Frederick

Herzbergc Motivation Factors, Hygiene

Factors:c

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Two Factor
Theory Two Factor Theory and KITA c
KITAc
According to the  c 
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people are influenced by two factors. Satisfaction
and psychological growth was a factor of   c
. Dissatisfaction was a result of 
c
.
Herzberg developed this motivation theory during his investigation of 200 accountants and engineers in the USA.

- 
c
 are needed to ensure an employee does not become dissatisfied. They do not lead to higher
levels of motivation, but without them there is dissatisfaction.

-   c
 are needed in order to motivate an employee into higher performance. These factors result
from internal generators in employees.

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uc Ôorking conditions
uc ëuality of
supervision
uc Salary
uc Status
uc Security
uc ompany
uc ob
uc ompany policies
and administration
uc Interpersonal relations

c  c 
c



uc Achievement
uc 0ecognition for achievement
uc 0esponsibility for task
 ucInterest in the job
uc Advancement to higher level tasks
uc Vrowth

  
cc
cc  c
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uc High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly motivated and have
few complaints.
uc High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but are not highly motivated. The job
is perceived as a paycheck.
uc Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a lot of complaints. A situation
where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up to par.
uc Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: The worst situation. Unmotivated employees with lots of complaints.

Herzberg suggests that often work can and should be arranged in the following ways:

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!cc c 
c
, Frederick Herzberg is also known sometimes for his acronym "#$, which
has been politely translated as a kick in the pants! Herzberg said that KITA does not produce motivation but only
movement.

ompare: Maslow Hierarchy Needs | Theory X Theory Y | ompeting Values Framework | Expectancy
Theory | E0V Theory | Hofstede | Ôhat is Value Based Management? | Leadership ontinuum

More management models

The  
c
 (also known as 
 

c  
c
) states that there
are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors
cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist, who theorized that
job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.[1]
 c
[hide]

uc 1 Two-factor theory fundamentals

uc 2 Validity and criticisms
uc - Implications for management
uc D 0eferences
uc [ Further reading
uc r External links

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Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Maslow's theory of
motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on
attitudes toward administration[2]. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the
satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example, those associated with minimum salary
levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. 0ather, individuals look for the gratification of
higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far, this appears to parallel Maslow's theory of
a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-
factor model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics
or incentives lead to worker i
i 
 at work, while another and separate set of job
characteristics lead to ii
i 
 at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a
continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This
theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and
attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to
decrease in unpleasurable dissatisfaction.

The two-factor, or 



 
, developed from data collected by Herzberg from
interviews with a large number of engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From
analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual i ²
that is, to the nature of the work he performs ² apparently have the capacity to gratify such
needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self-realization, thus making him
happy and satisfied. However, the i of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear
to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable
assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems,
salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to
increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself ² the
opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and for achieving self-
realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus
on the job environment ² policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions[1]. If
management is equally concerned with both (as is usually the case), then managers must give
attention to both sets of job factors.
The theory was based around interviews with 20- American accountants & engineers in
Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The
subjects were asked to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present
job or any previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events
giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.

Here is the description of this interview analysis:

Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when they were exceedingly
happy and unhappy with their jobs. Each respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he
could that met certain criteria²including a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an end,
and contained some substantive description other than feelings and interpretations«

The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction
(achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly
unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. onversely, the dis-satisfiers
(company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working
conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job satisfactionè


Two-factor theory distinguishes between:

uc  
 (e.g., challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positive

satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition,
achievement, or personal growth[D], 

uc 
c
 (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not give
positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic
to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory practices, or
wages/salary[D].

Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation
factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance, Herzberg also further
classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related
action because you   to then that is classed as  , but if you perform a work related
action because you ÷ 
to then that is classed as   .

Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have presented
considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation-hygiene theory, although their work
has been criticized on methodological grounds.

# c
c

c
If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management not only must provide hygiene factors to
avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide factors intrinsic to the work itself for
employees to be satisfied with their jobs.
Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a
continuous management process. According to Herzberg:

uc "The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee."
uc "Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing
levels of responsibility."
uc "If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should
consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower level of
skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation problem."

ritics[÷] of Herzberg's theory argue that the two-factor result is observed because it is natural
for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors.
Furthermore, job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high level of motivation or
productivity.[

]

Herzberg's theory has been broadly read and despite its weaknesses its enduring value is that it
recognizes that true motivation comes from within a person and not from KITA factors.(French,
2008)


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Explanations > Theories > ognitive Evaluation Theory

Description | Example | So what? | See also | 0eferences


 c
Ôhen looking at task, we evaluate it in terms of how well it meets our needs to feel competent
and in control. If we think we will be able to complete the task, we will be intrinsically motivated
to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation.

