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    La dimensión morfológica

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    CARMONA, The Morphological Dimension

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    La dimensión morfológica

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    Download as pdf
    306 views34 pages

    CARMONA, The Morphological Dimension

    Uploaded by

    Pilar Andrea González Quiroz
    La dimensión morfológica

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    The Morphological Dimension This chaper focuses on urban design's morpologial mension ~ the configuration of wban frm and space, and the spatial patra ofinfatotore that sport Tere re essentially two types of urban space system — on is where bwildings define spce: the other where baldigs are objects space (Box 4.1). The former picaly consist of buldings a constituent pars of urban Boek, with aban blocks defining and enclosing enteral urban space — at shorthand, we refer to hs a8 uadtonal urban space, The Inter tpiclly conse offoetnding bung im land. scape seins ~ we rete ths as Moernis bas space ‘During the second half of the twentieth cent), he morphologic sructire of the puble space neta ‘hanged in highly sgniant ways: ‘From buildings embedded in urban blocks defining secs an equres to bulldigs a separate feesanding ‘ohjc-bulkings standing in an amorphous ‘spac’ From inexcomected,sanscale Aly meshed set ideo larger scale ond necworkssurounding super- bloeks with aiscontinuosrond layouts within (see Pope 1995, Bentley 199). ‘This chpter isin four main pars. The morphoogicl traaforation ace dgcssed nthe second part. The third nd fourth parts ech disuss aspects ofthe comtemporary reacion, Fast however, dicesion of urban morphology esesay URBAN MORPHOLOGY Urban morphology — the study of change in the phic foem and shape of selements overtime ~ focuses 00 patterns and processes of row and change. Moudon (984) identifies three sine choos of thoaght in yp0- ‘morphology, bt coneudes that 1 Bich studies the volumetic charzcerstics of til strctres with heir related open space to define a bal. landscape pe. ‘+ Eich clues land ands visions asa onstiuent ‘clement of typ, making ln te lnk beeen balding feale and ity cae Eich considers the bul landscape ype a a morphoge- sei uni because itis defined by vine = the tie of ts rodution, use and mutation. Morphologie stowed seinen could be broken dowa Ingo several Key elements. Conze (1960), for example, ‘istngushed. tbe sect (eadastra atten, the plot paler, ulding suuctares ad land uses (se below). He flso emphasised the diference ia sabiity of these ‘lements. Buildings and, in particular, the land uses they ccommodate are the least eilen ements. Althouah ‘more enduring, the plot atin changes ove time «5 individual pote re subdivided or amalgamated The sect plan tends to be the most pring clement. Te. Stability is variosly consequence of being & capital ‘set, of ownership sutures and in particular, of the ‘ifcoles in organising and impiementing large-scale ‘change. Sech changes do happen, however, leu the ‘eseution cased by war and tural disaster snd inthe tventeth century. through rogrames of comprehensive redevelopment Differences insuee an block pate, plot patterns the arangemen of bidings wii plats and he shapes of buildings reat ver fret enviroanents~ the diferent terns are commonly ceed 1 a “urban sue’ (Car Fagin & Maffl 1979, 1984). Usually taking the form of gue ground. sues (Gee. Chaplet 7), sue stiles emonsrte the profoundly aiflerent” mospbologcal, ples characterising. for example, 2 medieval town, [Georgian London, oran American prion plan ~ ea of ‘ohh ean be compared witha Moderns landscape i= ue dane). An ivalablerespuree for tise sta i Jenkins’ To Seale 2008, whichconsins 100 fragment of cles fom around the waid deawn to the same scale Seakins 2008) argues tht only by comparing tse an we ‘elisha sense of cle when designing, or when coming {o terms with te size fast ora pacar peeedent He fictier” argue thot urban. precedent helps establish ‘conversion between the pat std th fue inking the Snowe othe vakzows, “The nein of tse refers to more than just (state) form and is beter understood a6 3 (dyaamis) sytem. As Panera et al 2008: 158) explain: “The concep ofa. wth he double tele and Bolg! omens totes flee of erweving ond of comecont eon pats tpethr wih a eopal or paion. Iii ‘sna te completed or fed work a sv, Impes ‘proces of rafal ” BOX 41 Types of Urhan Space ‘These Aguegound diagrams show difeen patens of Stan scene po ma pe Morphological Elements Retuming to Consens four nin morphological elements, itis posible t see how morphological structures ae compose of oterlated yer: (@) Land uses Compared to buildings, plot divisions and the street ptr, land oes are eatively temporary. Changes Jind ses include both pe ues coming is and existing uses mong to ater areas. Incoming uses often led, through redevelopment, 0 paw aidings, pot ama: ‘umations or subdivisions and, in somo instances, ‘hange the set pater. By contrast, peed and ses generally relocate to bullngs in older areas ‘nd, rater than eedeveloping ter, sdapt and conver. "her, PART | IE The Dimensions of Urban Design trast ban lacks, wich din sae and sates ond Simulate Holy mesbed set gl Barge are terry lowsive and of sar heh ai ings are eoealy excepions and wualy have some ele sit ‘hoes fe eigaus or major ple bung. The se Daten cons of» i, the el of which at lately inthe plano Ssin-Die beta, bulge ae eopsaie ‘eesandingpavllonlbjece tannin 2 mere ened ‘ype of spice ad 3 cowsey methed ond) gd. The ‘lings oe se within apeace eon, the al of stich ae tlatay lrg (priate que ‘rte n ra). The sopetlods ar ypily sounded by major ross cayng all onloal tale. TNs ype of ‘ban space gery enly poets is pore fr hen Bait on gent sites ich pace tam conte of to copa at ao rental pater (other ml ods or Spe0cK) ahd {ee dnentoal form (er baltingeentesing apace ce buldnginspacs, In whet can be consced eel store thy af paved iv a potclar wey: sal Blocks a Ruling enclsingspace Fma ~ Type A a pectlors Zand bulngrin spore ine ie Type Ol Tee re atl tnt eal om, Blocks Mocks lds a cbjeesn pce Tyee ype (Othe combinations ae als past These a hybrid or FHGURE4a_Te Suan ce img: Lata 196: 17) apo aim pectin he cio a a (meresteestalog “epaulets eng ems tp Aedes etl in ag ‘Sitecocs tei ule wena rly aes wate ear of el Exiga de eo ep et ‘Sn pun ere Te eis ser presse oe ith fom end Mag, ‘hor uc, rug nln Tce ao onl pots rane a ang te anaes lls may op i igs Owe ond wth tg espe hope acer ain ec pl een al cous Arak cots weve tye ows wo ds eh stan ott soe evicpman er eke po Arte mye hrs orcas te serpent ee mph aobe mgt lt aus euganot cae reap AEC ang ony sho me oy. ty nay ape os aun 1986.1) omen plot boundary a the ear, Plas may alsp face ‘vio main sets tthe front with servic alleys atthe rear These arangements frm an alteoating ABA ‘AB stret pauem, were A i the min set with 4 high degree of spatial defition,pedesian incest, tnd seave frontage ee Chapter 8) uid B Ue sevice alley Giguie 44) (Gee Daany er af 2000: 161. Les ‘common are “through plots wi frmage at each end fmt + main see: "As dene unit of evnership te ini pater is insrumenial jn the Block's subyeguent evoion (= Panera e al 2008: 1624, Overtime pots are out ‘nd soi, an pot boundaries may change. Large pos: may be subalide, with the orginal owne retaining ‘ne par and sing or leasing the other. Altatvely to provide a larger development site and enable FAGURE 42 Canal Page, Cah Repl Uae Ser Tl ‘Thole show eee of nae ening oa pee constriction of lager buildings, Several plots may be ‘amalgamated and pls sizes become Inger In exteme cases ~ such 5 the construction of shopping centres in ‘eal areas —no pots but whole urban lacks ean ‘be amalgamated, the public sucet between the 140 “Although pot nd block amalgamation of hs mature removes mot of the evidence of eater plot and Dulldlags in many cides ~ especialy in Europe — ‘evidence of pla pates pests fom earier periods. ‘A few of tows pts have bing af that period it tbo demonsttes how buildings change more rapily than plo ptr. (i) Cadastral (treet) pattern ‘The cadaseal pater ste lays of urban blocks and pb specenovement channels between tose Books. ‘The pacer betwen the hock canbe considered oe the pi space neawode (se below). Pater of ests and aces ae often developedonermany hue yeas, changing and evoving in he paces. The grood plan of ‘moi selomeat can, eer, be sen a a sees of ‘very nd edn rom different es, wih agen fd “hoes” of pats from deen ers evident tn Florence for example de gina Roan set paler it sill evident in the pan. of the cls cena core (Fgae 43). Rome, te Plaza Novo’ form detives fiom development or the sie of an alent Rerun aciom, Inthe went cery new rods have often teen cit trough the atest poems of older ass, fog leeing fend twnscapes io he Wake “The term “plimpses is used to descbe seh process of landscape change, where cument ass (Chapter | 4 The Morphological Dimension overwrite, but do not completly erase, the sacks of prior se, Tee tues of eiferent historical periods Enable identcation ad exploration of changes in the ‘ban pate ‘An