Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301

Temperature measurement when high speed machining

hardened mould/die steel
R.C. Dewesa,*, E. Nga, K.S. Chuaa, P.G. Newtona, D.K. Aspinwalla,b
a
School of Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
b
IRC in Materials for High Performance Applications, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Abstract

When turning and face milling hardened (>30 HRC) mould/die steels, it is necessary to use conventional ceramic or polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride (PCBN) tool materials. The use of high speed steel and cemented tungsten carbide (WC) tooling for this application is
precluded due to their relatively low hot hardness values. In recent years, however, the mould and die industry has begun to utilise solid WC
ball nose end mills for the high speed machining (HSM) of hardened steel cavities. Economic tool lives have been reported at high
rotational speeds/feed rates.
The paper details the use of 6 mm diameter solid, TiCN coated WC ball nose end mills for the HSM of a hot work tool steel, AISI H13,
hardened to 52 HRC. Tests were performed on a Matsuura 20 000 rpm high speed machining centre and temperatures were measured using
thermocouple and infrared techniques. Recorded tool /workpiece interface and chip temperatures were relatively low (200±4008C) and
increased with higher cutting speed, when using worn rather than new tools and with the workpiece inclined at 608 to simulate ®nishing
operations on the side of die cavities. # 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: High speed machining; Temperature measurement; Tool steel; Tungsten carbide

1. Literature survey 1.2. HSM cutting temperatures

1.1. High speed machining
High speed machining (HSM) was ®rst reported in 1931
by Salomon [1]. One de®nition is that the process ``involves
machining at considerably higher cutting speeds and feed
rates than those used in conventional machining'', however,
it is most commonly used to describe end milling at high
rotational speeds. The process has been adapted to a wide
range of applications. In the aerospace sector, HSM is used
to remove large volumes of aluminium quickly and to
produce thin walled sections in wings [2±4].
One of the more recent applications of HSM is in the
manufacture of moulds and dies from hardened tool steels
[5,6]. Cavities can be produced from solid in the hardened
state using HSM, rather than via the more traditional route:
machining in the soft condition followed by electrical dis-
charge machining (EDM), grinding and/or hand ®nishing.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-121-414-4175; fax: +44-121-414-
3541
E-mail address: r.c.dewes@bham.ac.uk (R.C. Dewes)
Salomon [1] proposed that there was a peak cutting
temperature at an intermediate cutting speed and that when
cutting speed was increased from this point, there was a
reduction in temperature, see Fig. 1(a). Since this claim,
most of the literature has concluded that there is no corre-
sponding reduction in temperature at higher cutting speeds.
McGee [7] suggested that temperature increased with
cutting speed up to a maximum which was equal to the
melting point of the workpiece, see Fig. 1(b). No tem-
perature reduction occurred at higher cutting speeds.
This explains why there is no ®xed limit to the cutting
speed when machining aluminium alloys (other than
that imposed by machine tool considerations). The melting
point of these alloys (up to 6608C) is lower than the
temperature at which cemented carbide and ceramic tool
materials begin to lose their strength and wear rapidly.
Conversely, Trent [8] stated that ``it is in the cutting
of iron, steel and other high melting point metals and
alloys that the heat generated becomes a controlling factor''.
Here the limit on cutting speed is a function of the cutting
tools used.

