Assignment title: Water sources impurities and

its treatment:
Abundant supplies of fresh water are essential to the development of industry.
Enormous quantities are required for the cooling of products and equipment, for
process needs, for boiler feed, and for sanitary and potable water supply.
THE PLANETARY WATER CYCLE
Industry is a small participant in the global water cycle. The finite amount of water on
the planet participates in a very complicated recycling scheme that provides for its
reuse. This recycling of water is termed the "Hydrologic Cycle"
Evaporation under the influence of sunlight takes water from a liquid to a gaseous
phase. The water may condense in clouds as the temperature drops in the upper
atmosphere. Wind transports the water over great distances before releasing it in some
form of precipitation. As the water condenses and falls to the ground, it absorbs gases
from the environment. This is the principal cause of acid rain and acid snow.
WATER AS A SOLVENT
Pure water (H20) is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It is composed of hydrogen and
oxygen. Because water becomes contaminated by the substances with which it comes
into contact, it is not available for use in its pure state. To some degree, water can
dissolve every naturally occurring substance on the earth. Because of this property,
water has been termed a "universal solvent." Although beneficial to mankind, the
solvency power of water can pose a major threat to industrial equipment. Corrosion
reactions cause the slow dissolution of metals by water. Deposition reactions, which
produce scale on heat transfer surfaces, represent a change in the solvency power of
water as its temperature is varied. The control of corrosion and scale is a major focus
of water treatment technology.
WATER IMPURITIES
Water impurities include dissolved and suspended solids. Calcium bicarbonate is a
soluble salt. A solution of calcium bicarbonate is clear, because the calcium and
bicarbonate are present as atomic sized ions which are not large enough to reflect
light. Some soluble minerals impart a color to the solution. Soluble iron salts produce
pale yellow or green solutions; some copper salts form intensely blue solutions.
Although colored, these solutions are clear. Suspended solids are substances that are
not completely soluble in water and are present as particles.
Biological and Chemical Impurities in Water

Drinking water purification is a must today that shouldn’t be avoided in any case because of the
impurities available in the water we are supplied or getting. We are getting a lot of both biological and
chemical impurities in water. It can be avoided upto some extent for the domestic uses of this kind of
water. But when it is used for drinking purposes it may cause many health disorders or ailments.
Today RO water purifiers playing a big role for the betterment of the health of people who are using it
in their daily life. RO water purifiers purify the water 98-99%. There are many drinking water
purification systems are available in the market.

We, Xylem RO Solutions, manufacture quality RO water purifiers that are very durable and results you
in low maintenance.