ingot place qualiyexablsid by the cates: er is penpeabliy ~ the exteat (© which an ‘evtoomeat allows people achnze of oats hough abd itn ttn geezl terms itis a measur ofthe oppor Tonity for movement (0 srctral fet ofthe system) (ce Chapter 8). A relted quality ~ acessiiiy ~ is ‘whats achivedin rate, Aevial permeability fee tothe sity 10 te the routes trough an enviroment, while pysicl permeability ees to the ably wo ove FAGURE 4 Edhugh New Tou. Tiss Se on sows the een tess Sines rig’ pa Ett Ne Tove ‘hepa aah oar hep Sei we hs oy ee ‘Sivaes ots A att pet The tay ‘Eh tn) hein in ak at tBu he mec sh ‘cone sm psn oe Soden ome hp os ttvough an environment, there may be visual peme- tig bt not physical pomeabiiy (and vice-versa). (Cadatal patterns composed of many small-sized sto blocs ve coridered to have ine bun grin, ‘wl pers with fewer, larger blocks havea conse tan grain, Although urtian blocks can vary dara cally im sza, an area with smaller blocks offers 8 preter choiee of routes and generally eres a moze femeable eaviconment thn ne wih larger blocks (igure 4.62~2). Smale Becks also increase visu permeability, thereby improving people's ewarenes of thechoke availabe the smaller te boc, the easiest |sto se fom one junetion to the next in all ietions FIGURE 45. Conta! Perec tly (me {spo Sal 985 Teco Sere a he i oe Par theDineio tn si 44 ttt. 4 re ta te athena, Seer , Rane J oe ia TTY 7 + (ht pt, A 4 t b ticttt: a im > _22E Ea « I yoy Ye + Regular and Deformed Grids [A basic ditinetion in cadastral paters can be made tecwoen regular oe oa” rds charateied by geometric ‘egulsty nd organic or deformed grids characterised by ‘ppsent regulary. The cores of pre-sindstiatetesend ‘Oltave “deformed” grids Figure 4, Having developed Incremental, deformed grids are ofen described. 3 “vga ~theirlayous having beea generated tually ~ ‘or at Teas avin the appearane of having been generated ratually rather dan belag consciously man-made Generally based on padestian moveent and strongly infloenced by topogsepiy, they were integral pats of he tamed aes ater than tnoagh-ruts, and evolved tnd developed through use. euler and ieal gids are cyplclly planned ~ ofa les, were planed t Some point — and have some depres of rome dvcplin, Mow gris ave ad ad oe alte ‘igs inthe period afer they were is aid out and have tis developed organic. Due tothe ease of laying out ‘reas, the most bse planed layouts have generally been feclinear and many stlement wth egal or semi= regolrgride exist Many European cites have hee fur= ‘on ss Credo Roman panned elements I Eaope, roguler grid ptters have fequenly heen overs on ot ‘ded alongside more organic patens (Cerda in Bats felons; Esinurgh New Town). Many New World cies — {8 USA, Atti, nuh of Suth Amarin — have regular, ‘thogonal isin heir cet areas. “The ride uted to lay oa clas inthe USA became sinpler over ne The publi squares and diagonal sees, wich consated impotant features of carliee ste ytems — Savane, Paledelphia, Weshington ~ were ‘itt in later sect patters in four of simple, adorned systems of sraght svets and rectangular ‘leks, by which large celavely plain tac of land could casily be divided into manageable plots and sold off Reps 1958). Noting ht few American ities used the rir more tan an equitable expdien”, Mors (1994 347) fepands Savannah ge an important exception snd suggests the uban midst’ geomeary might have been “Tess monotonously debasing” unr its nfuence (igure 48), CURE 47 een yh: ay 298. nfo ites nc torino a Fe sap ‘Ed atpenen conta mn spe bs oc eh eae i oma sl se cia see Invi of fe lg eS ten ps ee, ergcesoy est ir 98 998) re a resi the sae sl ply a ur nit ‘poem Ge Cape Chapter | 4 The Morphol Dimenon See. TOURE 44 Swen, Gore. USA. Soma wai one ‘ef abana ph nna by pon ne ‘hi Echt che! gt coin ep of ‘SS and erst ee fr oe ee npr ‘ing srmngspnlemce Tonge i wc eve cali uns ving pie ses ae: A Sera i buen pes nyse Some planed street paterns have an_importnt symbolic fenton wih certin meanings wate into the ‘vel plan, Tratcnal Chinese capital iis, for example, were planed as perfet squares, with twelve city ges tre on eat side, representing the twelve months of The year; Roman new towns Bad two intersecting main rece epremting the solar 0s th the line of the cguinor. Soh layouts ae ot aways religious o ancient I Washington DC or example, the locations ofthe White ‘ruse andthe Capito symbolise the separation of exeau- ‘ve ad lepslative powers, While defommed. gids usually have 4 picturesque sfaracir as a rest ofthe changing spel enclosure, regular ride have been ccicled for thir supposed ‘monotony. Site (1899: 93), for example, condetned Mannbein’s ‘unrelenting thoroughess. where ther were no exception (0 he ard ale thal sete interact perpelculriy and thar each one mae straight in ot ‘Uvections unt reaches the courtside beyond the tn Rybezyski (1995: 44-5), however, contends that sppaendy mechanical gis do wot acest lack pote characte, with mae pistreaqie elements occuring wher for example, gis ect the aut landscape, such a the featuring of the grid by ravines in Los Angeles. Equally, 1 do not have tobe homogeneous and entirely regu ‘he S11 planofmidows Manbatantad boa, sho block svenoes forge uldingsandnaow, long Bock streets for smaller rw houses, wile open sgures fg. Washington Square), wide avenues (eg Pak Avenue) andthe meander ‘of Broadway inte difreatiton and interes. Daring he lat nineteenth century and exly decades of ‘he weatethconury, the dainance of etines pater ‘provoked reaction in the form of eontaugus caine oe layouts, where wide, shallow pots (in contrast to deep ‘aro pls) gave an impression of spaciousness Cori linear layouts deve from English plctresque desien of the euly nineteenth century, such 4 John Nash's 1623, design for Park Vilage, neat Regent's Park. Another exly texanple was Oinated nd Vas 1865 pn for Riverside, near Cikago. Later examples were by Unwin and Parker a ‘New Earsvck (1898), Letchworth Garden City (1908) and Hampstead Garden Suburb (1908). While’ the curves ‘contin views and add vival nteres to newly developing eghbourhoods and sobs, thy also reduced visual pemesbliy, discouraging on-esiets fom entering ‘Most of the ear corviinese pate developed fom the late snecerch century though othe 192 abd 1930s were vations of pid. A refnement Gntedueed by Urwin fad Pakar at New Euswic) that become lnceasinaly commonplace ding the Inte 19505 involved eal-desacs, which sought o rein the aesthetics of euviiea yous ‘wile tigatng te austaces and anges of ers and te taf. As discussed ler inthis chapter, culde-sac voad {ns changed de saue ofthe able pace nator rater thao a gdh te steet pam became a hleashical apd ‘scons elke pater, The Public Space Network “The cadastel pate enables the mai elements ofthe public space newer, nd is also «ey clement in the ‘der coocep ofthe caps web ee below). As wll Providing access t and displaying the ‘public face’ of pate proper the pubic space neteck faites and Dsecommodars the overlapping. realms of “movement Space" and sei space (Le space for people to engage in ‘Vislvs fois ofexchange~ economic soil and eld) (Gee Chapter 6), Peden movement is compatible wit he notion of sucess a soil space. and thar isa sybiteeaoahip beewecn pedesian movement and ecosomic, social and ‘aural exchange and wansieGons. By contrat, car be movement is pure cucu, with private er also el iating an estemially private conte over pli space. Opportnites for nett fort of sal intaction and exchange only oscar once the eat as boon parked. Over time, (vehiule) movement space has overwhelmed socal spe. ‘Whe the principal mages of transprt were by foot or ore, the realms of moverent and social space had consdeable overlap. With th development of sow modes ofland-based wave) the ealms became mre separated and Increasingly compartmentaised nto vehcule movemen: space and pedectian moveenUccal space Figure 49) Ate same time, publi pace was colonise by theca and the seats soci pect were supprestod in favour of rmoveren: and ccaaion ~ uiban "aes chs become roads. Containing ony ovement sce, roads vie nit separate arts: contining social space and movement vailable ses conaect buildings and tvs ‘oross space, Provision for the car thus frequently frag rents the oly, with movement between fragments [eeoming a purely movement experience (Fgur 4.10. ecwork laste bse lafastveture and ay oer Fle ively permanent elements ofan urban are, const the tove-round elements of David Crane's ‘capital web. Por Buchanan (198833), te capital web: traces ig and sera ad ves he ds of celoment and he ney of ther ean heey thee Ser move iongh sce and mmamber the iy at well In designing or working within the capital web, urban Alsigners need to be aware of pres of sabiiy win ‘change tht it diferent elements ht eter donot Change or changeover longer periods of time (wich in fu ay give a measure of consistency of character and iden) fom tow tat shange over sorter periods of time Gee Chapter}. Buchanan J988a:32) argued thats the movement network, together wih the serves bared eneath it nd monuments and cv bling within and ‘Mace tl plo the imager thexe traced inthe mind tha are the eave penne pats of they Within this more