0924-0136/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 1 6 - 8
294 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
Fig. 1. Graphs of temperature vs. cutting speed: (a) Salomon's curve; (b) McGee's curve.
1.3. Temperature measurement techniques
Several experimental methods involving radiation, ther-
mocouple and metallography/microhardness techniques
have been used to measure cutting temperatures. A standard
thermocouple assembly embedded into a cutting tool or
workpiece is known as an implanted, inserted or remote
thermocouple [9,10]. On the other hand, if the tool
and workpiece are used as the dissimilar metals of the
thermocouple this is termed a tool/chip or tool/work
thermocouple. The former is a low cost method which
can be used to establish the distribution of tempera-
tures at different points in a cutting tool by utilising a
series of predetermined locations. Unfortunately, the
presence of holes in the tool may alter the temperature
distribution and it is not possible to directly measure the
temperature at the tool/workpiece interface. The tool/chip
thermocouple [11] gives the average temperature, not the
maximum, at the interface. Drawbacks of the technique
are that both workpiece and tool material must be electri-
cally conductive, cutting ¯uid cannot be used, calibration
is laborious, secondary voltages may occur and many
tool/workpiece combinations do not form ideal thermocou-
ples [8].
Another technique is to implant a suitable insulated
thermocouple wire, Te¯on-coated constantan (55% copper,
45% nickel) wire for example, into a workpiece. When the
workpiece is sheared during the machining process, the
insulation is broken and an instantaneous hot junction is
formed between the wire and the workpiece material in the
cutting zone, see Fig. 2. An electromotive force (emf) is
generated and assuming calibration of the system has been
performed, an interface temperature can be calculated. The
advantages of this method include easy calibration and use,
and the fact that tool materials which are electrical insulators
can be used. Unfortunately, the maximum temperature at the
tool/chip interface is not always recorded and experimental
error is caused by the variation in detection position along
the cutting edge. These problems, however, can largely be
overcome by test replications. This technique was used in
the present work.
A less invasive technique involves measurement of the
thermal radiation emitted during the cutting process by using
infrared (IR) sensitive photographic ®lm [13] or a pyrom-
eter/infrared thermometer [14]. Fig. 3 shows the system
used in the present work. Unfortunately, no cutting ¯uid
can be used and the temperature measured is usually that of
the top face of the chip and not the interface temperature
 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
Fig. 2. Machining sequence when using the implanted workpiece thermocouple [12].
Fig. 3. Agema Thermovision 900 system with IR camera (right) and
system controller (left).
because the tool/workpiece interface is obscured. Errors can
also result as a consequence of using an incorrect emisivity
value.
When using high speed steel or WC tools with an iron/
silicon binder, phase transformations in the tool material can
be used to deduce the temperature to which the tool has been
subjected and produce isothermal maps [15]. Optical micro-
scopy is utilised to compare sections of the cutting tool with
standard specimens. The disadvantages of this method
include the limited types of cutting tool materials that can
be used and the manufacture of standard specimens which
must be very carefully prepared.
The aim of the present work was to determine cutting
temperatures when high speed ball nose end milling har-
dened die steel, in order to explain the successful use of
tungsten carbide (WC) cutters for this operation. Tempera-
tures were measured using the workpiece/Te¯on-coated
constantan thermocouple and infrared techniques previously
outlined.
2. Experimental
2.1. Tooling, workpiece materials and machine tools
Previous HSM machinability work on hardened steels
[16], highlighted the suitability of Sandvik Coromant 1020
(formerly MC45) solid carbide ball nose end mills (PVD
295
Fig. 4. Sandvik 1020, 6 mm diameter TiCN coated carbide cutter.
coated with titanium carbonitride, TiCN). Consequently,
6 mm diameter 1020 tools, shown in Fig. 4, were used
for the present work. Cutters had four ¯utes with a positive
helix angle of 308. A tool overhang from the collet of 30 mm
was employed.
The workpiece material used was AISI H13 hot work tool
steel at a hardness of 52 HRC. It was obtained with a
chemical composition of 0.38% C, 1.00% Si, 0.34% Mn,
5.00% Cr, 1.3% Mo and Fe balance. Not surprisingly, AISI
H13 is not a standard thermocouple material categorised
under British Standard BS1041, therefore, a calibration bar
was designed, see Fig. 5. For the machining trials, a work-
piece block 80mm55mm35 mm was electrical discharge
wire machined into two separate pieces as shown in Fig. 6.
The design allowed insertion of thermocouple wires in the
gap while giving suf®ciently high clamping force to hold the
assembly in place during machining.
Two diameters (0.075 and 0.5 mm) of Te¯on-coated
constantan wire were obtained from Omega Engineering,
Fig. 5. Calibration bar.
296 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
Fig. 6. Workpiece block.
UK. There are a number of reasons why it is desirable to use
thinner wires in the measuring junction during machining.
They are poorer conductors of heat which reduces the
tendency of heat loss to the environment. Secondly, it is
critical to cut the wire cleanly to induce a suf®ciently high
thermal emf for measurement. The wire diameter also
determines the gap width in between the two parts of the
workpiece. A large wire diameter would result in a larger
gap causing an interruption in cutting and possibly reduced
temperature measurements.
Prior to the machining tests, the workpiece and thermo-
couple wires were prepared. Two 600 mm lengths of 0.5 mm
diameter constantan wire were utilised for longer connec-
tions between the measuring apparatus and workpiece. One
of the wires was silver soldered to the side of the workpiece
and the other was soldered to a 40 mm length of 0.075 mm
diameter wire. The thinner wire was formed into a sinusoidal
wave shape, 10 mm high with 2 mm protruding out of the
face of workpiece. Fig. 7 shows the workpiece with the two
halves separated in order that the looped wire can be seen.
The wire was bonded to the male half of the workpiece using
adhesive tape.
A Cincinnati milling machine (maximum spindle speed
1500 rpm) and a Matsuura FX-5 CNC controlled high speed
machining centre (maximum spindle speed 20 000 rpm)
were used for the work, see Fig. 8. The latter machine
Fig. 7. AISI H13 workpiece with constantan wire in place.
Fig. 8. Matsuura FX-5 machining centre.
had a maximum power of 15 kW and a continuously variable
feed rate up to 15 m/min.
2.2. Equipment ± thermocouple technique
A Fluke 8050A digital multimeter, set at its lowest DC
voltage range of 0±200 mV, was used for voltage measure-
ment during initial calibration work. The advantage of this
was that it displayed voltage values instantaneously, thus
saving time. Unfortunately, the refresh rate on the LCD
screen of 0.25 s was a limitation. A Gould 100 Ms/s oscillo-
scope (DSO) 420 was used for some calibration and the
majority of temperature evaluation work. Its advantages
included high accuracy, high sampling rate, rapid screen
refresh rate and a capability to produce hard copies using its
pen plotter. When using the HSM set-up at the operating
parameters detailed, the thermal emf generated lasted for a
very short period of time, typically 40 ms. By using the
oscilloscope, the input signal could be monitored continu-
ously, so that the probability of not capturing a short duration
thermal emf signal was minimised.
A Kane-May KM1420 temperature data logger was used
for the calibration work. This was speci®c to the K-type
thermocouple standard (nickel±chromium and nickel±alu-
minium), as in BS1041. The logger had a measuring range
from ÿ100 to 12008C with an accuracy of 0.28C and a
response time of <1 s. A stainless steel sheathed K-type
probe was connected to the logger and was used to measure
the temperature at the measuring junction of the calibration
bar. The data in the logger was transferred to a personal
computer using the equipment manufacturer's software
TERM2UK. The computer enabled the storage of data ®les
in ASCII format and allowed the generation of temperature
versus time plots on the screen.
In order to perform thermocouple calibration, it was
necessary for the measuring or hot junction of the calibration
bar to be heated while the other end, the reference or cold
junction remained at room temperature. Because of this, the
furnace calibration method reported by Braiden [17] was not
suitable. The induction heating method [18] was also
 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301 297