These particles usually impart a visible turbidity to the water. Dissolved and suspended
solids are present in most surface waters. Seawater is very high in soluble sodium
chloride; suspended sand and silt make it slightly cloudy. An extensive list of soluble
and suspended impurities found in water is given in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1. Common impurities found in fresh water.
Constituent Chemical Formula Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment
imparts unsightly
appearance to water;
non-expressed in deposits in water lines, coagulation, settling,
Turbidity
analysis as units process equipment, etc.; and filtration
interferes with most
process uses
chief source of scale in softening;
calcium and heat exchange equipment, demineralization;
Hardness magnesium salts, boilers, pipe lines, etc.; internal boiler water
expressed as CaCO3 forms curds with soap, treatment; surface
interferes with dyeing, etc. active agents
foam and carryover of
lime and lime-soda
solids with steam;
bicarbonate(HCO3-), embrittlement of boiler softening; acid
carbonate (CO32-), treatment; hydrogen
steel; bicarbonate and
Alkalinity and hydroxide(OH-), carbonate produce CO2 in zeolite softening;
expressed as CaCO3 steam, a source of demineralization DE
alkalization by anion
corrosion in condensate
exchange
lines
Free Mineral H2SO4 , HCI. etc., neutralization with
Corrosion
Acid expressed as CaCO3 alkalies
corrosion in water lines, aeration, deaeration,
Carbon
CO2 particularly steam and neutralization with
Dioxide
condensate lines alkalies
hydrogen ion
concentration defined pH varies according to
pH can be increased by
as: acidic or alkaline solids in
PH alkalies and decreased
1 water; most natural waters
by acids
pH = log have a pH of 6.0-8.0
[H+]
 adds to solids content of
demineralization,
water, but in itself is not
reverse osmosis,
Sulfate SO42- usually significant,
electrodialysis,
combines with calcium to
evaporation
form calcium sulfate scale
demineralization,
adds to solids content and
reverse osmosis,
Chloride Cl - increases corrosive
electrodialysis,
character of water
evaporation
adds to solids content, but
is not usually significant
demineralization,
industrially: high
reverse osmosis,
Nitrate NO3- concentrations cause
electrodialysis,
methemoglobinemia in
evaporation
infants; useful for control of
boiler metal embrittlement
cause of mottled enamel in adsorption with
teeth; also used for control magnesium hydroxide,
Fluoride F- of dental decay: not calcium phosphate, or
usually significant bone black; alum
industrially coagulation
adds to solids content of
demineralization,
water: when combined
reverse osmosis,
Sodium Na+ with OH-, causes corrosion
electrodialysis,
in boilers under certain
evaporation
conditions
hot and warm process
removal by magnesium
salts; adsorption by
scale in boilers and cooling
highly basic anion
water systems; insoluble
Silica SiO2 exchange resins, in
turbine blade deposits due
conjunction with
to silica vaporization
demineralization,
reverse osmosis,
evaporation
aeration; coagulation
discolors water on
and filtration; lime
precipitation; source of
softening; cation
Fe2+ (ferrous) deposits in water lines,
Iron exchange; contact
Fe3+ (ferric) boilers. etc.; interferes with
filtration; surface active
dyeing, tanning,
agents for iron
papermaking, etc.
retention
Manganese Mn2+ same as iron same as iron
Aluminum AI3+ usually present as a result improved clarifier and
of floc carryover from filter operation
 clarifier; can cause
deposits in cooling
systems and contribute to
complex boiler scales
corrosion of water lines, deaeration; sodium
Oxygen O2 heat exchange equipment, sulfite; corrosion
boilers, return lines, etc. inhibitors
aeration; chlorination;
Hydrogen cause of "rotten egg" odor;
H2S highly basic anion
Sulfide corrosion
exchange
corrosion of copper and cation exchange with
Ammonia NH3 zinc alloys by formation of hydrogen zeolite;
complex soluble ion chlorination; deaeration
refers to total amount of
dissolved matter, lime softening and
determined by cation exchange by
evaporation; high hydrogen zeolite;
Dissolved
none concentrations are demineralization,
Solids
objectionable because of reverse osmosis,
process interference and electrodialysis,
as a cause of foaming in evaporation
boilers
refers to the measure of
undissolved matter,
subsidence; filtration,
Suspended determined gravimetrically;
none usually preceded by
Solids deposits in heat exchange
coagulation and settling
equipment, boilers, water
lines, etc.
refers to the sum of
see "Dissolved Solids"
dissolved and suspended
Total Solids none and "Suspended
solids, determined
Solids"
gravimetrically

Surface Water
The ultimate course of rain or melting snow depends on the nature of the terrain over
which it flows. In areas consisting of hard packed clay, very little water penetrates the
ground. In these cases, the water generates "runoff". The runoff collects in streams
and rivers. The rivers empty into bays and estuaries, and the water ultimately returns
to the sea, completing one major phase of the hydrologic cycle shown in Figure 1-1.
As water runs off along the surface, it stirs up and suspends particles of sand and soil,
creating silt in the surface water. In addition, the streaming action erodes rocky
surfaces, producing more sand. As the surface water cascades over rocks, it is
aerated. The combination of oxygen, inorganic nutrients leached from the terrain, and
sunlight supports a wide variety of life forms in the water, including algae, fungi,
bacteria, small crustaceans, and fish.
Often, river beds are lined with trees, and drainage areas feeding the rivers are
forested. Leaves and pine needles constitute a large percentage of the biological
content of the water. After it dissolves in the water, this material becomes a major
cause of fouling of ion exchange resin used in water treatment.
The physical and chemical characteristics of surface water contamination vary
considerably over time. A sudden storm can cause a dramatic short term change in the
composition of a water supply. Over a longer time period, surface water chemistry
varies with the seasons. During periods of high rainfall, high runoff occurs. This can
have a favorable or unfavorable impact on the characteristics of the water, depending
on the geochemistry and biology of the terrain.
Surface water chemistry also varies over multi year or multidecade cycles of drought
and rainfall. Extended periods of drought severely affect the availability of water for
industrial use. Where rivers discharge into the ocean, the incursion of salt water up the
river during periods of drought presents additional problems. Industrial users must take
surface water variability into account when designing water treatment plants and
programs.
Groundwater
Water that falls on porous terrains, such as sand or sandy loam, drains or percolates
into the ground. In these cases, the water encounters a wide variety of mineral species
arranged in complex layers, or strata. The minerals may include granite, gneiss, basalt,
and shale. In some cases, there may be a layer of very permeable sand beneath
impermeable clay. Water often follows a complex three dimensional path in the ground.
The science of groundwater hydrology involves the tracking of these water
movements.
Table 1-2. A comparison of surface water and groundwater characteristics.
Characteristic Surface Water Ground Water
Turbidity high Low
Dissolved minerals low-moderate High
Biological content high Low
Temporal variability very high Low

