Lifespan Psychology Module 12: Adolescence – Social and Personality Development

Key Terms:

 Identity: an understanding of one’s unique characteristics and how they have been, are,

and will be manifested across ages, situations, and social roles

 Identity versus role confusion: in Erikson’s theory, the stage during which adolescents

attain a sense of who they are

 Identity crisis: Erikson’s term for the psychological state of emotional turmoil that arises

when an adolescent’s sense of self becomes “unglued” so that a new, more mature sense of

self can be achieved

 Identity achievement: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status achieved by a person who

has been through a crisis and reached a commitment to ideological or occupational goals

 Moratorium: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who is in a crisis but has

made no commitment

 Foreclosure: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who has made a

commitment without having gone through a crisis; the person has simply accepted a

parentally or culturally defined commitment

 Identity diffusion: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who is not in the

midst of a crisis and who has made no commitment

 Gender role identity: the gender-related aspects of the psychological self

 Ethnic identity: a sense of belonging to an ethnic group

 Preconventional morality: in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral reasoning in which

judgments are based on authorities outside the self

 Conventional morality: in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral reasoning in which

judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the person belongs

 Postconventional morality: in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral reasoning in which

judgments are based on an integration of individual rights and the needs of society

 Role-taking: the ability to look at a situation from another person’s perspective

 Cyberbullying: a form of aggression in which electronic communications are used to

intentionally inflict harm on others

 Delinquency: antisocial behavior that includes law-breaking

 Clique: four to six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another

 Crowd: a combination of cliques, which includes both males and females

I) Theories of Social and Personality Development

a) Psychoanalytic Perspectives

 Identity: an understanding of one’s unique characteristics and how they have been,

are, and will be manifested across ages, situations, and social roles.

 Identity versus role confusion: in Erikson’s theory, the stage during which

adolescents attain a sense of who they are.

 Identity crisis: Erikson’s term for the psychological state of emotional turmoil that

arises when an adolescent’s sense of self becomes “unglued” so that a new, more

mature sense of self can be achieved.

b) Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement

 Created by James Marcia

 Following one of Erikson’s ideas, Marcia argues that adolescent identity formation

has two key parts: a crisis and a commitment. By crisis, Marcia means a period of

decision making when old values and old choices are reexamined. The outcome of the

reevaluation is a commitment to some specific role, value, goal, or ideology.

 Identity achievement: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status achieved by a person

who has been through a crisis and reached a commitment to ideological or

occupational goals.

 Moratorium: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who is in a crisis but

has made no commitment.

 Foreclosure: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who has made a

commitment without having gone through a crisis; the person has simply accepted a

parentally or culturally defined commitment.

  Identity diffusion: in Marcia’s theory, the identity status of a person who is not in

the midst of a crisis and who has made no commitment.

II) Self-Concept

a) Self-Understanding

 Through the elementary school years, the child’s self-concept becomes more focused

on enduring internal characteristics—the psychological self.

b) Gender Roles

 Gender role identity: the gender-related aspects of the psychological self.

c) Ethnic Identity

 Ethnic identity: a sense of belonging to an ethnic group.

 Jean Phinney’s three stages of development of ethnic identity: unexamined ethnic

identity, ethnic identity search, and ethnic identity achievement stage.

III) Moral Development

a) Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning



 Preconventional morality (0-4): in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral reasoning

in which judgments are based on sources of authority who are close by and physically
 superior. Just as descriptions of others are largely external (physical characteristics) at

this level, so the standards the child uses to judge rightness or wrongness are external

rather than internal.

 Stage 1: Punishment/obedience; what is right is what avoids consequence. If a child is

punished, the behavior is wrong; if they are not, the behavior is right. They are

obedient to adults because they are bigger and stronger.

 Stage 2: Interpersonal exchange/individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange;

what is right is what is fair. (There is an focus on external consequence). The child or

adolescent operates on the principle that you should do things that are awarded and

avoid things that are punished. This reasoning dominates around age 10.

 Conventional morality (5-12): in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral reasoning in

which judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the person belongs.

 Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal

conformity/social approval; what is right is what’s the social norm. Individuals reason

that good behavior is what pleases other people. Judgment is based on intentions as

well as outward behavior. If someone did something on accident, it is seen as less

harmful than if they did it on purpose. This stage of reasoning is most common about

age 16.

 Stage 4: Social system and conscience/law-and-order orientation; rules/societal order

preserve social order because you value a society with rules. Morality and legality are

assumed to be equivalent.
  Postconventional morality (13 – adult): in Kohlberg’s theory, the level of moral

reasoning in which judgments are based on an integration of individual rights and the

needs of society.

 Stage 5: social contract orientation/legal principles: what is right is what aligns with

my principles. Sometimes the rules are not moral.

 Stage 6: Universal ethical principles: what is justice?

b) Causes and Consequences of Moral Development

 Cognitive development causes it.

 Role-taking: the ability to look at a situation from another person’s perspective.

 The complexity of an individual’s political reasoning is very similar to the complexity

of her moral reasoning.

c) Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior

 Cyberbullying: a form of aggression in which electronic communications are used to

intentionally inflict harm on others.

 Delinquency: antisocial behavior that includes law-breaking.

IV) Social Relationships

a) Peer Groups

 Clique: four to six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another.

(1) Lots of within-group aggression

 Crowd: a combination of cliques, which includes both males and females.