rejected. It was decided that the most suitable heating
method was to use an oxygen±acetylene torch.
2.3. Equipment ± infrared technique
Equipment consisted of an IR camera and a system
controller, see Fig. 3, borrowed from the UK's Engineering
and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). The
controller was a dedicated microcomputer set up speci®cally
for use with the camera. It consisted of a processor unit,
VGA video monitor, mouse and keyboard with specialised
system controls for image handling. The software was menu
driven and was contained in a windows environment. The
camera was designed to operate at wavelengths in the infra-
red spectrum (8±12 m). The temperature ranges selected
for this work were 0±2508C and 100±6008C. The emissivity
level used was 0.82. Interchangeable lenses were available
for the use with the scanner. In this case, a 408x208 resolution
lens was used which had a minimum focal length of 0.3 m.
2.4. Machining parameters
In the tests on the Cincinnati milling machine, only the
thermocouple technique was used. Fixed parameters
included the angle of workpiece (08), down/climb milling,
dry machining, use of a tool with 0.3 mm maximum ¯ank
wear and an axial/radial depth of cut of 0.5 mm. The effect
of feed per tooth and cutting speed were evaluated, see
Table 1. Feed per tooth values are approximate because the
machine was not equipped with in®nitely variable table
feeds. By looping the thermocouple wire in the manner
shown in Fig. 7, each test was effectively replicated a
number of times.
Tests on the Matsuura machining centre involved both the
thermocouple and infrared techniques, see Table 2. All tests
were performed using the thermocouple technique, however,
due to limited equipment availability, the infrared technique
was limited to tests 5 ± 10. Resources did not allow a full
factorial experiment to be performed, therefore, it was felt
that most information could be gained in the time available
by investigating four variables: cutting speed (tests 1 ± 3),
tool wear (tests 3 ± 10), angle of the workpiece (tests 3 ± 6)
and axial/radial depth of cut. In order to simulate the actual
machining of a mould or die cavity, the workpiece was
clamped both horizontally and at 608 to the horizontal while
maintaining a constant cutting speed by varying the rota-
tional speed. Fig. 9 illustrates the interface cutting speed at
workpiece angles 08 and 608 when using a 0.5 mm depth of
cut. Table 2 classi®es roughing, semi-®nishing and ®nishing
cuts depending on the depth of cut applied. During all tests,
dry cutting was employed and feed was ®xed at 0.1 mm/
tooth.
2.5. Experimental procedure ± thermocouple technique
The calibration experiment involved a number of steps.
The 0.075 mm diameter thermocouple wire was silver sol-
dered into hole A on the calibration bar, see Fig. 5. The bar