In contrast to surface supplies, groundwaters are relatively free from suspended

contaminants, because they are filtered as they move through the strata. The filtration
also removes most of the biological contamination. Some groundwaters with a high
iron content contain sulfate reducing bacteria. These are a source of fouling and
corrosion in industrial water systems.
Groundwater chemistry tends to be very stable over time. A groundwater may contain
an undesirable level of scale forming solids, but due to its fairly consistent chemistry it
may be treated effectively.
Mineral Reactions: As groundwater encounters different minerals, it dissolves them
according to their solubility characteristics. In some cases chemical reactions occur,
enhancing mineral solubility.
A good example is the reaction of groundwater with limestone. Water percolating from
the surface contains atmospheric gases. One of these gases is carbon dioxide, which
forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water. The decomposition of organic matter
beneath the surface is another source of carbon dioxide. Limestone is a mixture of
calcium and magnesium carbonate. The mineral, which is basic, is only slightly soluble
in neutral water. The slightly acidic groundwater reacts with basic limestone in a
neutralization reaction that forms a salt and a water of neutralization. The salt formed
by the reaction is a mixture of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate. Both bicarbonates
are quite soluble. This reaction is the source of the most common deposition and
corrosion problems faced by industrial users. The calcium and magnesium (hardness)
form scale on heat transfer surfaces if the groundwater is not treated before use in
industrial cooling and boiler systems. In boiler feedwater applications, the thermal
breakdown of the bicarbonate in the boiler leads to high levels of carbon dioxide in
condensate return systems. This can cause severe system corrosion.
Structurally, limestone is porous. That is, it contains small holes and channels called
"interstices". A large formation of limestone can hold vast quantities of groundwater in
its structure. Limestone formations that contain these large quantities of water are
called aquifers, a term derived from Latin roots meaning water bearing.
If a well is drilled into a limestone aquifer, the water can he withdrawn continuously for
decades and used for domestic and industrial applications. Unfortunately, the water is
very hard, due to the neutralization/dissolution reactions described above. This
necessitates extensive water treatment for most uses.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Numerous chemical tests must be conducted to ensure effective control of a water
treatment program. Most of these tests are addressed in detail in Chapters 39-71.
Because of their significance in many systems, three tests, pH, alkalinity, and silica,
are discussed here as well.
pH Control
Good pH control is essential for effective control of deposition and corrosion in many
water systems. Therefore, it is important to have a good understanding of the meaning
of pH and the factors that affect it.
Pure H2O exists as an equilibrium between the acid species, H + (more correctly
expressed as a protonated water molecule, the hydronium ion, H 30+) and the hydroxyl
radical, OH -. In neutral water the acid concentration equals the hydroxyl concentration
and at room temperature they both are present at 10 -7 gram equivalents (or moles) per
liter.
The "p" function is used in chemistry to handle very small numbers. It is the negative
 logarithm of the number being expressed. Water that has 10 -7 gram equivalents per
liter of hydrogen ions is said to have a pH of 7. Thus, a neutral solution exhibits a pH of
7. Table 1-3 lists the concentration of H+ over 14 orders of magnitude. As it varies, the
concentration of OH - must also vary, but in the opposite direction, such that the
product of the two remains constant.
Table 1-3. pH relationships.
OH -
H+ Concentration
Concentration,
pH Exponential H+ Concentration, OH - Concentration,
a Exponential pOH -
Notation, gram Normality Normality
Notation, gram
moles/L
moles/L
0
  0 10 1 0.00000000000001 10-14 14
-1 13
  1 10 0.1 0.0000000000001 10— 13
-2 12
  2 10 0.01 0.000000000001 10— 12
-3 -11
  3 10 0.001 0.00000000001 10 11
  4 10-4 0.0001 0.0000000001 10-10 10
-5 -9
  5 10 0.00001 0.000000001 10 9
-6 -8
  6 10 0.000001 0.00000001 10 8
-7 -7
  7 10 0.0000001 0.0000001 10 7
-8 -6
  8 10 0.00000001 0.000001 10 6
  9 10-9 0.000000001 0.00001 10-5 5
-10 -4
10 10 0.0000000001 0.0001 10 4
-11 -3
11 10 0.00000000001 0.001 10 3
-12 -2
12 10 0.000000000001 0.01 10 2
-13 -1
13 10 0.0000000000001 0.1 10 1
0.0000000000000
14 10-14 1 100 0
1

a
pH+pOH=14.
 