permanent farsesor, individual bung, land tes and atv come ad $0 "The capt web anc the pubic space newark can be seen as a goreriive framework of ster, aed ths instumettl in determining paters of velopment and ‘aniston May deigaers refer ohio an mae ‘meanings generalr or framework ~ a nthe Hampework The Dimensions of Urban Design ‘Sen Mo sc a movant ening seme too oo sed by a sculptor to support ure being modeled in "paste materia, As Calthorpe 2008: 346) observes Collector Steet. The snctre of culation a fndomentl este of conan form For example when the esunpion om af tows mine abn aig 10 Ameria the Sencar sir kei ou hor fie gained rid became the ed ramenor forthe volt of ans al ut es. As the urban armature often consists of movement Channels, both for eeeustion an disbution, transport inesrutte can Be a powerful generator of new tubanisation and argsbly slo of re-urbanistion. Ses ith dioct acces to, oF comectons 16, movement Channels and ierehanges av privileged (ard thus more likely tobe developed) over tone with less socess to that ae more remote fom hem The movertetehanosl right be important new boulevards or a new canst foute, but, equally, might Simply be new roads tha (Chapter | 4 The Morphological Dinerson Increuse accessibility ~ though, as discussed ner a tis shape, these armatures may have signifeantly diferent MORPHOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS “This pat acases te transformation inthe public space rnetiek’smophologielsvucure in he twentieth ents fiom buildings a constituent elements of whan blocks ening seats and squares towards bulings as separate fieesandng, bject-buldings sanding in amorphous “sce Substantially a product ofthe eed to accommodate {ast moving vehi in urn sea, the ther major ‘morpoogical taneformaton ofthe ewetieth cery wt fom relatively salsa tegrated and connected ely meshed grids, usually originating when peestian tec ‘ns Gominan, to hierarchical rad ayrems surounding “upeblock and segregated and intovenedencaves In waditional urban space, the urban fabric is elatvely ens, and buildings are nonmally bul adjacent to one nother and Bush wih te see, Bulldog facades thus ‘ride the "wall of open apoe. As the only prt expored fe view, the facade al eomeeye — de ean t0 ‘Convey ~ the bulding’sienity and character. Embedded Ja dene ub fabric th bling’ backs and sides ean be more mandane witout deinen tote pubic resin “The facade also contbues to arger systems tet and “urban block By conta, freestanding buléings were, characteristic ‘of Modernist design. According i Tineonalis’ ideas of ‘esign tb convenience ofa bling's inteal spaces was the prinipal determin ofits extemal for. Le Corbusier (1927: 16),for example, likened aullng soap bubble "This bubble iperfectand harmonious fhe breath een venydsributed and regulated from he inside The exterior the reat of tterion” Designed fom te inside ott, responding to tee fonction equrments and consider. tins of light, az hysine aspect, prospect movemen “epennes', cc, tilings became objcti-space, whecby the extetior form ~ and, hence its eatonslp fo Public space ~ was merely 8 by-product of is internal Danning Te approach also, ier alia, enabled expression the potential of ne balding technology and material ‘A the are ele the notion of reesandngbaldings vas further supponed by the imperatives of providing healthier living conditions, aeommedating crs io urban seas and aesthetic preferences, Modernist ban space was ko intended to low freely around buildings rather than ‘being enclosed and contained by them: Le. Corbusier (an Broadbent 1990129), for example, saw the tional sce ar "sno more than a enc, «deep cleft a narow passage, And ahough we have been accstamed 10 for Imore than a thousand years, our hearts are alas ‘oppresad by the constrict ofthe enclosing well” (80 Chape 2),Desices forth pysical separation of buildings ‘were reinforced and exacerbated by public heath end ‘lnning rls and standards, such a ns zoning, oad ‘ils, sighctines, the space required for onderround servioes and daylighting angles ‘The shift towards fresanding buildings vas often path of leat resstce for building developers ad, in ‘uiitn, was fale by the dese forblings to sand xt lor elcrwise be distinctive as 2 consequence of ral ene Interests Buildings can stand out ina numb of ways: by plysclly separate from adjoining buildings: by bring taller andor by bing atchitectaly since, Not insigniean though was that, as a development fern, freestanding buldngs were eis aod cheaper Throvgh ‘eparation aod physical disunce, feesanding bulldogs an insulate and peoeettkemseves from negative sil lover effets ~ noise, smells, dstubance, et ~ though they might aio be iad frm positive spil-over eects sch as busy pedestrian flows, Po othe mode petiod only afew building types sed separation ab a means of gaining disinton, These ‘were ‘ypcally pubic rater than peliate baldings — ‘hres, town all palaces, te. where the exterior had Slgneace for to ety ands people. The ical tra tional city thus had few “special buildings thar were Separated rom the general ras of ings eter hgh their architectural emament aide by beng freestanding (Ge. objecrtoiltings) and a much greaee number of “owdizary".asoaymous and mundane blings that were embedded within the genera built max (Le fable text) (gue 4.11) in the wentath enor, many mote Duldings were designed and. built as feesanding iis. For Meiss (1990: 7), the fndarental problem of twenteth ceawry wranisstion was te mulpestion of “objects andthe neglet of ‘abies. He argues tat, asthe umber of ebjec:-uildings multiplied, tir valve a8 exceptions was los, complaining that costemporry rodbetion methods conerobjec-sameson buildings whose "conten and sinifcance are ory” (199: 7). “When appli scrosta wider range of balling types snd within tadionalurtan space systems, frestanding buildings gradually broke down tho uta block system. As 8 direst consequence the public space neswork changed fiom deine spatial types (sees and squares) towards more amorphous ype of space that ~ unless expel) ‘esigned and thereafier maintained ~ was residual, sci ‘ental and merely ooupied by objec standing within tat space Figue 4.12) FICUREALIT_Lese Kesey mage: ie 1250 Lew K's ‘itet eft iyonks re, meron al ‘Steen Ce td sence ste ge ae ‘inning Asch developments became mere common sing the sco half ofthe twentieth centr, cides lot hi pti coferece, becoming aseies of unelted and competing or jaolated momment and small compere of baldingssu- rounded by roads, pking and ater dispar lndscping {eee Hebber 2008). Lefebvre (1991 303) argues the ‘outcome wat a iataring of space". a duonering of ‘laments wrenched from eachother i uch a way atthe trbon fabric itself theses, theity~isalsotortapart’ 8 rent kind of ity merged ~ mae up of emerpbous spaces, "petted with monsmensal dings and abirry and ieconneted vidual fates (Brand 1998: 10) ‘Beplaining how Moder des of urban spac design, combined wit modem evelopment pracce, created 1 phenomena he apy desebes as “los” spce, Trance (G986: 21) observes how‘ withou ay concious ite tin on arjone's part ~ the deals oie lowing space and pure architecture have evolved int our present what PART | 11 The Dimensions of Urban Design FHGURES2 Bulg wcjinser Lion Set Abb {lege Se Rel Te psec aoe Hoey be tft rage anager fn tack oes thst bd xu eang sone Te (tne ng SaLOMP pe vr ser aang situation of individu uitings soloed ix parking es and highways" ‘Without explicit concem for the spaces between ‘wildngs, any eovitonments became mere acteons of india binge rar tn syrpecombinaions of ‘lings and spaces. The spaces between objec-buildings need tobe, but een ae not, expressly designed. Rarer toc, rater than the fee owing, manicured Arcadian Tancscapes envisaged thay were ore of SLOAP (apace let over after planning) (Hcbbert 2008) Curiously. the spaces between buiing-dfining-spaces seem to have Tees need toe expres designed ~ wile the spaces around abjceullings freqaently fal set spaces more rarely fled ‘The Road Hierarchy Accommodating diferent forms of wavel hes teen ‘historical evoltion. When the domiaantmedes of ln tased travel were walking and by howe, there were rls ively few cot between the needs of movement and sil space, While canals an ralvays wee, for be most, Dart, alvays spate systems, hore-druva eaiages and then cars share the same space as pedestian movement, teracstuing the tension beter the competing demands ff movement and tia space. Provision for traffic his italy evlved by suing pede (large) pars of the ole space network. "Te separton of poesia movement from vbiclar movement in couveatonel rests cocured is many ies 1 various poinsdoring the eighteenth century apd nie fesnth century though the lnzedecton of sidewalks Chapter | 4 The Maphologial Dimension nea (Geoeays inthe UK, pavements), which aio served to Separate pedestians fom the new side chumels and ‘ambered roads, designed to improve heath troogh the tore ecient dines of sewage and rane (aor 2002: 28, Sidewalkeparcments were fee pedesians, wile the ‘cee ofthe set wat for vehicles ~ pedesias entered “The twentieth centoycaw-maore radical ess, The best way 1 accommeate growing aumbers of cas seemed 19 involve