Ôhere a person has a stronger 
 i
 they will feel they are in control of how
they behave. Ôhere they have a stronger
 i
 they will believe the
environment or others have a greater influence over what they do.

People may see external rewards as achieving some degree of 
over them or may see the
reward as 
 , such as where they reinforce feelings of competence and self-
determination. Ôhen people see the reward as mostly for control they will be motivated by
gaining the reward but not by enacting the requested behavior.

ognitive Evaluation is occasionally also called Self-Perception Theory, although this confuses
it with Bem's Self-Perception Theory.

&'c
If you tell me that I have to run for President, I will not exactly throw my heart into the job. If,
however, you tell me how the local council is looking for someone like me, who wants to help in
local schools, then I'll be there before you have finished the sentence!

( c)c
Ôhen you ask someone to do something, if you want them to be motivated then ensure that it
falls within their current level of competency.

c
c
c
c

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 (ET- Deci 197[) [1]
is a theory in
Psychology that is designed to explain the effects of external consequences on internal
motivation. Specifically, ET is a sub-theory of Self-Determination Theory that focus on
competence and autonomy while examining how intrinsic motivation is affected by external
forces.

ET uses three propositions to explain how consequences affect internal motivation:

1.c External events will impact intrinsic motivation for optimally challenging activities to the
extent that they influence perceived competence, within the context of self-determination.
Events that promote greater perceived competence will enhance intrinsic motivation,
whereas those that diminish perceived competence will decrease intrinsic motivation
(Deci & 0yan, 198[).[2]
2.c Events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behavior have three potential aspects,
each with a significant function. The informational aspect facilitates an internal perceived
locus of causality and perceived competence, thus positively influencing intrinsic
motivation. The controlling aspect facilitates an external perceived locus of causality (a
 person¶s perception of the cause of success or failure), thus negatively influencing
intrinsic motivation and increasing extrinsic compliance or defiance. The amotivating
aspect facilitates perceived incompetence, and undermining intrinsic motivation while
promoting disinterest in the task. The relative salience and strength of these three aspects
to a person determines the functional significance of the event (Deci & 0yan, 198[).[2]
-.c Personal events differ in their qualitative aspects and, like external events, can have
differing functional significances. Events deemed internally informational facilitate self-
determined functioning and maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation. Events deemed
internally controlling events are experienced as pressure toward specific outcomes and
undermine intrinsic motivation. Internally amotivating events make incompetence salient
and also undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci & 0yan, 198[).[2]

 c
[hide]

uc 1 Evidence for ognitive Evaluation Theory

uc 2 Evidence against ognitive Evaluation Theory
uc - Alternative Explanations for Undermining of Intrinsic Motivation
uc D Implications of ognitive Evaluation Theory
uc [ Future 0esearch for ognitive Evaluation Theory
uc r 0eferences

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Many empirical studies have given at least partial support for the ideas expressed in ET. Some
examples include:

1.c Vallerand and 0eid (198D)[-] found that college students' perceived competence and
intrinsic motivation were increased by positive feedback and decreased by negative
feedback. Further, a path analysis suggested that the effects of feedback on the students'
intrinsic motivation were mediated by perceived competence.
2.c Kruglanski, Alon, and Lewis (1972)[D] found that tangible rewards decreased fifth grade
children's intrinsic motivation for playing various games. The authors also attempted to
measure whether or not children who received the rewards had an external locus of
causality. They asked rewarded and non-rewarded children1 week after the treatment
session for their reasons for playing the games. Of the -r rewarded children, only 2
mentioned the reward as their reason.
-.c Voudas, Biddle, Fox, and Underwood (199[)[[] tested this hypothesis with the use of
different teaching styles in a physical education class. The students reported higher levels
of intrinsic motivation when their track-and-field instructor offered them a number of
choices throughout the lesson rather than controlling every class decision.

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Many empirical studies have given at least partial support against the ideas expressed in ET.
Some examples include:

1.c Many studies have found changes in intrinsic motivation without changes in perceived
locus of causality or competence (Boal & ummings, 1981;[r] Harackiewicz, Manderlink,
and Sansone, 198D).[7]
2.c Phillips and Lord (1980)[8] found changes in perceived competence following the receipt
of rewards, but no changes in intrinsic motivation.
-.c Salancik (197[)[9] found that college students rewarded with money reported internal
attributions of control.