Table 1
Test parameters on the Cincinnati milling machine

Test Cutting Feed Spindle Feed

speed per tooth speed rate
(m/min) (mm/tooth) (rpm) (mm/min)

a 16 0.10 870 420

b 21 0.10 1140 420
c 28 0.10 1500 570
d 21 0.05 1140 220
Fig. 9. Effect of workpiece angle on cutting speed.

Table 2
Test parameters on the Matsuura machining centre

Test Maximum Angle of Cutting Spindle Axial Radial Feed

flank wear workpiece speed speed depth of depth of rate
(mm) (degree) (m/min) (rpm) cut (mm) cut (mm) (mm/min)

Roughing cut 1 0 0 100 9597 0.5 0.5 3839

2 0 0 150 14 396 0.5 0.5 5759
3 0 0 200 19 194 0.5 0.5 7678
4 0.3 0 200 19 194 0.5 0.5 7678
Roughing cut 5 0 60 200 10 610 0.5 0.5 4244
6 0.3 60 200 10 741 0.5 0.5 4244
Semi-finishing cut 7 0 60 200 10 741 0.2 0.2 4296
8 0.3 60 200 10 741 0.2 0.2 4296
Finishing cut 9 0 60 200 10 741 0.2 0.1 4296
10 0.1 60 200 10 741 0.2 0.1 4296
298 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301

