INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND BEHAVIORAL

SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

ASSESEMENT OF PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ORPHAN

CHILDREN; THE CASE OF FIKER BEHIWOT AND TESFA GOH
ORPHANGE IN HAWASSA CITY, SNNPRS

BY:
ZUBEDA ADEM DAWOOD

May 2020
DILLA, ETHIOPIA
ASSESEMENT OF PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ORPHAN
CHILDREN; THE CASE OF FIKER BEHIWOT AND TESFA GOH
ORPHANGE IN HAWASSA CITY, SNNPRS

Dilla University
Institute of Education and Behavioral Sciences
Department of Psychology

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of

Master of Arts Degree in Counseling Psychology

BY; ZUBEDA ADEM DAWOOD

ADVISOR: HABTAMU DISASSA (PHD)

May 2020
DILLA, ETHIOPIA
 Dilla University
Institute of Education and Behavioral Sciences
Department of Psychology
ADVISOR APPROVAL SHEET
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Assessment of Psychosocial Problems of Orphan
Children: The case of Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage in Hawassa City,
SNNPRS” is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Master with
specialization in Counseling Psychology, the Graduate Program of Institute of Education and
Behavioral Science and has been carried out by Zubeda Adem Dawood Id No
(_____________) under my supervision. Therefore, I recommend that the student has fulfilled
the requirements and hereby can submit the thesis to the department.

Advisor’s name ________________ ______________

Name of Advisor Signature Date
 Dilla University
Institute of Education and Behavioral Sciences
Department of Psychology
BOARD OF THE EXAMINERS APPROVAL SHEET
As thesis research advisor, I hereby certify that I have read and evaluated this thesis prepared
under my guidance and supervision by Zubeda Adem Dawood entitled “Assessment of
Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children: The case of Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh
Orphanage in Hawassa City, SNNPRS” I recommend that it be submitted as fulfilling the
thesis requirement.

______________ _____________ ____________

Advisor Signatures Date

As members of the Board of Examiners of the M.A. THESIS open defense examination, we certify
that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Zubeda Adem Dawood and
examined the candidate. We recommend that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the thesis
requirements for the degree of Master of Art in Counseling Psychology.
Approved by Board of the Examiners

________________________________ ______________ ______________

Chairman Signatures Date

_______________________________ _______________ ______________

Internal Examiner Signatures Date

________________________________ ______________ _______________

External Examiner Signatures Date

0
 DECLARATION
This is to declare that the thesis entitled “Assessment of Psychosocial Problems of Orphan
Children: The case of Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage in Hawassa City,
SNNPRS” i s an authentic work of Zubeda Adem Dawood, the matter embodied in this thesis
has not been submitted earlier for awards of any degree or diploma and it is submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Masters with specialization in Counseling
Psychology, the Graduate Program of Institute of education and Behavioral Science, Dilla
University.

Zubeda Adem ________________ ______________

Name of Student Signature Date

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I owe thanks to ALAH for his protection in all of my life and my family. I would like
also very much indebted for my Advisors Habtamu Disassa (Ph.D) for his relevant comments,
suggestion and advices throughout the course this study. I would like also thank my family for
their inspiration and cooperation in this study.

I must also thank my respondents as well as key informants for dedicating their time for this
study. I had great thanks to Tesfa Goh and Fiker Behiwot Orphanages for their cooperation. The
last but not the least thanks go to my classmate for your true friendship and intimacy. It would
have been very difficult to finish this work without their support.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

ADVISOR APPROVAL SHEET................................................................................................................V

