert that when an organisation perceives itself as
‘one big happy family’, it becomes an addictive agent. The
hooks are recognition, approval, and caring, as well as
17
 towards the workaholic differs from
that towards the alcoholic, despite
their similarities. Excessive work is
rewarded and praised. Many
workaholics were brought up with the
Protestant Work Ethic, which
upholds industriousness as a
pseudo-religious idea, and sees
ambition and success as signs of
God’s favour.
benefits, bonuses, and tenure. The compulsion to work is
compounded by growing on-the-job trappings such as laundry
service, company-paid meals, coffee bars, on-site gyms, and
day care centres. The workaholic seems to become wedded to
work. The work hard, play hard culture at companies like
Nike, Netscape and Harley-Davidson has bred fierce
company loyalty, with some employees even sporting tattoos
of their company logo. Loyalty to the organisation becomes a
‘fix’ when individuals become preoccupied with maintaining
it. Employees regularly brag of eighty-hour weeks and around
the clock programming sessions26.
For many workaholics, time with the family is unexciting and
bland compared to work. For others, work is an escape or
avoidance of problems outside the office. Crandall 27 called this
process ‘substitutability, which is the ability of one activity (or
more) to replace another activity while providing the same
satisfaction’. Some workaholics are not energised by work
because what is driving them is their need to avoid something.
The American culture attitude towards the workaholic differs
from that towards the alcoholic, despite their similarities.
Excessive work is rewarded, praised, expected, and often
demanded of a person, while alcoholism is universally
censured. Workaholism is the most socially accepted
addiction because it is ‘productive’. However, workaholism
may be as crippling to the individual, the organisation, and
the family as alcohol and drug addiction 28. Many workaholics
were brought up with the Protestant Work Ethic, which places
a taboo on idleness, regards waste as a vice, censures
complacency and failure, upholds industriousness as a
pseudo-religious idea, and sees ambition and success as signs
of God’s favour.
18
In many organisations, the corporate culture rewards the
person who puts in the long hours. Worth 29 found that nine
out of ten companies will promote the person who is
always there, in the belief that the person’s example will
filter down to those beneath. E-mail, cell phones, pagers,
microcomputers, and other technologies make employees
accessible and accountable to bosses and customers 24
hours a day. Organisations seem to perceive workaholics
as a core of hard workers who are totally dedicated to the
company. The Exec-U-Net survey30 found that one in four
executives considers him/herself to be a workaholic.
However, as the International Labour Organisation found,
working more doesn’t translate into being more productive 31.
Corporate restructuring, buy-outs, and downsizing have
encouraged many people to work hard. The uncertainties that
accompany dramatic changes may create a workforce that
appears to be working harder, but may well be preoccupied,
so that concentration and productivity ebb. Burke 32 calls this
phenomenon the ‘acceleration syndrome’, where life is in a
constant state of overdrive, which can be addictive. He refers
to the modern age Promethean spirit, as restless energy that
preys on speed records and shortcuts, existing only for the
moment and the quick fix. With it all, we have become less
spontaneous and joyful. The workaholic may not be able to
see the importance of fellowship, hobbies, and/or rest. S/he
may be an ascetic, enjoying nothing except an occasional
good meal, constant supplies of work, and a comfortable bed
to fall into from sheer exhaustion33. When workaholics are
most ‘into’ their addiction, they feel most alive, even though
it might be killing them. The fix may not be the work itself,
but the adrenaline that accompanies the work. Fassel 34
reported data suggesting that one might become physically
addicted to certain substances produced by the body, such as
adrenaline, noradrenaline, and endorphins. For the
workaholic, the weekend may cause headaches, depression,
and gastrointestinal symptoms35.
Results of Work Addiction
The Individual
A workaholic environment may create stress and burnout. Eric
Erikson described a type of depression as ‘work paralysis’, in
which a person has striven so long that the organism rebels and
refuses to produce any more 36. There seems to be a close
association between the way Erikson described work paralysis
and the research on burnout 37. Burnout is a condition that occurs
over time, due to an excess of stress and fatigue. It is a
Work Addiction in the Age of Information Technology: An Analysis
wearing down and wearing out, an exhaustion born of
excessive demands that may be self-imposed or externally
imposed by families, jobs, friends, lovers, values systems,
or society. The burnout process typically begins when the
individual tries to meet expectations by working longer
hours. Regularly working long hours means more exposure
to normal stress, which compounds and drains the person’s
finite ‘adaptive energy’. The process becomes cyclic – the
drain of energy reduces the ability to reach goals, and
inadequate performance causes the person to work harder
and further deplete his or her energy. The workaholic
caught in this burnout cycle typically refuses to take time
out to recover. The cycle of frustration-exhaustion-
dysfunction will ultimately produce chronic and severe
problems, including the depletion of coping mechanisms,
which eventually affect the person’s motivations, attitudes
and behaviour. The potential results of burnout are chronic
fatigue, and a variety of psychological, medical and
behavioural problems ranging from irritation, depression,
and loss of appetite, to violence, alcoholism, mental
illness, and heart disease38. These problems may ultimately
force the person off the job. Workaholics may also overuse
health insurance, file personal injury lawsuits, or submit
numerous stress-related workers’ compensation claims39.