was clamped in place and the thermocouple wires from the

measuring and reference junctions were connected to the
multimeter. At the measuring junction, the K-type stainless
steel probe was inserted into hole B, see Fig. 5, and con-
nected to the data logger. The measuring junction was heated
with the oxygen±acetylene torch to 7008C. The voltage on
the multimeter was recorded and the bar allowed to cool.
During cooling, at ®xed temperature intervals, the emf value
was recorded. The values were plotted on a graph of voltage
versus temperature. A linear relationship between voltage
and temperature was established and the equation of the line
determined. The calibration procedure was repeated ®ve
times and ®ve calibration lines superimposed. The equation
of a line of best ®t was determined. One calibration test using
the oscilloscope rather than multimeter was carried out in
order to con®rm that both sets of equipment gave similar
results.
When calibration was complete, initial tests were under-
taken on the Cincinnati milling machine. The workpiece/
thermocouple junction was set-up as discussed previously.
The assembly was clamped in a vice with plywood used to
insulate it from the machine to prevent electrical interfer-
ence. Machining cuts were taken across the workpiece using
the parameters given in Table 2 until the protruding thermo-
couple wire was cut and a signal triggered in the oscillo-
scope. The voltage was printed using the pen plotter. When
the entire face of the workpiece had been machined and a
number of temperature readings obtained, the workpiece
was re-prepared. The voltages were analysed and converted
to temperatures. A mean temperature value was calculated
and taken as the interface temperature for the test.
All subsequent work was performed on the Matsuura
machining centre. Each time a new workpiece was clamped
in the vice, it was levelled to 30 m. Trigonometric
calculations were used to check the level of the workpiece
at 608. The voltage and timebase settings on the oscilloscope
were modi®ed depending on the cutting parameters, in order
to produce reliable results. A CNC program was executed
which resulted in the cutter machining across the workpiece,
retracting above the workpiece and returning to the start of
the next cut and applying the radial depth of cut. Each time a
wire was machined through, a signal occurred and the
voltage trace was recorded and printed out as with the tests
on the Cincinnati machine.
2.6. Experimental procedure ± infrared technique
The Agema Thermovision 900 system was set up, the
temperature range selected and the level and span of the
image adjusted to produce a recognisable image. The
IR camera was ®lled with liquid nitrogen, positioned
at a safe distance from the workpiece to avoid any possibility
of damage by the swarf and connected to the system
controller. The automatic image storing sequence (1 s
intervals) was initiated, see Fig. 10. The machining
sequence was set up as described previously with the cutting
Fig. 10. A thermal image captured when machining workpiece at 608.
parameters given in Table 2. After the sequence was
recorded, the images were recalled and analysed by using
the ``spotmeters'' in the software. When placed over the
image, these gave a temperature value at a particular point.
The maximum chip temperature was therefore recorded
for each test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Calibration of the thermocouple
The ®ve sets of calibration results using the multimeter
were combined to give a line of best ®t, see Fig. 11 for graph
and equation of the line. Also shown are the results and
equation obtained when using the oscilloscope. The differ-
ence in readings between the two measuring devices was
only 0.14% at 20 mV. Therefore, the equation from the
oscilloscope was used to calculate the temperature from
the induced thermal emf for the machining tests.
3.2. Temperature results
The effect of cutting speed on interface temperature, as
measured using the thermocouple technique can be seen in
Fig. 12 which shows the results of Cincinnati tests  a ± c
and Matsuura tests 1 ± 3. Mean temperature values are
shown. An analysis indicated that mean and median tem-
peratures fell within 108C in all cases. It can be seen that
over the range of cutting speeds tested, the interface tem-
perature increased in a manner similar to that found by
McGee when machining aluminium [7]. This is in line with
