Intro - Ethics and Moral Philosophy2

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Man: Rational and Free Agent

Ethics and Moral Philosophy  As human beings we are endowed with
Jove Jim S. Aguas rationality and because of our reason, we
can deliberate and make conscious decisions.
 We are also endowed with free will, through
which we determine our own action, its
course and objectives.
 Since we are rational and free agents, we are
responsible for our actions and our
responsibility as rational and free agents do
not end with simply our actions, we also
take responsibility for their consequences
and for the quality of the choice we make.
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 The extent of our knowledge and freedom  The end of all these is our desire to live a
determine the extent of our responsibility, well-lived life. As human beings we do not just
hence the greater the freedom and want to live our lives, we wanted to live it
knowledge, the greater the responsibility. well, as the saying goes:
 Because of human freedom and responsibility, “A well-lived life is a happy life.”
people are always concerned with what is
right and what is wrong. We contemplate on
what is the right thing to do and what is the
bad thing to avoid.
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 The rightness or wrongness; or the goodness  However, the fact that morality imposes
or badness of an action is the focal point of certain “restrictions” does not make it
morality. Morality sets standards by which we repressive.
can measure or judge whether an action is  While morality imposes on us some rules or
good or bad. standards through which we determine what
 Many view morality as a repressive institution, is right and what is wrong and which
a set of rules which society and religion, eventually shape our moral judgment and
parents and the like impose on us to prevent conduct, the moral wisdom by which we judge
us from living our lives the way we wanted it an action is not imposed on us by others, but
to be lived. by ourselves in so far as we are committed to
attaining a kind of life that is well-lived.
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Ethics and Morality  Morality refers only to human acts, that is, actions
which proceed from man’s rationality; these are
 The term “ethics” is commonly used actions which are done with knowledge, freedom
synonymously with “morals,” hence being ethical and voluntariness.
is equated with being moral.
 Actions which do not have a rational character
 Although there is an affinity between ethics and can be considered amoral, they cannot be judged
morals, it is more accurate to use the term moral as morally good or morally evil.
or ethical to the act or conduct itself and the
 If human actions are to be judged whether
term ethics to the study of the morality of the
morally good or morally evil, then there must be
act or conduct or the norms or codes governing
something by which actions could be measured
our conduct or act.
as good or evil, this is what we refer as the norm
 The common denominator between the two is or standard of morality.
the morality of the human act or conduct.
 Moral philosophy or ethics serves as a guide in  Hence, it is the concern of moral philosophy
determining what is good and right or bad and not only to say that abortion is evil, but also to
wrong. give the reasons why it is evil.
 Ethics or moral philosophy as the study or  Ethics as a philosophy is the attempt to
science of the morality of human acts, deals achieve a systematic understanding of the
with the issue whether an action is good or nature of morality and what it requires of us -
bad and the reasons why a particular action is how we ought to live and why
good or bad.
Good and Value The good, could either be a real and objective
good or just an apparent good. What we
 Good is objectively the goal or fulfillment of consider to be good could be real or genuine
being man. It is the end or the object of the good, like health, or knowledge, which are
will. objectively good.
 The will is the faculty that drives or motivates  Some things or objects which we consider to
us to act. Since the good is the object of the be good are only apparent good, which means
will then it also considered as the driving that they may appear to be good, but in reality
force of human action and human endeavors. are not. Vices for example may appear to be
good to some people but in reality they are
evil.
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Value is an assessment of worth;  Objective value is independent of the