BOARD OF THE EXAMINERS APPROVAL SHEET.............................................................................0
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................................2
TABLE OF CONTENT...............................................................................................................................3
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................................5
LIST OF ACRONYMS...............................................................................................................................6
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................7
1.1. Background of the Study.......................................................................................................7
1.2. Problem Statement.............................................................................................................10
1.3. Research Questions.............................................................................................................12
1.4. Objectives of the Study.....................................................................................................12
1.4.1. General Objective........................................................................................................12
1.4.2. Specific Objectives......................................................................................................12
1.5. Significances of the Study...................................................................................................12
1.6. Scope of the Study..............................................................................................................13
1.7. Limitations of the Study......................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................14
REVIEW LITRATURE.................................................................................................................14
2.1. Overview of Orphan............................................................................................................14
2.2. Causes of Orphan..............................................................................................................14
2.3. Classification of Orphans..................................................................................................15
2.4. Situation of Orphans World Wide......................................................................................15
2.5. The Situation of Orphan children in Sub-Saharan Africa...................................................16
2.6. The Situation of Orphan children in Ethiopia.....................................................................17
2.7. Psychosocial Experiences of Orphan Children...............................................................18

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 2.7.1. Psychological experiences............................................................................................19
2.7.2. Emotional Experiences of Orphans.............................................................................21
2.7.3. Self-Esteem of Orphan Children...............................................................................22
2.7.4. Social Experiences of Orphans..................................................................................23
2.7.5. Interpersonal Experience of Orphans...........................................................................23
2.8. Coping Strategies of Psychosocial Challenges of orphans...............................................24
2.9. Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................24
2.9.1. Erikson’s view on Psychosocial Development............................................................24
2.9.2 An Outline of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development...................................25
2.9.3. Psychosocial Development and Parental Loss.........................................................34
2.10. Demographic variable and psychological well being.......................................................36
2.11. Empirical Studies..............................................................................................................37
2.12. Conceptual Framework of the Study................................................................................40
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................41
RESEARCH MEATHODOLOGY...............................................................................................41
3.1. Research Design.................................................................................................................41
3.2. Research Approach............................................................................................................41
3.3. Sources of Data...................................................................................................................41
3.4. Population and Sampling....................................................................................................41
3.5. Data Gathering Tools.........................................................................................................43
3.5.1. Questionnaires:.............................................................................................................43
3.5.2. Interview.......................................................................................................................43
3.5.3. Focus Group Discussion...............................................................................................44
3.6. Procedure of Data Collection.............................................................................................44
3.7. Validity and Reliability of Instruments...............................................................................44
3.8. Method of Data Analysis...................................................................................................46
3.9. Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................................47
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................48
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION...............................................................................48
4.1. Socio demographic Characteristics of Respondents...........................................................48
4.2. Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children......................................................................51

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 4.3. Difference in Psychosocial Problems Between Single and Double Orphans.....................55
4.4. Relationship Between Psychosocial Problems and Socio-demographic Variables........56
4.5. Strategies Used to Cope Up with Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children..................58
CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................60
DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................60
5.1. Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children.......................................................................60
5.2. Difference in psychosocial problems between maternal and paternal orphan children......62
5.3. Relationship between psychosocial problems and socio-demographic variables...............62
5.4. Strategies to Cope up psychosocial problems faced by Orphans........................................64
CHAPTER SIX.............................................................................................................................65
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION....................................................................65
AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................65
6.1. Summary of Major Findings.............................................................................................65
6.2. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................66
6.3. Recommendations...............................................................................................................67
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNIER ENGLISH VERSION............................................................74
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNIER AMHARIC VERSION..........................................................83
APPENDIX C: KEY INFORMANT GUIDE...............................................................................90
APPENDIX D: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE............................................................91

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample size distribution of respondents...................................................................................44
Table 2: Reliability statistics....................................................................................................................47
Table 3: KR 20 reliability statistics result................................................................................................48
Table 4: Summary of socio-demographic characteristics of orphan children........................................50
Table 5: Level of psychosocial problems of loss of parents......................................................................53
Table 6: Independent Sample t-test to show orphanage type on psychosocial problems...........................57
Table 7: Pearson correlation between selected variables and psychosocial measurement parameters.......58

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study...........................................................................................42

Figure 2: Percentage distribution of respondents by family size................................................................52
Figure 3: Percentage distribution of respondents by type of orphanage.....................................................52