conventional metal cutting theory [19]. A machine with
higher spindle speeds would be required to fully test Sal-
omon's ®ndings that temperature reduces at higher cutting
speeds [1].
Although not shown graphically, reducing the feed rate
from 0.10 to 0.05 mm/tooth at a cutting speed of 21 m/min
 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
Fig. 11. Calibration results and equations for multimeter and oscilloscope.
Fig. 12. Effect of cutting speed on interface temperature.
gave a very slight reduction in temperature from 1108C to
1078C.
The next stage of the work was to test the effect of
workpiece angle and tool wear on interface temperature,
see Fig. 13. There was an increase in temperature when
machining with the workpiece at 608 rather than 08. This can
Fig. 13. The effect of workpiece angle and tool wear on interface
temperature.
299
be explained because at 08 the cutting speeds on the ball nose
end mill ranged from zero in the centre to 200 m/min at the
periphery, while at 608 the range is from 173 to 200 m/min,
see Fig. 9. As a result, higher average cutting speeds
occurred in the cutting zone and therefore, higher tempera-
tures would be expected. An effect which is likely to have
prevented temperatures at 08 from being even lower was the
nature of the ball nose cutter. At 608, all four teeth of the
cutter would have done an equal amount of cutting, however,
at 08, two of the teeth would have done very little work due
to the fact that they stop short of the centre of the tool. The
effective feed per tooth would have approached 0.2 mm/
tooth which would be expected to contribute to higher
temperatures.
When using a tool with 0.3 mm of ¯ank wear, tem-
peratures increased. With a worn tool, more surface
contact between the tool and workpiece occurred and
the increase in sliding friction and rubbing caused higher
temperatures.
Figs. 14 and 15 show the effect of axial and radial depth of
cut on interface and chip temperatures, respectively. Rough-
ing, semi-®nishing and ®nishing cuts are indicated as R, SF
Fig. 14. Effect of axial and radial depth of cut on interface temperature.
300 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
Fig. 15. Effect of axial and radial depth of cut on chip temperature.
and F. In all but one case, chip temperatures are much lower
than interface temperatures. Values measured by the infrared
technique were typically one third those from the thermo-
couple. It is widely accepted that during metal cutting, the
majority of heat (80%) is transferred to the chip, therefore,
it could be argued that this is a larger difference than would
be expected. A possible explanation is that with the IR
camera and lens used, the hot zone was relatively small
compared to the total area scanned, see Fig. 10. This,
combined with limitations in the software which would
allow the use of ``spotmeters'' but not output a maximum
temperature over an area, meant that there was no guarantee
that the hottest point was measured. It is considered that the
thermocouple technique was intrinsically superior for this
application and gave more accurate, absolute temperature
values.
The differences in temperature between the three types of
cut are as would be expected, with smaller depths of cut
giving signi®cantly lower temperatures. This would validate
the use of small depths of cut during the HSM of hardened
steels in order to minimise cutter wear. With the roughing
cut, there is a large difference between the temperatures
generated with the new and worn tools, a smaller difference
when semi-®nishing and an even smaller range when ®nish-
ing. This can be explained by reference to the extent of ¯ank
wear on the worn tools, see Table 2, higher levels of ¯ank
wear giving a bigger difference in temperature.
Currently, EDM is widely used for the production of
moulds and dies from hardened steels. Due to the high
temperatures which occur, typically 10 000 ± 20 0008C,
surface integrity problems such as heat affected zones, white
layers and tensile residual stresses are found on machined
components. With the temperatures measured using the
thermocouple technique (<4008C), it would be expected
that surface integrity problems would be minimised when
using HSM, as the tempering temperature of AISI H13
(5508C) is not exceeded. In parallel work, some of which
has been published [20], the authors found that HSM gave
superior surface integrity to EDM.
4. Conclusions
1. Interface temperatures measured using the thermocouple