giviag them thelr own dedicated movement rnotwork. Noting Le Corbusier's wellknown dislike af the “nulj-dudy" of sels, Boddy (1992132) seqanls ormuatng “more rationalised alemative” a the gene tive iden of iv basa. Le Corbasie’s city plane eaued adel separation ofthe various modes of ravel ~ ‘nd then their eqaly radial reintegration in vast tan ont inarchanges ‘With inereasing eves of car overship ad incresed sped and sine there was 2 hil in the design of ban road {angponatioa systems. Rater han combssing movement and acces, the sift was towards separation though the inroduction of hierarchical system. The intention was to dsesbuw uafbe tvough a Rieatchy of sures clesely Imaiced to tafe volume and purpose, with tee-fow movement atone end (eg. a desea expressway) and Toca aces tthe oe, and with each level Linked dea- eal tothe next ‘The ste! blerarchy concept Wat fat elaborated by ‘he Genman architect and urban planner Ladi Hil ‘erseimer (18851967). Hilberseimer's chief concerns were ineresing the spead of afc ckculaion and making it sae for eimary sebool-age chien to walk to ‘choo! Similar eas lafomed Pery’s Neighborhood neiges, uoater mete Somes Seemeees Serene | Sheeeess SSS | SS Soa Somers Steen erate | = [ 9 Unit concept (1925) Figure 413) (ene Chapter 6). Kaas or separaing difeeat modes of walle wee fiber develope ding the ite 1920s ~ by, for exanpl, Benion ‘MacKaye, who conceived of the “hghwayles fovea the ‘ovale highway” — and inthe 19305 and 19405 Stvough Topps oad Trafe and le Cons (1938) aed ‘oun Planing and Road Trafic (1942), ‘An excepsoally clear sateen of the pincipes of ierarchy came inthe 1963 Buchanan Report, Trafic i Towns The incon of he leroy network scale he ger rovers fom ley to locality. The links of the eter Should hero be dele for si tent movement. THs Irons sey ene Be und forging de acces 6 taint nor con miner roads roving the ling, ect ‘he conequn fue ote noe wold geri ae lngers ad db the eftecy of the road. 8 therefore necessary tne he lea of 'Neracy’ fara ‘herby porn ctritos ed down rags of tener cotgry v0 th minor rads whic give acess 1 be Iuliige Tis tem may be lend 10 the tank Ube rani, end fly he eves (comepaning fo the acest ron) of ee Bascal, have here are oly 00 nd of rod Asbrors signed for moenen and aces road 6 serve the bilings™ (Beeman 96843, ‘Th des remains though 1 today ~ though, as discussed ‘below its being increasingly challenged, In Englan, for example, unl 2007 andthe pulieation of the Manual for Sires (DIT 2007), Design Bulletin 32: Residential Roads land Foepaths (DOEIDOT 1992; 15) advocated a four-level Nlearehy primary aseibuce roads; distiet dlsebutor soads; lace dstriboor oud: and esidentl access rats, ‘Sweets direc serving buildings were only allowed for [poup of es than 300 hoses ‘icrrcicalsjsems ae seen in thei purest foams on previously undeveloped (geeaeld) land, where a pure Hesarhicl sytem cold be lid outwith few contains [As neces tothe ror road network would be at wily Spaced inervls, each cell within the swore would be ‘ui lage (Lea soperbock system). The major road work would thas have a rlatinly coer grain and Stould cany he nonlocal taf, allowing Be sree ‘onde within each el of te maja rood newer 0 ary Teeal trafic only. This pater of road infrastructure tecomes an inporantarmitire deterniiag the form of development, which is fequenly Known 2 pod devel. opment (se below). Thesablished urban areas, hierarchical stems re seo in e hybrid form a6 quahieaschizal systems. Whee comprehensive refevelopment and wan renewal schemes ‘secure, new development was often based on bierrcic ‘oad patterns and the ereston of superblocks farger han 2 tational city Bock, a superblock is typleally bounded by widely sped, highspeed, artralorccuating ruts Inthe thee by local stetsSoperlocks, rather han ‘tational un pis for example, were fogueny sed in public bousing projets durag the second hat of the Twentth cony ‘Where compshensve redevelopment was aot possible ‘or did not happen, ac enginers and planners bean to ‘este gulslvoud blerrchial pattems. and to modly ring set networks into quist-oallla or superblock Tatiems trough incremental redevelopment. Road pla tg thus involved both he cating of ited acess rads Through csublshed urhan areas and the cceation of fencavespresinas AS. Hebbert (2005: 40) now, In 2 equenly usd organ analogy, hese were arteries and cals The Arteries Manicipaites and highway engineers sought direct and ‘owefficcoute or new Hinited access urban highs (Figure 4.14. In terms of routes, che ttron was land Aquisition cots, with highways ected though public aks, declining idustal and dock eas and pen spe. Many cies lst soca to tie waterfront. Some historic tueas, suchas New Yorks Solfo and New Orem’ Vieot Cae, were sved by soecetsfalant-ighway campaigns, at many others wore les orunate In addtional Timied-aeess highways, the goal of 4 gutsioad hierchical ates was also achieved by esigating ceria sees as anor roads with selective widening, waiting restitions, tuning proibitons, one Way routings and zces ited to allow trafic to mo¥e PART | 1 The Dimensions of Urban Design FIGUREA36 banger Case ae Se el ‘npr be ovo weet caso snes ote ‘tenn ings igi a eens eons roe rely and quickly. Hierarchical rsd sysems meant Cxpresely designing and, in existing urban meas dsi- rating, some roads o Bande higher wate Toads. The “sooth ow of tac on such roads would be assisted by redoing ther connetvty (2 by Hating the ramber of ‘ther roads connecting it them andy probing pete ‘veways fom opeoing onto then). The aumber of Pedetan crosinge wat fined by cresting dedicated ‘rssing points — subways, badges ot lightcontoled ‘oatlngs. At permite crossing pon alle Bow took Priory, and pedestrian moveent as lined by bares tn ana "To alain the design speed, ban roads were designed or moifed to provide log forward vision and wide isl splays at omer. Building frontages onto the road were conolled to avoid distinctions to drives ‘ile rings and other bariers sought 10 prevent Intuson of "wate ineruptions (he. people) In his 1968 book Plonning for Max and Motor, Ritter (196 34) argued that salty bad tobe armored by Keeping pedesvians avay from cars and motorists away from "ferbside ceoctions™ such a6 shops, advertisements and “prety gis on the pavement — "a. the mare factive the gir. the seater the menace’ (cited in Hebtent 2005: 43), ‘A key conseqence, as Hebert 2005: 42) observes, vas tht while tradtone wan measur a suce’s Fimporance bythe height and adoraent of i builing ‘Gonages,hearchial ood systems ted thal upside dwn, puting tae capacity in ox inverse relation 10 bniding capaci so the matt inportat arteries would ary no bldg atl? Type, he major ead near Siar een a negative living environment onto which ote Tan wes should ur thee backs, resuling in anonymous ‘movement space (Figure 4.15) chapter | 4 The Morpcegeal Dimenson soe fe el en poner appear tind ceaney seen go oy yt SS ei rete yg i nn csp The Cells In existing usban areas where comprehensive sdevel= ‘pment war not possible or didnot hppea, quasi llr pater was achieved by closing off tersectons Shdid srs and consolidating Blok to crest larger Soperblocks, wilh the pew perimeters of the enlarged Sureedsuper_ blocks tecoming large-scale gyraory tysem. Through planning conta, ew buldnge were ‘rented away fom thoroughfares. Tn accordance wit planning principles fist proposed in Clarence Pery’s ‘eigbourhod unt, high traffe generators tuck at shops fn apurineats were aso banished tothe ate roads Forming the boundaries ofthe superblock, while schools, churches and parks were concentated at the ceae Within the lock, cul-de-sac prevented throogh-rffe ‘The local mad network within the superblock was Intended to any Ligier tafe loads. To prevent or det tfc trom taking shortcuts (rat runing) the local road network was designed (or redesigned ia exsing envionment) to be relatively discontinuous (e. through the vse of cal-detts) or at leat poorly Inureonnacied. “The tafbe-calned, even tnffctee, superblock was 4 common design ides, Carnce Pers eighhouroed ‘eit of 192, fr example, was a superblock suounded by Inajor arevalronds. Silay, Thpp (1942) advocated 2 precinct principle’ fom which extaneous vate would Se excluded. Given the ideas of is éy, Tp sam he precints as specialised, singleland-use areas. snr Sex appeus inthe Buchanan Report (1964) — though rather" thin speciaised single land) use precincts, 4 ' 7 i Ue Z 4 AAD FIGURE 436. Bahn anon a nn ae ‘Se Baan pod Sng en oe fo candy erode os om pete vir t ‘Buchana’s environmental arse wet intended 10 be rinedause (Figure 416) Pope (1986: 189) describes these processes at “sid fvosin'. whereby open gid suect systems ecane adder seet systems — agri allows movement in Avia of aliections and through a viety of pats: ‘Tedder’ permis movement ftom A to B abd vice versa (Figure 4.172~<) nthe most cardependent US cities, 38 (Graham & Marvin DOE: 229) noe the publily deve ped infasructure “gd? is “splneting Hato infos tore adder” where "the terminal pb of eack link [gored towards exclusively servicing @ single sce ‘nary space PART | IE The Dimensions of Urban Design (ged sa ded fo ‘oe ha aed ae Sgn, Pope (95619) deste, ‘Semon