 it is what an individual or group deems to be assessment of men, such value does not
useful, significant or desirable; depend on the valuation or estimation of
 it constitutes a large part of who we are and individuals or group of individuals. Whether
how we live. such value is recognized or not it remains to
be a value.
 People, objects, places, events, situations or
occasions have values.  The value of objective good is independent of
the recognition or appreciation of man; good
 Values could either be objective or subjective.
health and proper knowledge have objective
values.
 Subjective values are those that are conferred  Values have certain ranking or hierarchy, one
by individuals on certain objects or situation. value may be higher or more significant than
 The subjective value is dependent on the others; some values have higher worth than
estimation or valuation of individuals, so that others.
something may be valuable to one but not  There is an objective ranking of values, this
valuable to others. ranking is not dependent on the preference of
individuals.
 Material values are necessarily lower in rank
compared to spiritual values.
 The value of persons is higher than the value  Only man can formulate and express values
of money, the value of education and which are generally shaped and formed by his
knowledge is higher than the value of physical experiences.
properties.  Values are inseparable from the endlessly
 The more spiritual the value is the higher it is changing experiences of man’s life. A value may
in the ranking of values and the more material be material value, societal, aesthetic, religious
the value is, the lower it is in the ranking of or moral.
values.  What we value in the realm of human
conduct is called moral values, like justice,
honesty, love etc.
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 Since one experiences himself and his own

Experience and Ethics
person as the agent or cause of the act, then
 Lived experience is the awareness on the part he also experiences himself as the efficient
of the individual that when he performs or cause of the moral good or evil associated
does a certain action, he is aware that he is with the action.
the author of the act; that he is the agent of
action. This awareness or experience brings
with it a sense of responsibility for the moral
value of the action.
1. General Normative ethics –

Types of Ethics  a reasoned search for principles of human
Meta-ethicists distinguish two types of ethics: conduct, including a critical study of the major
1. normative determines what moral standards to theories about what things are good, what acts
follow so that our actions may be morally right or are right and what acts are evil.
good  It attempts to determine what moral standards
◦ General Normative Ethics to follow so that our actions may be morally
◦ Applied Normative Ethics right or good.
 It tries to defend a system of basic ethical
2. non-normative – either describes or evaluates principles that presumably are valid for everyone.
moral attitudes or statements
 The two broad categories of general normative
– descriptive ethics: teleological (consequential) and
- meta-ethics
deontological (non-consequential).
2. Applied normative ethics 1. Scientific or descriptive

 an attempt to explain and justify positions on  the scientific or descriptive study of morality
specific moral problems or issues, like capital which involves the factual investigation of
punishment, abortion, discrimination moral behavior; concerned with how people
 uses the general ethical principles in an do in fact behave.
attempt to resolve a specific moral problem.  Anthropologist and sociologist investigate and
 Bioethics, environmental ethics, professional describe moral attitudes, how moral attitudes
ethics, legal ethics, business ethics. and codes differ from society to society, and
investigating and describing the values and
behaviors of different societies.
 Two categories: Absolutism and relativism.
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2. Meta-ethics Three Meta-ethical positions:

1. Naturalism - maintains that ethical statements
 highly technical discipline investigating the (statements with moral valuation or assessment)
meaning of ethical terms, including a critical can be translated into non-ethical statements,
study of how ethical statements can be (statements without moral valuation or assessment)
• Autobiographical naturalism — ethical statements
verified simply express the approval or disapproval of the
 it is concerned with the meaning of such speaker. When he says “Killing is bad.” he means he
disapproves killing.
ethical terms like right, obligation, • Sociological naturalism - ethical statement simply
responsibility etc. expresses the approval or disapproval of the majority.
“Killing is bad.” - The majority dislikes killing.
 does not propose any moral principles or • Theological naturalism - ethical statement expresses a
norms for action; it consists solely of divine approval or disapproval. “Killing is bad. - God or
some divine being disapproves killing.
philosophical analysis.
2. Non-naturalism - ethical statement defies translation

into a non- ethical form. Some ethical terms can be Classification of Ethical Theories
defined only in terms of other ethical words. Hence
statements like “King was right” can be translated into  Ethical theories are set of principles that serve
other ethical statements like “King’s action was proper.” as the basis in determining the morality of
Or “King’s action was good.”
human actions or conduct; we use or rely on
Ethical statements cannot be verified and determined
whether true or false. What we can do is reflect on them them in making moral judgment,
and determine if we can believe them as true or not.  they also provide the reasons why a particular
action or behavior is good or bad; acceptable
3. Emotivism or Non-cognitivism - claims that ethical on unacceptable.
statements are used to evoke a predetermined emotive
response or to encourage a predetermined behavior, they  Meta-ethicists distinguish two main categories
can be used to make someone feel or behave in a certain of ethical theories: the teleological and
way. deontological.
A. Teleological Theories 1. Hedonism - the rightness of an action