Confusion regarding pH arises from two sources:

 the inverse nature of the function

 the pH meter scale

It is important to remember that as the acid concentration increases, the pH value

decreases (see Table 1-4).
Table 1-4. Comparative pH levels of common solutions.

12 OH - alkalinity 500 ppm as CaCO3

 OH - alkalinity 50 ppm as CaCO3
11
Columbus. OH, drinking water, a
10 OH - alkalinity 5 ppm as CaCO3
  9 strong base anion exchanger effluents
  8 phenolphthalein end point
  7 neutral point at 25 °C
  6 Weymouth, NIA, drinking water, a
  5 methyl orange end point
  4 FMA 4 ppm as CaCO3
FMA 40 ppm as CaCO3
  3
strong acid cation exchanger effluent
  2 FMA 400 ppm as CaCO3

a 
Extremes of drinking water pH
The pH meter can be a source of confusion, because the pH scale on the meter is
linear, extending from 0 to 14 in even increments. Because pH is a logarithmic
function, a change of I pH unit corresponds to a 10 fold change in acid concentration. A
decrease of 2 pH units represents a 100 fold change in acid concentration.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity tests are used to control lime-soda softening processes and boiler blowdown
and to predict the potential for calcium scaling in cooling water systems. For most
water systems, it is important to recognize the sources of alkalinity and maintain proper
alkalinity control.
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water as a gas. The dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with
solvent water molecules and forms carbonic acid according to the following reaction:
CO2    + H2O     =     H2CO3
Only a trace amount of carbonic acid is formed, but it is acidic enough to lower pH from
the neutral point of 7. Carbonic acid is a weak acid, so it does not lower pH below 4.3.
However, this level is low enough to cause significant corrosion of system metals.
If the initial loading of CO2 is held constant and the pH is raised, a gradual
transformation into the bicarbonate ion HCO 3- occurs. This is shown in Figure 1-2.
The transformation is complete at pH 8.3. Further elevation of the pH forces a second
transformation into carbonate, CO32-. The three species carbonic acid, bicarbonate,
and carbonate can be converted from one to another by means of changing the pH of
the water.
Variations in pH can be reduced through "buffering" the addition of acid (or caustic).
When acid (or caustic) is added to a water containing carbonate/bicarbonate species,
the pH of the system does not change as quickly as it does in pure water. Much of the
added acid (or caustic) is consumed as the carbonate/bicarbonate (or
bicarbonate/carbonic acid) ratio is shifted.
Alkalinity is the ability of a natural water to neutralize acid (i.e., to reduce the pH
depression expected from a strong acid by the buffering mechanism mentioned
above). Confusion arises in that alkaline pH conditions exist at a pH above 7, whereas
alkalinity in a natural water exists at a pH above 4.4.
Alkalinity is measured by a double titration; acid is added to a sample to the
Phenolphthalein end point (pH 8.3) and the Methyl Orange end point (pH 4.4). Titration
to the Phenolphthalein end point (the P-alkalinity) measures OH  - and 1/2 CO32-;
titration to the Methyl Orange end point (the M-alkalinity) measures OH  -, CO32- and
HCO3 .
Silica
When not properly controlled, silica forms highly insulating, difficult to remove deposits
in cooling systems, boilers, and turbines. An understanding of some of the possible
variations in silica testing is valuable.
Most salts, although present as complicated crystalline structures in the solid phase,
assume fairly simple ionic forms in solution. Silica exhibits complicated structures even
in solution.
Silica exists in a wide range of structures, from a simple silicate to a complicated
polymeric material. The polymeric structure can persist when the material is dissolved
in surface waters.
The size of the silica polymer can be substantial, ranging up to the colloidal state.
Colloidal silica is rarely present in groundwaters. It is most commonly present in
surface waters during periods of high runoff.
The polymeric form of silica does not produce color in the standard molybdate based
colorimetric test for silica. This form of silica is termed "nonreactive". The polymeric
form of silica is not thermally stable and when heated in a boiler reverts to the basic
silicate monomer, which is reactive with molybdate.
As a result, molybdate testing of a boiler feedwater may reveal little or no silica, while
boiler blowdown measurements show a level of silica that is above control limits. High
boiler water silica and low feedwater values are often a first sign that colloidal silica is
present in the makeup.
One method of identifying colloidal silica problems is the use of atomic emission or
absorption to measure feedwater silica. This method, unlike the molybdate chemistry,
measures total silica irrespective of the degree of polymerization