of een = he ‘pce ih sn a Hierarchical road neswovks thos sogregnte and fag- sent urban areae into enclaves, Sach enclaves may De justied by arguments hat defining discrete cetiteries eins generate Sense of identity, sense of community and 1 sense of safety and secusity for those living inthe are, but eis aleo thor sep tthe gated commoniy, where the poblie space af the suet i closed topic soess by 1 ite (ee Chapter 6), Pope (1996) for example, argues That ladders support broader desires foc exclusiiy, elation an sepmstion ~ rerng in what be terns “xenophobic enn Inlrextngly, contemporary rac tiesto eitorite publi hosing esate nto the loca sseimovementsyem, thereby bresking tot Seial and physical oan. fa France such programmes are Krown 3 "desencavement Pod Developments ‘A fer transformation in the morphological stare of aban ates is tht from outward facing wen blocks 0 Inwardsfocused complexes. of buildags served by an elunve rou connection ~ often refered a5 "pods (ce Feed 2000. a pod development each use ~ shopping al, fas-food outlet sip al afc park, apartment complex, medial cen, Hel and conveation flit, et. — it conceived as a separate element, sounded ty i asso- into parking sna usually wih its own indidol and fscusve acess onto callector of msn distsbutr oad Gigue 418). ‘While individual pods may be beter (or ess wel) designed they are ales! alvays introverted and ncan- nected 19 — if ot posively spurte fom ~ adjacent Aevelpments geogapbically proximate, they have very lite other relation. Separation ino: jst by rouds but flso by expanses of ar parking. Indoed apart frm a oad Samionte I geect sed ‘ae se. SN Emme tapas pty thw om pf ae sah ilo rin peo {CURE 438 fd de the so pee ae: Dy 200 Inte oper pao hs gn loge es Snip ee a per og own xt omeson calor ad Tas ped rarer STIRS Th oedipal go walk ‘hoe ome unmet of Bulge a ope Fae Singh newer sige set on elo br ean ye ‘Geach wl ek nS ower Chapter | 4 The Morphological Dimension link, there is ite aed to link them up because alnest fevenone drives between them. AS Ford (2000: 21) fenments: ‘The dea is 10 separate ~ oe tothe point of Walling aff ~ land wses io dsinetve seta and fae tel wore "With no pedestian Now — only vehicle Now — pod evelopnets donot generally fost onto the mai wae itibution rosds. Development becomes, introverted, ocsed inward either ono the neral erent vor ‘within the soperaick end a the points where people can atk and leave their cas Alteratively, here might be lige lamp’ developments — sopping cers, office complexes, mul-sceea cinemas, tel compleses — wih offer some form of pedestrian resin within the eau of the Block, surounded by car parking, but ne eonnecting to any wier area, Sich pedesria-oiated foes ae untlly"pdratespces. where. access ad beheviour are closely contlled and regulated See Caper 6) Bentley (199: 88) observes how the ety becomes ‘ransformed into a series of islands, wih spectacular Inerors, etna" oe” sea" ‘riven by #marrow realestate and rgsltory li, pos evelopment is also the characedstc form of Tow ‘obuban developmen and indeed much he contempo- rary development. But pois fragment the city instead of tan areas being conceived in tens of connected urban spce defined by urban Blocks, they ae conceived in ems ‘oF roade and ranepot rote casting Salle within whieh individual buildings (andlor inward-ocased complexes of tailings) stared in spac, sorties in edcoped stings bout mere oles amid car parking. There is no syneigy ‘hovgh the spatial concentration of diferent uses and he ‘whole is nly the sam of the pars. Because the road nctre, in effec, determines everthing ele, i 1 deta erbansms isnot how we intended it, nor what ‘ve want tobe ics what happens when we donot ake Pose action to stop it and fo do someting beter oF Simply difleren Figure 4.19, Residential Pods Residential eul-deses ar a patel kind of pod. In its ‘ype suburban manifestation ti arelaively short, dead. nd sucet with «taming hammerbead of ert, serving papa 20 or 30 dwellings As is name suggests, 6 {place “ere one does nr ener by chance bec it does not leod anywhere other than to private houses” (Panera et a 20443). ‘Unwin & Parker pioneered cl-de-e see ates at ‘New Basic a the end of he nineteenth eemtiy, Ate time the reasons for theirs included savings in road cass: it ighter trafic Tod, hey could be Bit with lower specication. As jac engineers began to address the Sey problems astossted with through rafic in a resident ses, the use of culsdeses became much ‘ore frequen: rom the mi 19508 onwards Soutworth& BensJoseph 1985: 77). Many contemporary residential seus a now laid ont in "deniiio”(toelke) et Hes, in which curvilinear ellestor goed loops of 2 mnjor highway. with a punber of el-de sue branching ‘fins ideal form, all houses are stated cul Sacs With nove paced on the user and noir loop road. Doe to their shape on plas, the system is sometimes refewe 0 a “ops and ilipps For-many, the tem clde-sar is pejorative and represents the erence of bra tle: he late, lr pte cae. formes Sra of simian ecover sported {betta prcaly fom he large wont aden pon the aemaie ors ia (Gosthwonh & Benseph 1997: 120-0, [Noneces, the uldese seems much loved by suburban resiens and developers (ee Table 4.1), The compedng feeds euggex potntal for a beterdesigned solution Southworth & Benloseph (1997: 126), for example, cei is possible to design new residential dntits— ‘ud periars ess easly oreo dons —oachieve bth interconnected pedestrian networks and Timitedaccess ‘ehlcua systems (ce also Marsal 200; Dunkam-ones & Williamson 2005) FGURE 419 fed dope ~ Bowed Rel Pak Pay, Slt Inege Se Tt Ma ol Sopa erie Sc ad pte eves Dany a D0 thon ne coer dope stay emi a ‘Satin renner 205,588) es Cape 1 an ied abazn wine a ot ge InuaipeIpeu cheat of po cooper ele fe ‘sg tingle econ ia vc yen at ‘rate pig tached cee etc fo em gees pdsan wens aches gy Soe escey ta hp pce eee an ‘io anspor 30), PART | The Dimensions of Uiban Design ABIES Culsde-sc Seat ystems eer 2 rosie oars rm the pit fw ofan, pat len i and ese, whee an ply ‘ial ort hear among a “+ Pome amc Acoust ret, nia te gd my rome sien lity and owt cl nef ty: The selec te ces rods cal ag det, 1 Radics gen free: Cpr wth ada tet oats Nera done ye sytem deer gas TR Sais oer pre hr ty might ge toppe ap 979 New 195) ee Cha ures gi 1 Lack neon ola om tough may re alton flor say ving ea. Togo one! Sty one mat oles tcc andl on clr oarsmen rca 5 ys en ‘imply doped sean wpstaton sh eed toffee rae, paston was ef on + Canc cardzendey Cong nasser beyond te cles ne pang te 2 malo vray eesing ‘atone. on heey dao nog oe yor, ole pot ve andeeoncrg beet ae ryag hens al departs rue 1 Chonstatate creo hey pon ong comport nae eas etn colar od har tars rasa sr vnc ego cngenseoingmech te ay he an racic on cole Bhan oponries fcr: Calse scp be ugh movenertl people an hry duce psicng fet Sipe promes Ga Chap 8 Cink demand crt oe see obi pt of a hbouted rtn, wh clent race an iy fn ok ‘couse ugh see arsng cs are mas. Thea seu dey wiih des, bt ah wh anyone Some Ap aS eg 5718-5. ‘The rocion tothe impsct of road hierarchies and pod evelopments has tre itemelated elements @ Feu to ‘nterconneted seer pateras; return the urban Bleck; andthe design of sets as places (le. econling their oles ae movement anda cial spac). In eombinaton these renaions resent a shit towards « more self conscious and poate urbanism athe than the elt ‘anism of roadefist appogeh. They are discussed in the next ee prs of his chapter. CONNECTED STREET PATTERNS ‘The desire torts to connected set networks as come from various soures. Inthe USA, New Ubanists have been pominest cries of culde-oes and commited advocates ofconneed seat etvodks (Daan 2a! 200). Ia the UK, while te 1973 edtion of te Essex Design Guide ad revctnty acepted “he. road engineer oacept of tee ike sce network’, the second edition (0997) was "radially diferent. nts concern 10 ‘achive conncte sect nerworks and acceptance ofthe frbon block (Pans ef 2004: 173). By 2001, govern ‘meat guidance also commended the connected steel, ater, reopniing da the block src defined by 4 newer of ieromaced reais as ben te predominant form of Rowing tay for Corie, Oly cently ete tracer eed primary or the arrested nos set iroment characte by {dendrite of "ope and llions™ (DETRICABE 2000 40-1) CConnested set pstern do not necessary mean a gid fedsres. Marshall (2005), for example, distinguished ‘halite of conectviy and compen in suze: panes. Dende pater have lw conectiviy, wil gs have igh connetiviy. But complet involves ote ‘ven with eqol conectviy: for example. deformed rds have geser complexity tan regular grids, Marshall Stljsed 60 suet netwenk pater in temas of te lative connectivity and their” relaive comply (20 Figure 4.20, “On the spectrum of connective idented four oad pes: ‘+ Dibtary~ deep branching wit yrtematic wie of xl Ade-sac andor layered loop rods, ad ten aselated ‘vith hlorachicsly base suburban expansions ofthe cna lf ofthe teat century ee below ‘+ Senenbutary~ wit ome degre of tayerng and we of eal de-e, bt wih ess iin between sine abd ‘major acess roads and use of T janeton, found in ‘der suburban neighbourhoods 4 Sontgridded — relering to vypical dsored grid