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

FGD Focus Group Discussion

HAPCO HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office

KII Key Informants Interview

SNNPRS South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State

SNNPRSWCAB SNNPRS Women and Children Affairs Bureau

8
UNICEF United Nation International Children’s Emergency Fund

ABSTRACT
Adolescents who lose either of a parent or both or vulnerable to a risk have likely opportunity to
practice angry, guilty, anxiety, stress, loneliness, shame, depression and stigma. The purpose of
this study was to assess psychosocial problem of orphan children at Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa
Goh Orphanage in Hawassa City Administration. The study employed a descriptive research
design with mixed (quantitative and qualitative) approaches. This study was conducted on
randomly selected institutions working on orphan children namely Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh
orphanage. The data were collected from 168 orphan children. The data were gathered through
questionnaire, key informant and focus group discussion guides. The study employed a
descriptive statistical analysis tools like percentages, frequency, Means and standard deviation

9
to identify specific psychosocial problems of orphan children and inferential statistical analysis
tools like independent t-test and ANOVA to examine if there is significant difference in
psychosocial problems between single and double orphans and Pearson correlation to
determine if there is relationship between psychosocial problems and selected variables and
concurrently qualitative data analyzed using narration. The results of the study revealed that
depression, anxiety and interpersonal relationship were higher among orphan children. On the
other hand, there was a statistically significant difference between single and double orphan
children on depression and perceived stress. Furthermore, sex of the respondents has
association with self-efficacy, anxiety, interpersonal relationship. Similarly, age of the
respondents has relationship with depression, self-efficacy, anxiety, stigma and discrimination.
Also, year in which a child lost his/her parent/s is correlated with self-esteem, self-efficacy,
anxiety, interpersonal relationship and stigma and discrimination. The study therefore
recommends the need the support of all members of society to deal with their psychosocial issues
and ensure optimal development, caregivers of orphan children need to receive proper training
and assistance and consider making counseling services available to caregivers in order to help
them to deal with the difficulties they experience in interacting with the orphaned children.
Key words:- Child, Orphan, Psychosocial problem, Orphanage

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Children need and have a right to be cared for and grow up with their biological parents so as to
live and grow up in a family environment. However, in Sub Saharan Africa millions of children
are orphaned mainly of HIV (UNICEF, 2012). Orphanism has been urgent situation in Africa
where over 80% of the orphans lost their parents due to AIDS live (UNICEF,2006).
Parentless children comprises among the most vulnerable section of every society. A system has
to be in place to ensure the holistic development of such children. While the type of systems may
at times vary, a signifying feature is the level of formal institutional or governmental

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involvement in the care of children. When children lose their parents at early age and become
orphans due to any cause, they experience multiple psychological problems like stress, anxiety,
depression, lack of parental love, lack of self-confidence, poor communication, feeling of
loneliness, helplessness as well as sleeping disturbance (Tadesse et al, 2014).
Orphaned children are at risk for having their education cut short or interrupted, and this is often
associated with their need to help support the household or the costs associated with schooling.
Children without parental care are made vulnerable to the extent they do not have a caring adult
to protect them from dangerous situations or from others who would exploit them. UNICEF
(2012) notes conditions in poorer countries are such that the need has “outstripped society's
capacity to offering any form of alternative care, leaving growing numbers of children to fend for
themselves” (pp. 72-73).
Orphan centers face different challenges while supporting the orphan children. Among the major
challenges faced by caregivers in their effort to care for orphan and vulnerable children are
adequately providing basic material need for the children. Poverty worsens the harsh economic
situations. Most of the caregivers could hardly give adequate assistance with basics such as food,
shelter and clothing. In general, Ethiopia counts one of the largest populations of orphan children
in the world (UNICEF, 2012).
The increasing number of orphans and vulnerable children is one of the most serious socio-
economic and development challenges affecting developing countries. The problem is prominent
among sub-Saharan African countries due to various factors including HIV/AIDS, poverty,
conflict and poor governance. These factors contribute to the death of parents or erode parents’
capacity to provide support for their children. Consequently, children face multifaceted problems
including a lack of immediate basic necessities as well as stigma and discrimination. Together,
those jeopardize the future wellbeing of children (HAPCO, 2004).
The recent report on orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) by the United States of Government
(USG) and partners estimated that, in 2015, 163 million children (age 0–17 years) across the globe
were orphans (referring to loss of one or both parents to all causes) (USG, 2016). U NICEF (2017)
estimated that about 7.5 million children in Ethiopia were orphans. Like other African countries,
the caregiver families or guardians face challenges in Ethiopia. Low family income leads to lack
of providing enough food, health care, housing and tutor for the orphans (BimalKantaNayak,
2014).