technique when machining with the workpiece at 08
were 198±3018C. Higher temperatures, 247±3858C,
occurred at a 608 workpiece angle.
2. Temperature increased with cutting speed and no reduc-
tion at higher speeds occurred. This is contrary to Sal-
omon's theory and agrees with McGee's findings. Feed
per tooth did not have a large effect on temperature.
3. Machining with a worn tool generated higher tempera-
tures than when using new tools.
4. The IR technique indicated lower temperatures than the
thermocouple method with values of 68±3908C. Heat
losses to the tool and workpiece and drawbacks with the
IR technique explain the lower temperatures measured.
5. The relatively low cutting temperatures measured explain
why WC products can be successfully used for the HSM
of hardened steels.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Prof. A.A. Ball, Head of the
School of Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering, and
Prof. M.H. Loretto, Director of the IRC in Materials for High
Performance Applications, for provision of facilities and
funding. We are grateful to Messrs. R. Fasham, W. Hewitt, P.
Thornton and J. Wedderburn for their assistance with the
experimental work. Thanks also go to the Control, Design
and Production Directorate of EPSRC, De Beers Industrial
Diamond Division (Pty) Ltd., Dynacast (UK) Ltd., Kienin-
ger Tooling Ltd., Matsuura Machinery plc, Sandvik Cor-
omant (UK) Ltd., United Engineering Forgings Ltd., and
WH Smith and Sons (Tools) Ltd., for additional funding and
support. We also wish to express our gratitude to the EPSRC
for lending the infrared equipment.
References
[1] C. Salomon, Verfahren zur bearbeitung von metallen oder bei einer
bearbeitung durch schneidende werkzeuge sich ahnlich verhaltenden
werkstoffen, German Patent no. 523594, (1931).
[2] G.L. Criger, High speed machining in production, SAMPE Quarterly,
12 April 1981.
[3] J. Tlusty, High speed milling, in: Proceedings of the 6th IMEC,
Osaka, Japan, (1994), pp. 35±42.
[4] J.R. Coleman, No myth high speed machining, Manuf. Eng. 61 (Oct.
1992).
[5] J. Gough, High speed machining for toolmaking applications, Prec.
Toolmaker 8(3) (1990) 154±157.
[6] H. Schulz, High speed machining - some of the latest developments,
Metalworking World 3 (1994) 32±36.
[7] F.J. McGee, High speed machining - study: methods for aluminium
workpieces, Am. Machinist (1979) 121±126.
[8] E.M. Trent, Metal cutting, 3rd edition, Butterworth, London, ISBN
0750610689, (1991).
 R.C. Dewes et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 92±93 (1999) 293±301
[9] M.P. Groover, G.E. Kane, A continuing study in the determination of
temperatures in metal cutting using remote thermocouples, J. Eng.
Ind. (Trans. ASME) 93(2) (1971) 603±608.
[10] A.H. Redford, B. Mills, S. Akhtar, Temperature - tool life relation-
ships for resulphurised low carbon free machining steels, CIRP
Annals 25(1) (1976) 89±91.
[11] P. Lezanski, M.C. Shaw, Tool face temperatures in high speed
milling, J. Eng. Ind. (Trans. ASME) 112(2) (1990) 132±135.
[12] W. Chen, A report of the research on surface integrity of hardened
steel following face milling, School of Manuf. and Mech. Eng.,
University of Birmingham, UK, (1994).
[13] G. Boothroyd, Temperatures in orthogonal metal cutting, Proc. Instn.
Mech. Engrs. 177(29) (1963) 789±802.
[14] J.P. Kottenstette, Measuring tool-chip interface temperatures, J. Eng.
Ind. (Trans. ASME) 108(2) (1986) 101±104.
[15] P.A. Dearnley, E.M. Trent, Wear mechanisms of coated carbide tools,
Metals Technology, 9 (1982) 60±75.
301
[16] R.C. Dewes, D.K. Aspinwall, High speed machining of hardened tool
steel using cemented carbide tooling, in: Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Progress of Cutting and Grinding,
Osaka, Japan, vol. 3, (1996) pp. 217±222.
[17] P.M. Braiden, The calibration of tool/work thermocouples, Proc. in:
Proceedings of the Eighth International MTDR Conference,
Manchester, UK, Perganon, Oxford, (1967), pp. 653±666.
[18] G. Barrow, A review of experimental and theoretical techniques for
assessing cutting temperature, CIRP Annals 22(2) (1973) 203.
[19] B.T. Chao, K.J. Trigger, An analytical evaluation of metal cutting
temperatures, Trans. ASME, 73, (1951) p. 57.
[20] R.C. Dewes, D.K. Aspinwall et al., Tool wear and surface integrity
observations during the high speed milling of hardened die steel, in:
Proceedings of the International Conference on Design and
Production of Dies and Moulds, Istanbul, Turkey, (1997).