 A teleological theory states that ultimate depends upon the amount and/or the quality of
criterion or standard of what is morally right physical pleasure it promotes or the amount of
or wrong or obligatory is the non-moral value physical pain it avoids.
that is produced by an act or rule. 2. Epicureanism - right action promotes mental
 The final determinant of the morality of an act or spiritual pleasure and minimizes spiritual or
is the comparative amount of good or the mental pain. The ultimate good is what will give
comparative balanced of good over evil man mental serenity.
produced. 3. Egoism - an action is right insofar as it
 The teleological theories are also called promotes the self-interests of its agent.
consequentialist theories.
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4. Classic Utilitarianism - the rightness of an B. Deontological Theories

action depends upon how useful or beneficial it  A deontological theory denies what a
is, as opposed to how useless or harmful it is. teleological theory affirms. It affirms that the
5. Act Utilitarianism - the right action is a given right or obligatory or good act is not always
situation is the one which would promote the dependent of certain non-moral value
greatest amount of happiness for the greatest produced or the outcome of an act or rule;
number of people in that situation.  it is dependent on other considerations other
6. Instrumentalism or Pragmatism - an action is than the outcome, like the command of God
right if it improves the existing situation, or the state.
remedies some deficiencies in it or resolves a
specific problem.
1. Divine Command Theory - rightness is established by

4. Natural Rights Theory - human beings share certain
God, who either establishes general moral laws and
basic rights which oblige us to treat one another in
standards or prescribes and prohibits particular actions;
certain ways. Human rights are universal rights, they are
and action is good or right if it conforms to these laws,
inalienable and they inhere in the person as a human
prescriptions and prohibitions.
being. These rights include the right to life, liberty and
2. Natural Law Theory - moral standards exist in the very property.
fabric or nature of the universe; an action is right if it 5. Categorical Imperative - nothing was good in itself
conforms to these natural moral laws. except a good will and the will is the uniquely human
capacity to act according to the concept of law or
3. Social Contract Theory - rightness is a function of principles. The moral principles require us to fulfill our
rules and institutions established in a society and duties simply because those duties make valid claims on
implicitly or explicitly agreed to by its members. us.
6. Prima Facie Duties. There are moral guidelines

that determine what we ought to do, prima facie
duty is an obligatory duty, for example fidelity or
A. Ethical Relativism
keeping promises. Other prima facie duties are  the moral rightness or wrongness of action
reparation, gratitude, non-injury, justice and self- varies from one society or social group or
improvement.
culture to another and that there are no
7.Virtue Ethics - One should seek to develop the absolute universal moral standards binding on
character traits known as virtues and act in all men at all times.
accordance with them. Virtue theorists stress the  it holds that whether or not it is right for
importance of developing good habits of character,
such as benevolence. Once a person had acquired individual to act in a certain way depends on
benevolence, for example, he will then habitually act or is relative to the society or culture to
in a benevolent manner. which one belongs.
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Conventional Ethical Relativism Cultural Relativism