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Some behaviorist psychologists have offered up other explanations for the undermining of
intrinsic motivation that has been found in support of ET. Dickinson (1989)[10] proposed three
explanations:

1.c That intrinsic motivation may decrease over time due to repetitive actions. This is to say
that the motivation was not be undermined by an external force but was decreasing
because of doing the same action over and over.
2.c If the controlling actions (the reward) are negative it could negatively influence intrinsic
motivation. 0ewards can do this in several ways, including serving as a proxy for a
punishment by withholding a reward as the reward stands as a means of coercion to
complete an otherwise undesirable task.
-.c ulturally, intrinsically motivated acts that have no extrinsic reward are praised by
society whereas actions that receive a tangible reward are not praised as highly, which
would indicate that for actions that have a tangible reward they receive less praise and
this undermines their intrinsic motivation to complete the task.

Other explanations for the undermining effect include the ³overjustification´ effect, tested by
Lepper, Vreene, and Nisbett (197-).[11] The ³overjustification´ effect claims that subjects will
justify their actions later by investigating the causes for their own behavior, and if they were
rewarded for that behavior they are likely to place an emphasis on the reward as opposed to any
intrinsic motivation they might have had. Similarly, Lepper, Sagotsky, Dafoe, and Vreene
(1982)[12] showed that children will develop beliefs that if they have to do one task prior to be
allowing to engage in another (i.e., ³clean up the dinner table before you can have dessert´) that
the first task is going to be uninteresting and that the second activity is preferable.

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The primary implication for ET is that the consequences of a reward will be a decreased level
of intrinsic motivation and satisfaction because the reward is perceived to negatively impact the
autonomy and competence of the individual. Tangible rewards under most conditions will
negatively impact the motivation and interest of employees. However, while expected tangible
rewards negatively impact motivation and satisfaction, unexpected tangible rewards do not have
a negative impact because they are unexpected and thus do not influence the motivation to
engage in the act. Similarly, rewards that are not dependent upon the task and are given freely
are also not detrimental to motivation and satisfaction (Deci, Koestner, & 0yan, 1999).[1-]

Also, positive feedback is positively related to intrinsic motivation and satisfaction so long as the
feedback is not relayed in a controlling manner. Ôord choice can negatively influence autonomy
even under conditions of positive feedback if the feedback is given in a controlling manner, such
as by indicating that someone is doing a good job and that they ³should´ continue the work, as
opposed to simply indicating that they are performing well (Deci, Koestner, & 0yan, 1999).[1-]

However, an important finding regarding positive feedback is that positive feedback is important
for adults, but not for children. In their analysis of the literature, Deci et al. (1999)[1-] found that
while adults had their intrinsic motivation significantly enhanced by positive feedback, children
showed no such difference. Positive feedback for children neither significantly increased nor
decreased their intrinsic motivation. Despite this, perceived satisfaction with tasks was still
positively impacted by positive feedback for both children and adults.

It is important to note that the findings of ET are usually based on the premise that the task is
an interesting one so that the employee/student will want to engage in the task of their own
volition, but when the task is not interesting the findings indicate that the use of rewards does not
damage the intrinsic motivation or satisfaction of the employees/student to a significant degree
(Deci, Koestner, & 0yan, 1999).[1-] This might indicate that under certain situations, such as
when a boring task is used, tangible rewards might be appropriate.

Taken together, ET implies that under conditions involving interesting tasks positive feedback
is generally a positive force on intrinsic motivation and that tangible and expected rewards are a
negative force. This would indicate that when tangible rewards are to be used that they should
not be made known beforehand (and therefore linked to the behavior) and that positive verbal
feedback is only good when it is applied in a manner that does not threaten the autonomy of the
individual. The implications of this theory have been noted in the field of economics due to its
implications for incentives (Fehr & Falk, 2002)[1D] and in educational settings (Hattie &
Timperley, 2007).[1[] In the educational field, the difference between children and adults in how
important positive feedback is to their feelings of intrinsic motivation is an important one and
will alter the application of ET between the workplace and the classroom.

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Future research on ET will likely look to the effect of rewards on long-term tasks as opposed to
short-term tasks as this might affect the relationship between rewards and motivation;
complicated and interesting tasks that occur over time might display different relationships
regarding rewards and intrinsic motivation (as suggested by Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000).[1r]
Other elements to consider for future research include investigating how intrinsic versus extrinsic
rewards might alter the relationship between rewards and intrinsic motivation, as the expected
payoff between learning a new skill (such as learning to play the guitar) and being compensated
monetarily could have different effects on intrinsic motivation (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci,
200r).[