The Family
The clinical and anecdotal reports suggest a reciprocal
relationship between the workaholic and his or her job and
family life. Two factors have been considered: (a) the
effect of family on work, and (b) the effect of work on the
family. Some workaholics substitute work, from which
they receive continuing rewards, for an unhappy family
life. Bartolome40 found that workaholic executives who
were immobilised in their personal relationships focused
on the negative consequences of exploring issues with their
spouses, avoiding the discomfort of the exchange per se.
While the workaholic avoids personal conflict at home, he
or she typically avoids it at work as well.
There is little leisure shared among family members when
there is a workaholic member. Leisure, vacations, weekend
rest and/or fun seem to run against the grain of the
workaholic. If the workaholic is coerced by the family into a
leisure situation, he or she may become depressed, irritable, or
even have a heart attack 41. Relations with friends and family
become increasingly superficial 42. A study in marital distress
reported a loss of $6.8 billion in productivity43.
The children of workaholics find they have to make an
appointment with the workaholic parent for time44. When
IIMB Management Review, March 2005
The workaholic caught in the burnout
cycle typically refuses to take time out to
recover. The cycle of frustration-
exhaustion-dysfunction will ultimately
produce chronic and severe problems,
which could force the person off the job.
Workaholics may also overuse health
insurance, file personal injury lawsuits, or
submit numerous stress-related workers’
compensation claims.
they do have time with the parent, he or she is usually
preoccupied with something, in a hurry, or irritable. The
workaholic parent becomes a tough master to the child.
Messages about work before play, perfectionism in grades,
and so forth, are frequent. Typically, the workaholic parent
teaches the child to overvalue work and creates a little
workaholic. Workaholics bring their work home regularly
and continue the work pace there. They may further isolate
themselves from their families in their new virtual office.
The Changing Organisation
Although the culture of many organisations continues to
support workaholism, some executives want their employees
to lead balanced lives. Recent reports indicate that change
may be on the horizon. In some work environments, managers
who brag about their long hours of work may be perceived as
disorganised45. For example, Ernst & Young, an international
consulting firm, established a committee that oversees
employee workloads. The objective of the committee is to
prevent workaholism. The company has also limited the hours
employees can access the job site, e-mail and voice mail.
Ernst & Young maintain a policy freeing employees from
checking their e-mail and voice mail while on vacation and on
weekends.
The workaholic may be ‘rescued’ by the virtual office.
Estimates project that telecommuting will increase by 20%
each year46. According to a poll of human resource
executives, telecommuting is likely to be the most
important workplace trend of the 21 st century47. The virtual
office may be the new trend that either catapults the
employee into doing more work or provides the
opportunity for balancing work and the family.
19
 The challenge for leaders is to create an
organisational climate that is conducive to
productivity without being detrimental to
employees and their families.
Suggestions found in the popular press
for reducing workaholism include
implementing family-friendly policies and
creating an organisational team spirit,
which allows employees to cover for each
other when they have personal
commitments.
Practical Implications
The challenge for leaders is to create an organisational climate
that is conducive to productivity without being detrimental to
employees and their families. Suggestions found in the popular
press for reducing workaholism include the following:
• Encourage employees to balance their lives between work
and family. Make balance a part of the culture. Implement
family-friendly policies. Respect time off. Avoid calling/
paging employees while they are on vacation or on the
weekends. Insist that employees take their vacations.
• Create an organisational team spirit, which allows
employees to cover for each other when they have personal
commitments. Destroy the myth that work addiction is an
acceptable symbol for loyalty, efficiency and productivity.
• Use technology such as teleconferencing to reduce
travel to meetings. Provide travel benefits to partners of
frequent travellers.
• Create success opportunities that do not necessarily
require climbing the managerial ladder.
• Incorporate work addiction awareness into the coaching
and/or mentoring process.
Implications for Future Research
The objective of this article was to review the current
literature related to work addiction. It was found that the
preponderance of information was reported in the popular
press and little was to be found in the way of qualitative or
20
quantitative research. This review summarised available
information suggesting a definition of work addiction, the
possible causes and stages of development of work addiction,
the likely characteristics of a workaholic, and speculation as
to the type of work culture, that may trigger the workaholic
personality. Scientific knowledge is lacking in these areas.
Both organisations and their employees would benefit if there
were more knowledge about work addiction. It is
recommended that empirical studies be designed to explore
work addiction from the standpoint of productivity, creativity,
burnout and healthcare costs. Organisational behaviour
research done so far has tended to treat the problem of work
addiction in isolation from the total life space of the
individual48. The results of the present review suggest that the
employee be viewed in the context of family and personal
concerns, although doing so may require attitudinal change
on the part of researchers as well as of employers. Further
study of work addiction may make an important contribution
to the field of organisational behaviour, by establishing an
empirical foundation for understanding workaholism and its
consequences both for individuals and for organisations.
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5 Joyner, ‘All-work is American Way’; ‘Gen-Xers Focus on Life
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IIMB Management Review, March 2005
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Reprint No 05101
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