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Orphans are potentially exposed to poor social, economic and health statuses. Poor academic
performance, food shortage, child delinquents, child begging, dependency syndrome, school
dropout and street life will also be their likely fate if not protected against. Children living in
condition of the lower socio-economic families and orphans failed to get emotional and material
support they are supposed to get under normal circumstances. Reports of several NGOs working
on orphan children in Hawassa city indicates that orphan have little/no access to essential social
services such as health, education and housing.
Studies revealed that orphans suffer higher level of psychosocial problems than their non-orphan
peers. In particular, maternal and double orphans are more likely to experience behavioral and
emotional difficulties, suffer abuse and low rate of trusting relationships (Baaroy & Webb, 2008;
Qunzhao, 2010). It has also been reported that orphans are more likely to suffer from behavioural
or conduct problems and report suicidal thoughts than non-orphans (Cluver & Gardner, 2006).
In general, orphan children seem socially deprived and they tend to encounter higher emotional
distress, hopelessness, and frustration than non-orphans (Mbozi, Debit and Munyati, 2006). grief,
hopelessness, anxiety, stigmatization, physical and mental violence, labor abuse, lack of
community support, lack of parental love, withdrawal from society as a whole, feelings of guilt,
depression, aggression, as well as eating, sleeping and learning disturbances (Gilborn et al.,
2001; Chipungu & Bent-Goodley, 2004). The traumatic effects of parental loss can also have
further negative psychological effects on behavior, emotions and thoughts (Calhoun & Tedeschi,
1995). Psychological distress is expressed in varied ways. Some children take to living on the
streets and commit various forms of juvenile crimes as a coping strategy (Gow and Desmond,
2002). Children may also become exposed to alcohol and drugs and use them as a way of
shutting out painful effects (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 1995).
1.2. Problem Statement
Like adults, children are suffered by the loss of their parents. However, unlike adults children
often do not feel the full impact of the loss simply because they may not immediately understand
the finality of death. This prevents them from going through the grieving process of the loss of
their parents immediately, which is necessary to recover therefore they are at risk of growing up
with unresolved negative emotions which are often expressed with anger and depression.
Unfortunately, adults do not seem to appreciate that children are also adversely affected by