syste witha vary of TandX janctions ole ound in nner eres or tains setlements. chapter | 4 The Merphslogial Dimersion Relative connectvly FIGURE 420, Sit emer al fom Mail 255 139 Aan eh fates tee ‘Staton Trboay poten weve nen soln Fate tce mont Cec say ew cep, Na sn Fane, hour, hath Fd elo ‘Sees and ihe comply 1 Gridded ~ featuring 2 Wah propoion of X junctions and refleing the type of panned, regular layouts of ‘i-ron ban exensons cr ne cs, Marsal fond mest existing suet structures were neioe pute rid oor pre tabuay forms, and instead combined Features of both exhibiting» combination of coaectivity but aloof compicsity. The inesmediteposions between {dad uibarary were at infror, however, and had thee ‘wnposive quate (eg. complet) and it might be tha these ae the more desired tet pte ‘Connected sueet pares can also be jostifed on sustainability proms — ia high level of permeability s provided iil, sepregsion can ually be achieved Inter ~ if necessary ~ through design or management: the layout robust and espabl of adaption. Conversely ie iia, even impossible, to adapt an envionment ‘esignd for segregation ino one for inegaion. To ensue peameabili, all sreets should connect 10 eter Street and should tena In oter set. Such ein ciple creates connected and peeeabe suet patras. Urhan Blocks Reaction to objectbuildings and pod developments saw ew imerest in the concious design of the space between hullangs and in she creation of well-defined, positive space. This hss led to explicit atoms to compose and ‘roais the pars otha the whole the place ~ Is greter than the sum ofthe pars Gndividual buildings and evelopment), a Connected sect pater and block structs generally 0 together and many contemporary development projects le canceved using comected set patois aa ban locks (Figure 4.21). As Kropf (2006: 12) observes: "The Dlock i the result of connecting ate. The Block ony ‘came Ino beng when sets ore connected, The perincter Dick only ottes when sues are connected and ell, lene by buildings” Silty, Panera etal 2006: 162) fegues "the block is not an architeera form, byt 12 group of independent building ples. It hs proper meaning only whens ba dlaletical relationship with the road network ‘While Modemis aiden space design and developest pracics ba! lageyndermined the bas blk, «prom nent block-hased development occured st Battery Park City, New York from the eal 19805 onwards, The me tecplan by Cooper Eekstut fo the ST-ecare 92-22) ste se cat regular anangement of sels and lock, respoting and extending the citys kng-esabied set ‘gd end reguciag most buildings to ne vp ina anifoem Aistance fom the Kerb t for coasisiatsiet valle. Enormous sucessful asa eal estate venture, Fishman (2008%: svi) cansdars the mode's svengthe see “sil ‘compelling compared othe Modernist mode replaced’, ough “40 to i the mead 10 get beyond It (oe Box 42). Demonstrating new interest in and concer for the ceoninayy of pisces, ich appoackes have offen aso ‘Shown a wilingoes to examine and lean fom preceden, fed have often taken releenee fom tsdonal ben FAGURE 421 Gomtn, Ean (nage Lee dir 200 ‘ayy ses ea iy ne (Gar 170, sig we Oi sion te owen Insite espe pss. Wiese ek ra sh ‘ae uy pra cat tte, er ple = "ns pts tenet" ae he pfemesSeie ‘ol be pce emai BOX 42 The alery Pak ity Method Nasapanne by Copa & fist dosed in 1979), Satey Fri Chy fn bere ertsed sa ab pan or legencleuon rel cite development Neth Afi (love 2009" 210. Bised on exening the sees ofthe Nanhatn pi ene! 20%: 1) xpi “cd ofthe spl nd mepantcie et imaed on Sign’ a's age mr rs ow oy ge sd expense (epecapbleoccamnng sng dap vary (Teh aig devel ove 209: 712 suet edd cas irate (coprnt ois nee did ge decoy pace insinpendart ‘leks hyo mainte fs ished in lel gs, rly apt sith Charging ‘ue nshetan sand by dnarsnng bles carepond {athe pean pace saeforatypcal eer o carne fdeskpet projec. the renking buleng & gure ope ‘Sse and be acer onal sie no pany wal. The ‘Selpr he bo capa f comer bul-ut a (Sista dng anor ging. “he spoferteuigences fal sho or) ral ete dovccpmer rd fare, Yowever ten our the Ino temorig mich of he rehearse ané soi ‘ly and vary Ae Love 2000) argues, Bate Pk lye Seri dre not nly rm he areola ng ut ao {fe un fame stone. the approach becomes (len prsenang ard teraction. pial shorter 2 norm and seed srt ick sine Faeroe, love 2000-212 eben the ee pas oie fang range corm) plan au odes “lose soe tape open plan’ Avoton sto Irene say of Sack aoae ove 2008 25), ake Uschi 9) weld sho pert a wider range of Ueselopmen compares torrie tn devant sce. A sigiflsnt strand in thi npproch ean be labelled ‘ypomorpologica Typo-Morphological Approaches ‘ny figure in evaluating whan space dasign was Colin Rowe. Under Rove's influence an approsch explicitly ‘eating new developento ciyshistrical srcture and fo trabinal typologies of urban space was explored a Coe University fom the easly 1960s (Figure 4.2) In Collage Cty, Rowe subsequenely described ine Modernist y's “spats. predicament” a6 one of “‘bjecs™ and exore’s objec ae sulpual buildings sanding fely in space, while exe i he background, connbous mati PART | Hl The Dimensions of Urban Design The blocks being sgl bul cn with 2 sige nance, A pobleeuton fel Bock ibdison Std pepe plttased delopment and ths seven frvelopen on ac lok 1+ Theincrnentof epeton feng eo lig, whereby coy Ahvlopmoss bones estan Beso se are posible ‘A Love Gu0a: 213) comments: marta te se of the shite the monoaly ea Sing le of ing tht he prabiem, the ol rept of 1 engl bung ype sce Best's Back Bay or inBah Egand = do cr ork ring wh 35,000, Reta as Bingo age. ove 208: 2) supe te Dalng fg i fen the pal, wth ony “utsn ‘Sens of American bo eas bg able il te Slee vs. Asoluin ft aelopa ange orl totter obi hi ith realli pay Dat Tener spc or mare ey Fak io a: Mat Carmen) of but form defining space (Rowe & Koster 1978 50-85), Using figure ground diagrams of eaional_ snd Modest ties, Rowe & Kotter sbowed how te former ‘waste inverse of the ner one diagram was an accu Imolation of solids in largely unmenipulltedvold: the ter an acuulstion of voids in largely unmanipulated folid, Nevertheless, rather than privileging the positive Space (spece-fination) or the positive balding (objet fraton) hey recognises statlons Wiere one athe other ‘would be appropri, but als a "ese sitstion’ being seme in eich botkbuldings ad spacer eis in at away of sitalied debate. A debate in whic victory onsite In each component emerging ndefected Chapter | 4 The Morphologi Dineen 95 ee. Cl Rov yun ning ewe of Betoun Sn — no he ‘Sint Nol mp of Rese anes suoe Fpne pd pny we ih en oe Sg oy ‘sje dona gn (Rowe & Koater 1978: $8) ~ in ober words, 4 sate of figure-ground evesl (32 Chapter). Avoer morphological approach develope in he nid 196, italy by Aldo Rost and he Taian Radoalst, School and subsequently by ters, including botbers Rob tnd Leon Kier Ross book The Avoecture ofthe Ciy (0966, 1982) was inseumenal ia resuectng ideas of achiectoalypesand ypology.Ineontattobulng ype. ‘which generally refers to Tancon, architectural (ype is rmogphlogial and refs to form. Abstactons of basic rncpes, ideas foams, arcitectarl ypesare na sense, Thre cimensona templates ht can be repeatedly copied wit endless variation (Kelbaugh 1997: 97) _iscusing limits nd consis indesign ~ end how, for example, se and programmatic ensiains often make the design peocess easer ~ Kelbaugh 2002) argues that lmerest in arhitectaral and. mephologcal types fo: ‘als and systematsed presses of earning from experience and precedent. Typoogissaseted tha, when Aesgningablng er atban space, schitectaral types tha had evolved over ume ofeeds superior pint of departure 1 Modersist functionals, which sought to discover new erm latent in ‘programe or "echnoloy’ ‘The isoriecity ea source of durable types: as Gosing & Medan (1984 134) note: “Unt he pin a wick it war desoed by the dons nove of he wet etry the ei een having destined cea “pe” elemessanversl saan eat imply and ery, ariel a ver period of ine By the “peraion ef amorous fore of leon. “The hey urban type isthe “uban block’ togethr with variety of more specific types such as “sees “avenues "arendes' ‘clonmads' et ‘Ta Urban Space (1979) Rob Kier developed typology of rtan squares (Figure 4.23).InconiasttoSite (1889)and “acker(1959} Ge Chaper), who focused oa the sesh effet Keer focused on elemenary geomeny. Keie's trots, Leon also develope acrcqu of Modernist urban space design rooted in 2 preference for tao urban Spat founs and pes (Keer 19784, 19786, 1979) (Fgue 4.2), Arehvectral types were also the bass of DDP2' frmbased cos at Seale Figuce 425), Use of types and typology tas been more readily sccepted in ban design tha the teitectrl comm ty. Ths elas oth to mach urben design being readily understood aan indiret or secondo design acing (Gee Chaper 1) and to the vale pled on ergy and ovelty within the aehitectral community (se Lawsen 1980: 110; Bosley 19). While Modernist’ bei i the ligelst made an ideological vite of innovation and novelty, am important dsinetion must be drawn: novel ‘means something ine: innovation involves it being beter than exiting alteratves The ideological imperative for oignaliy, creativity and endless novelty i ths