 It is the view that there are no objective  It believes that cultures have different moral
codes.
moral principles that could be used to
 Our sense of right and wrong differs from culture
determine the morality of human actions in a to culture, for example the practice of polygamy
particular social group. may be right in one culture and may be wrong in
 All valid moral principles are justified by virtue another.
of their social acceptance.  There is no universal moral law that governs all
cultures and that should bound every culture to
 Morality therefore has an absolute social
follow.
character; it is relative to the accepted
 Therefore, there is no objective standard that can
practices of a certain group or society. be used to judge one social code as better than
the other.
 It does not follow that simply because there are

differences in cultures or in what society accepts
as good or bad, there no longer a universal truth
B. Ethical Subjectivism
about morality.  Our moral judgments are based on our feelings
 If some societies or people do not know the and nothing more; there is no such thing as
universal moral truth it does not mean that there objective right or wrong.
is no moral truth.  Whatever moral judgment we make, we are only
 There are some moral rules that societies and expressing our personal feelings and our
cultures have in common and adhere to because emotions, nothing more.
they are necessary for society and culture to  Hence, morality is based primarily on our feelings,
exist. emotions and prejudices.
 What may be relative is the interpretation and  An action is good if it arouses in us a good feeling
application of those moral principles in a or a positive emotion; one thing is good if we feel
particular culture or society. good about it and one thing is bad if we feel bad
about it.
 It could lead us to conflict and contradiction

when sentiments or feelings conflict. Whose C. Ethical Egoism
sentiments or feelings should prevail if there  It holds that everyone must always do what will
are conflicting sentiments? promote his own greatest good.
 An act or rule of action is right if and only if it
 Feelings and sentiments are transitory.
promotes at least as great a balance of good over
 It could not account for reason in ethics, one evil for a person in the long run as
must present reasons or else he is not making  Everyone should always act in his own self-
interest regardless of the interest of others,
a sensible moral judgment. unless their interests also serve his.
 Each person ought to pursue his own self-
interest exclusively and individuals have no
natural duties to others.
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 It is one’s moral duty to promote one’s own  Some misconceptions about egoism:
interest. Accordingly, there is only one ultimate 1) that egoism prefers only pleasant and happy
experiences. Egoism may prefer unpleasant and
principle of conduct, the principle of self- painful experiences and temporary sacrifice if these
interest. will advance their long term happiness.
 Ayn Rand, the proponent of rational ethical 2) that egoism dislikes virtues like honesty, generosity.
For as long as these virtues are compatible with
egoism stresses that as rational human beings their long term interest, it practices these virtues.
we must act on our rational self-interest and 3) that egoism is the same as hedonism.While some
to think about the interest of others is egoists are hedonist, others may identify the good
with knowledge, power or rational self-interests.
immoral.
 The ethical egoist can be unselfish and honest
and modest for as long as these qualities or
virtues will serve his interests in the long run.
 It is inconsistent and cannot provide solutions

to conflict of interests. What happens when D. Utilitarianism
everybody wants to promote his or her self-  Holds that everyone should perform the act and
interest? follow the rule which will bring about the
 It tends to be arbitrary because it assigns greatest good or happiness to everyone
greater importance on one’s interest than that concerned; the greatest happiness to the greatest
of others when there is no general difference number of people.
between oneself and others.  When we have to choose between alternative
actions, we have to choose the one with the best
 There is the danger of falling into a system
overall consequences for everyone concerned.
where people will simply be manipulated by
 The ultimate moral principle is the principle of
others just to promote their own self-interest.
utility.
 Utility is equated with benefit, advantage,  The are two kinds of utilitarianism:
pleasure, happiness and goodness. 1) Act Utilitarianism - everyone should
 The principle of utility proposes a state of perform that act that will bring about the
affairs in which all people are as happy as they greatest good over bad for everyone affected
can be. by the act.
 The principle of greatest happiness states that 2) Rule Utilitarianism - everyone should
the ultimate end is an existence that is exempt always follow the rules that will bring about
from pain and rich in enjoyment the greatest number of good consequences
 By happiness means the intended pleasure and for everyone concerned.
the absence of pain, by unhappiness, pain and
the privation of pleasure.
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Act Utilitarianism  It proposes the following:

◦ First, actions are to be judged right or wrong solely
 Act Utilitarianism maintains that the right act
on the virtue of their consequences.
is the one that produces the greatest ratio of ◦ Second, in assessing the consequences, the only
good to evil for all concerned. thing that matters is the amount of happiness or
 In deciding on a particular act one must ask unhappiness that is caused.
the question about the effect of doing this ◦ Finally, in calculating the happiness or unhappiness
that will be caused, no one’s happiness is to be
particular act in this particular situation have counted as more important than anyone else’s.
on the general balance of good over evil.  It overcomes a number of objections raised
against egoism. One is it provides an objective
way to resolve conflicts of interest by proposing
a standard outside of self-interest.
 The consequences of actions are not always  The principle of utility may conflict with that
certain. It is difficult to determine what would of justice.
be good consequences for others, and there is
 utilitarianism associates justice with efficiency
the danger of determining the social worth of
individuals. rather than fair play, it determines what is just
 Some actions despite their good
by a calculation of total benefit, not by appeal
consequences are in themselves morally to merit.
objectionable.
 Some acts may involve injustice, lying, violating
a rule, but may result to some good
consequences like increase sales, getting things
done, even helping the needy.
Rule Utilitarianism Rules that everyone is aware of and attempts to

 It emphasizes the centrality of rules in morality implement simplify such problems, thereby
and insists that we are generally guided by rule in advancing the common good.
deciding what particular act will be beneficial
rather than the consequences or a particular act.
 We should not consider the consequences of a
particular action but the consequences of the
rule under which the action falls.
 If the rule under which an action falls is not a
good rule then even if the action produces a
greater ratio of good than evil, the action is
immoral.
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 There is difficulty of formulating a satisfactory  Rule utilitarianism ignores what appear to be

rule. It is difficult to design or imagine a blatant wrongs.
situation wherein we can test the effectiveness  Some rules even if they seemingly produce the
of certain rules. greatest good for the greatest number of
people still compromise the intrinsic value of
 With so many exemptions that one need to
the human individual.
accommodate to certain rules, it is difficult to
 Since Utilitarianism equates morality with
establish common rules of moral behavior usefulness for the greatest number of people
then actions that are directed to the minority
no matter how good they are become
immoral because they are not useful or good
for the majority.
V. The Christian Ethics  Self-interests are always self-serving and may

 There are moral laws and these laws are marginalize the interests of others.
constant and universal, they do not change.  What is useful is not always moral. What is
 The standards by which we judge the morality useful to one may not be useful to others;
of a particular action do not change, persons can be the object of use, the
regardless of culture, social acceptance, usefulness of a person cannot be the standard
sentiments, self-interest and utility. of morality particularly in human relations.
 What is socially or culturally accepted is not
always moral.
 There are two norms or standards of  The Laws are the ultimate standards by which
morality: we judge the morality of an action.
Conscience – last practical judgment of  We are always advice to follow the law. The
reason divine and natural laws ultimately determine
◦ the proximate norm of morality the rightness or wrongness of an action.
The Laws (Divine, natural and human laws)  An action therefore is moral if it is in
ordinance of reason accordance with our conscience and the law.
◦ ultimate norm of morality.
 Our conscience is the one that initially tells us
that an action is good or bad, it is the one that
bothers us when we have done something.
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9/3/2018

Man: Rational and Free Agent

Value is an assessment of worth;  Objective value is independent of the

 Since one experiences himself and his own

1. General Normative ethics –

2. Applied normative ethics 1. Scientific or descriptive

2. Meta-ethics Three Meta-ethical positions:

2. Non-naturalism - ethical statement defies translation

A. Teleological Theories 1. Hedonism - the rightness of an action

4. Classic Utilitarianism - the rightness of an B. Deontological Theories

1. Divine Command Theory - rightness is established by

6. Prima Facie Duties. There are moral guidelines

Conventional Ethical Relativism Cultural Relativism

 It does not follow that simply because there are

 It could lead us to conflict and contradiction

 It is inconsistent and cannot provide solutions

Act Utilitarianism  It proposes the following:

Rule Utilitarianism Rules that everyone is aware of and attempts to

 There is difficulty of formulating a satisfactory  Rule utilitarianism ignores what appear to be

V. The Christian Ethics  Self-interests are always self-serving and may

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 61

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