ofteo ‘placed her han bring valued as ends in themselves, they are means to cente biter bligs and bater places. ‘Although much contemporary urban space design bas bean informed by a reaction to Moderism’s saree on story and raion and hss a tong hist ension, any ar sepial of such approaches. Read (1982), for PART | IE The Dimensions of Urban Design FIGURE 25 Rob Kes ply of was ete ne ter 980) Ke 2 Eran tan os eral io She ert gn ge = sees. ies oF ‘Wars cichontoacetce {eh the hee rege oe ‘moe og amps den ond ong rating fromthe Sede Apes, ae ent ‘tetas yw, cals os ‘esomes Bug eke: fone te ‘fuer cn my foe fe Soh Fer Kt (nndowe ede, ‘Shonai to ely ed fete. The Sethe nah edb ae example, warod that the indus iy’ problems were real probes and hat ile maybe sob owt ec he forme eich ioe) evolved th tpt fo he problems of the Indra i hose problems let be rere inp By Toon eer back othe pred Urban Block Sizes Conceived a public space network, urban block stue+ ‘ures ope up possibile and ~ in conjunction with asic ‘ypologiedendesaes about physial pirates ~ exn rovide coberence snd goof" urbe form witout neces Surly being overly deterministic aboot architecural fer, ‘The Morphologi Dimension chapter | 4 fa) or content. Akin to “esigning cies without designing ‘huldings’ (acne. 1974, alo allows deal busing exgn fo over ltr in the development proces. ‘The sucet poter/ock structure Is important in letrining the pie of movement, Sting the paras ‘efor subequent developmen apd in combating to an area's character As a key elemeat ofthe capital we the street pattern is generally the most eslient part of the Infsatoctre and should have dimensions allowing i accommodate, rather tan inti, change. The size and ‘hae of un locks is ls important In designing new % a ote eer 158) Kee "ear matte sens te eee oe Oks we al Oe pe af ‘ead ogee pte poy Se) ep fed Ith et ab ston obec as ‘elope he sao Stee epee em Soe the pa "ron steppe sane Can a pei ool pete {fi ten ot ngs ates of urban development — or in healing exablisbed fem ~ eEalence need io be struck between providing Suteient are for development (i. to make it commer ally vse), for elfen and convenient elation and fer seta space. Micrclimste ad ites of wind and sun penetration slsoneed tobe considered tall narrow steesin northerly for southerly climes, for example, will have limited "nlight peneation for mach o the year ee Chapcer 8) Sd thus a balance mast be stuck within the design recess between environmental performance and urban PART | Il The Dimensions of Urban Design AGURE 425 Tym eg ~ ‘See Mo fp aay & Eosering form. See blocks ypcally feature buildings of between wid of ‘surounding ste). Boyond these limits ote biling onfgoraons may produce better outcomes. An ini {ence on than block snd peimete Book configurations in, however, Be seen as restating atber development ‘gpotogies that, for example, plate reser emphasis on ening toward the sun and limiting overshadowing. A ‘orimen hyd un frm, for example, tthe pou Ssnd-tower configuration (gure 20) ’A balance also needs to bese betwoon agumens {or smaller blacks ~ hited on considerations of pedetian permeabiliy, walablity andthe social se of space and {hot for larger bloks based on the opm dbtion of built form and open space Se below) Rather than single. ee sepeated Bock size, aang of block sizes inelding sll Docks) may encourage and faite geaer diversity of ildng tyes and and uses (Se Love 2008), Block size can be deermied by the lest context. In exablished urban contexts or oa Bowne sites the ck size may be Infemed by working with Ue exising ‘nd remnant pater of previous uibeisuons, ent ‘rating isolated fragment of those urbnistions. and ‘establishing ~ andor retng new ~ linkages wit he ‘vier context fo fists movetent and to connect ae Jmegrae he new development with the surrounding context (Figure 429, ‘Grenfld sts usually have fewer context eves to suggest appropriate lock snes. In such ese, they ould Chapter | $ The Mophologial Omersion a Hn Sm yaritis Ser et Sas eee Spitaenews. Sera See See Sober sic t memes Soyer Sone seb eenraione race SS eminence seinmeteceags ieee Seed gupeeioer rea Eee anconineeeiee orem = be determined by analysing the equrements of particular land uses ~ offs, Dosing, shops, indus. ee. Ale naively they may be based on analysis of histicl precedents sd sue studies ~ puts hat have endured By being able to accommodate growth ad changeover Noting that he si of an del Block cannot be estab lished any more pessely th he el beght of suman tbody, Krier (1990 197) agus tat though “comparison nd expereace’ beck size mere apt form a eomplex ‘bon pater’ canbe dedced. He aso observes tht, in cies that ave evolved organically, the smallest and ‘ypoloiclly mest complex urban blocks are found a the entre with blocks growing larger ané ypologially simpler towards he periphery before finaly dissolving into tingle feestnding objets Small Blocks Sal boske ae nevertees often advocated fora varity of reasons including vita, permeabliy, visual intrest tnd leibliy — Jseobs (1961: 191-9}, for example, ‘devoted chapter of The Deh and Life of Great American Cites, 10 "The Need for Soll Blocks’ bese ofthe Increased vty and choice such layouts offer. Krier (1980: 198) also prefers small blocks for reasons of Incresed uaa 1 the min coe for amall Backs and dense ptr i rinse try ae ean hh Bas cred the irate chor ef hight aban eminent Sick comment(s the Bass of wan cle, of iene Soca ‘a and eno exchange” Smal blocs may often be ether 2 single bulting or tel ult oer with perhaps ligt well or aa space in the cea ofthe Block. Prec e af (2004-162) ten these “monarentat blocks” and, despite the building senerally aking the form of tional un Bock, hey lien their eect to tht of objecting witha single im of ey and raising fone back problems (see Box 43). They slo ident sother special ave ~ Dat of feces Blocks ~ where gro of street boeks form a single fina comple tht may in practice, be A rupetbio. aera (200) aso amen how the urban boc’ seu ote foreground kas some perverse effects, Nong how new devlopmnts ae ile with poco Docks’ — fan ‘ubanisie Tendring of valilss. postmodern foxmatisn’ — they argbe that ucan blocks should be understood as a sytem rather than as an 8 por form Emphasis the importance of tral sb-visons, hey trey on cg he conan a U1 Fappen C2008: 164) (re Chapter Large Blocks Larger blocks ate likely to be perimeter locks whee he ‘bon of tilings acond the ode ofthe Block provides the public font othe development. with pia or som private space in the Block's interior. As the cross-sectional ‘epth of building abe to Be ntaraly Kt and venta is lite, sis he efestve dep of the perimeter ribbon of building. Hence, ashe dimensions ofthe blek get eet, the sie ofthe cena space increases. Depending on its Se, the cena space can be used fr various purposes ~ residents’ ear parking private gudcrs, 2 commun garden For residens,& location fr community oF spots facies, ‘With Inger space within the Bock, larger perimeter blocks provice greater opportunites for bcdversiy. Llowelya Davies (200: 58). forexample, recommend tht blocks of extermal dimensions of about $01 90m, ‘continng private of communal gardens, provide a goo! luade-of beween biodiversity ané ther considerations. ‘Kiet (190), however, etiieos lager perimeter blocks teeause they compe with the set and iernalise (privatise) “publ Figue 4.28). 00 % CE oe 1 Principat routes Intemalstroots Comparing Block Sizes ‘Compared to sal block pater, larger Bock stetures ray be mote fiat in ems ofthe distribution of bul form and open space becabe there is Toss ciculation space. Research by Marin & March (1972) examined the ‘estes anc land we intensities of ferent development ates, providing mathematical aguas both for Taeger bloc sizes and for perimeter rater than pion ‘evelopment. Loking at housing layouts ia partial, they showed dt, subject to ceruin environmental ‘teria, peimeter blocks had higher land ose intensity than other bit forms, suchas pailion or tower block forms “Thking central Manhatan between Pack and Fight ‘Avenue, snd 42nd and 57th Suets a an example, Marta (@92 2172) showed bow the same volame of devon: ment could be organised in eacically diferent waye PART | 1 The Dimensions of Urban Design FIGURE 2 eck se ae Le Tnsaginng the whole ares developed in the fom oF thi ‘Shatoey "Seagram ype buildings be cleaned the mount of far space chieve. Replacing the Seagram bailing with penmter blocks and enaglag the sect ‘Sock by omits some af the coss ets, be showed the Same amount of flor space could be accommodsied in ‘palings eight stoey high Furthermore, espace within the pevineer blocks would each Be equivalent in area (o “Washingon Squre and there would be twenty-eight such see, For Martin (1972: 22) this raised ferseaching ques: ‘ion about the reltonship betwen bil form nd open spaces, The open space provided inthe Seagram bling Tayout, for example, was in the fem ofa seis of traffic comics inthe perimeter block form, i was a Sries of teaffeftee courts, Although this example provides support for larger, coarser and less permeable block (Chapter | 4 The Mapholgial Dinersion OX 4.3 The Front-Back Distinction structures (Le. superblock) also demonstrates the need to consider the layot of the urban framework in tee Father than wo dimensions (ie. possible configurations of tuben foe “To examine the development and sstanabiliyof ban patterns, parcalely Bock ies and ctealtion meshes, Sika (198) sti the CBDs of four Amevican a four ‘Ausalin ces (Figures 4.29 and 430). Laid out inthe fst half ofthe ineteenth century a before the onset of {he anlomotile age, cach ety pln had had more tan 150 {years of gros and evoition “Two imerlatad aspects ofthe evluion ofthe block street patterns af of particular interest ~ hi pees + Persistence of block and set pattem ~ Denenstsing their durabliyin changing cumstances, the oii block and aeet paems af he smal Book ets Pot land and Seattle) were sbstanialy ntact. Altboegh the aviginl bloc and street pater ofthe medium block. ces (Chicago, Indianapolis, Meboune and Brisbane) vere lazly inact, changes had occured trough the inseninfeletion of alleys and acades — moreso in ‘horcteics. Av ty (19997 129) ges, he er Ignores. Seialy-constuctednaons of rot apd back stich se wel nthe rlsionhipbatween publ and phate and in ebony conation of pvacy Chapt 8. ‘Devsofmen geal bas frm avrg rt ano ube atie ah back whe theme pate stie a gon terme flys public ris should face oo pul space and oer fot, while private backs should face onto pate space aioe bucks At fesanding shielding ae round oy pu sees a le seme pbc wace tao bn acd by Backs ‘renng pratensis nk eso pe sce ts wou ns or chr ar o ae om prin ‘ise pron pocece™ hough ches deeonmertconfauraton ar pore, recog ‘on of he Fock tinction fade epee tock deopment ch abo armor of oer shan lageous charcersiestnues:expick public and. priate ‘Sethe cipsly to acorimedte ert dese evelopment and pe acne tht bt pyle Fever producer ores fom) a coacedstet parm “Melbourne and Brisbane. The original set pattems of the Inge Bock cies Perh and Adelaide) were so largely inact, ba te block and srest pattern bad considerably, with the orginal bloks having teen traken down inca smllee blocks with the ecet, ater alee spnificanty by iceion of alleys ond teas, In Adelaide al the locks had ben divided nd ypc contained four oe five smaller blocks or sub Docks. In Fech,tey had been sivied at two or thre blocs. In bth cies, te blocks now approached the dimensions ofthe blocks in the three. © Ciculion meat = Regarding the aes available for cireulaton, Sina concluded 2 good proportion was fone whee cicilation occpied 50-40% of the tna ‘seu All he American cites aained or exceeded this ge ints ntil Inyo and needed Few adtonst Sees or alleyways. Those you where sets and sMleys nally occupied les than 30% of the area eed aditional rates, thereby demonsvating ack of sulicient inal circulation space, By the me ‘rguneat, layouts wih small atid medium Books ie Whee steets and alleys inially occupied mare than 8 ai ot nana ce ee ney ec i gig ane ng on ‘Thyme e ore Red eben pinot Wks be sce navn roe sowie of ecoty pcan ‘us. Te cs ve tor ed wo han gee ‘Bove piape fc leet sey a wel wt ‘Reta ney permeate ys neve ough Ba See tinea el mer oc ‘See moc ee 40% of he aes could be egaded a 0 genes. By Jnsertng adtonal svete, ales, arades and other rovtes, most CBD had developed fineneshed pedes- fran networks inter feal cres. Siksn concided that eieulation meshes of tetween 80 and 110 m was an ‘optimal provision. though, in some cases, fer pees: tian meses Grom SO 70m spacing) ha emerzd in intensively weed retail beets Alboug the vebiulsr tres of most eis had coarsned cites with sll Mocks (Poland and Seale) had vetinad a convenient mesh sie (teow 2007), wile sn medium and age ook ets the mesh size geneily exceeded 300%, which was considered inconvenieat for local tafe As well as evoluon towards optimum Bleek sizes, Ssaa concded hat intementl charge generally overcame of, ‘feast reduced the deficiencies ofthe inal Inyo. Such ‘ange also generally emerge though the iaatve of Individual or adjteent nets rather an Uoogh diet ble inerverion. The intial patern ad, nevertiles, layed an instrumental roe, with etn block forms and Sass proving ltr mere robust of more amenable © ‘Mapation ove ine PART | Il The Dimensions of Urban Design STREETS AS PLACES ‘The final part ofthis chapter discusses the ineesing desire to design srt as places. The tems sess, boulevards, Srenuch, ef, imply design elemeats lacking inthe tm road ater than seperation, ey suggest accommodating and reconciling the demands of poverient ad social pace thin sbetntlly the sme physi pec. ‘While some “onde” wil always be neces, many commentators advocate rediscovering “seus a. both Social space and ns connecting ~ rae than diving ~ ‘lements wines, emphasing tbe ascension of tes ‘wth quality of publ ie (Appleyard 1981; Moudon 1987, Has Kla 1990; cobs 1985; LooaltouSidevs & Bane. sje 1998; se Klan eal 1999 Banerjee 200; cobs a 2002) Sis, a numberof rganisatins have lobbied for rodatet design considera us. Campaigning aginst ‘ove designed onl for spoodng cars, for exanp he Ustased “Complete Sees movement (oe ww, compltestet or) adocstes transportation planers ad ngincers designing and opersing teenie roadvay with Sil wes fo ied including eylias, pbb wranspotton “ebices ed ier, nd pderians a all ages and abies (cee also wortivineses oa ‘Noting how the dowotowns of many Califia ces had been fragmented int series uneated td spatially Timed realms, Loukaitou Siders & Banerjee (1998: 308) gue hat snther than testing the suet as ‘channel for tfient movement (2s In de Medenst er) of 28 an ‘aesthetic visual clonant (es inthe City Beni era), emporary urban design should vedscover the loci ole ofthe see ara connector that itches togeter tnd sometimes penetrates he grate downtown rea” ‘The avery and coice tat comes wih this refers the complesity of the teadonal ity, and isthe opposite of freee spicy, Kf bso Kay vene of sutinable ban design (ee Sustainability Insert 1). ‘Sosainable wan desig requires paters of deveiop- mest able to aconmodate and iterate the desands and needs ofthe various movemeat systems, while sopporting ose intercon and eachange. Despite tensions and ‘ont Between he pubic ce netwou's role os move= Irentepace ands leas socal space tee isaloa eed for 1 mull-prpose public space network, where soi space fd emovemeat space sre seperated if absoluely neces, but oterniz hve considerable overli (eve Chapter 8) ‘Alotander (1965) uses the separation of pedestrians fiom moving vehicles af an example of what he tems a tre'sike orgaisadonal secure inherent in over fering of he bltenvropment. He argues at, while his an be a god idea, is not aleaysa goed ide nd there ae times when the “ecology of a station’ demands the ‘cpposit. Te lsat bis point, be uses the example oF fats, which can only fenevon when pedestias and (Chapter | 4 The Moxphological Dinersion Sustainability srt 1 ~ Diversity and Chice Enviromental dvesiy 3 hoy tet of sustainable dee pare na mura content oun 9 easy 6 Sistainebily set, and i be ull cone eerty ‘he phyla! aod socal elny sn experiance of sce a fis ae eiay A Ciy & Nota Tee, Alexancer 1965) Tens is 19 “somites” whe sept laren Inara wih each ater a complex series of vefapping ‘stone. in dsing ro bo cer vadtloal towne and Cs, wha th lyre caplet hasbeen blo evel ove to Gee Chater 9 Ha canass ths wth ho frente gations! srocte fared by the Mes eyement here ements reac only ng dred and simpliieg fos ‘ehicles are noe icy separates the prowling al’ neds 1 fst stroam of rac so tht it can cover alae are to be {eof ining parsenges the pedentan ness boh to be ‘blo al heal fom any point ad, thereat, be taken ‘0 any he point inthe “pedestan wer Tha de tx system must overlap withthe vehicular waffcand the pedestrian eiclaion systems Designing for Cars or People ‘Wing about residential reas, Engh (199) argues ta the more pace acy devotes to even the more the chogespce becomes tiated and saree. Ph moe dled (dsc te eschageoportain, he morethe cy bei 1 lage the very hing tht mates @ iy: a concentration of -exoang opporiies ng, 199: 19) He suggests comparing sets with houses: he later are designed 10 reluce movement space (cod), wile maximising exchange spces (oom). However, the ‘ombiation of vehicular movement pace and social pace Jn the sume physical spac tends t cause varies) of problems. The sts simpy that major uban rods provide bsiretion oposesran movernent ceaing problems of Severance ad edacing comet. Though subways ané 08 Choices ey tent fun desig anes byproduct f his ‘drersy = plying ead of een mover a te ‘lira aman saab to pop nin how pe an use te public ernment Seley ea! 1985°9) I Sasi ams this eqs cling poses in he bit fur tatunderminn choice by reducing vty, ue the dona ef wban see by cost i expe of poorer and those without be ergo the or roamert ino manoluncionsl sess wth an acted Fee invest fw an he eres rivet of prs of the pu an fading the eferave ecuion from these sar of eget Foren of sock Thee renee enpaers ar congeuney ongoing erent the ned of cara scons fsck she ly and Seed i Cope 6, ‘Raruoucing and dining dry and oppornies for chice the bul ence te peer key ‘sina a hgh ing ee 2d wae by em ris eas ae Seging er wing an by wzporing

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