12
bereavement even though they may not have an adult’s understanding of death. Therefore,
children are not given the required support and encouragement to express their emotions nor are
they guided to deal with them (Cluver, 2007).
Emotional support needs to be constantly looked at and improved because children will continue
to suffer across the world. It is therefore appropriate that attention is given to developmental
situation and well-being of orphans. There are very few research undertaken in Africa despite
the growing concern about the psychosocial well-being of orphans, except some agencies effort
to address the material needs of orphans, many of these orphans continued to experience
emotional and other psychosocial problems and little has been done in these area of support
(HAPCO,2007).
Related to different studies in the last two or three decades, several have been conducted on
issues of psychosocial problems of orphans. Most of the literatures in this area are western based
and there are, of course, few studies in African countries. Cluver and Gardner (2008) conducted
a qualitative study on psychosocial problems of orphans children in USA. According to their
finding, Orphan-hood is frequently accompanied with multidimensional problems; depression,
hopelessness, suicidal ideation, loneliness, anger, confusion, helplessness, anxiety and fear of
being alone.
Coming to the African context, most of researcher focusing orphaned children health and
nutritional issues only few studies mention psychological aspects of orphan child for example a
study in Uganda showed that orphans had greater risk of anxiety, depression and anger than non
orphans. Furthermore, orphans had significantly higher scores than non-orphans on individual
items in the Beck Youth Depression Inventory are regarded as particularly “sensitive” to the
possible presence of a depressive disorder(Cantor, 2005). Similarly, in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania,
Makame, Ani and Grantham-McGregor (2002) found adverse psychological consequences of
orphan hood, such as anxiety, sense of failure, pessimism, and suicidal tendency, in Uganda
Atwine, Cantor-Graae and Bajunirwe (2005) found much higher levels of anxiety, depression
and anger among orphans than among non-orphans, in Rwanda Thurman, Brown, Richter,
Maharaj and Magnani (2006) found that orphans living in youth-headed households were
significantly more likely than those in adult-headed households to report emotional distress,
depressive symptoms and social isolation and in rural Zimbabwe, Nyamukapa, Gregson,

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Lopman, Saito, Watts, Monasch, & Jukes (2007) found that orphans had significantly higher
psychosocial distress than non-orphans (USAID, 2008).
Similarly, to date, research on orphan in Africa is focused on the health and nutritional status
(e.g. Panpanich, 1999), treatment-seeking behavior and in anthropometric measures (Sarker et
al., 2005), socio-economic problems (Case, Paxson and Ableidinger, 2002), psychological
wellbeing of institutionalized orphan children (Laurg, 2008), mental health problems (Cluver and
Gardner, 2006), the psychological effect of orphan-hood (Sengendo and Nambi, 1997),
psychosocial and developmental status (Nagy and Amira, 2010), psychosocial wellbeing of OVC
(Grace, 2012), psychological well-being and socio-economic hardship among AIDS orphans and
other vulnerable children (Delva, Vercoutere, Loua, Lamah et al., 2009), and the psychosocial
well-being of teenaged orphans (Gumed, 2009).
However, study in south Africa also showed that children orphaned were more likely to report
symptoms of depression, peer relationship problems, post-traumatic stress, delinquency and
conduct problems than both children orphaned by other causes and non-orphaned children.
Orphaned children were more likely to report negative self-image(Gardner, 2007)
In Ethiopia, there are few studies(Sebsebe, Fekade & Molalegn, 2014; Abebe, 2004; Faris &
Nega, 2015; Balew, Worku, Tilaye, Huruy & Fetene, 2010; Belay & Messaye, 2014; Gudina,
Nega & Tariku, 2014) on the challenges and needs faced by orphans children made. One of the
study deals psychosocial distress mainly associated with anxiety, loss of parental love and
nurture, burden of caring for the sick, impact of family dissolution, stigma, discrimination, grief
and frustration (Mums, 2011). Generally speaking, most of above mentioned studies are
conducted in western world, African countries as well as in some parts of Ethiopia. However,
psychosocial problems of orphans in the study area are not yet dealt in many of these. Thus, the
intention in this study will be to full fill the existing psychosocial problems of orphan children's
of Fiker Bihwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage. Therefore, the purpose of this research was assessing
psychosocial problems of orphan children's in Fiker Bihwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage, Hawassa
City, SNNPRS.
1.3. Research Questions
1) What are the psychological problems of orphan children ?
2) What are the social problems of orphan children ?

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 3) Is there significant difference in psychological and social problems between single and
double orphan children?
4) Is there any significant relationship between psychological and social problems and
socio-demographic variables namely age, sex, and age at the time of parental loss ?
5) How do orphan children cope psychosocial problems ?
1.4. Objectives of the Study
1.4.1. General Objective
The general objective of the study was assessing psychosocial problems of orphan children's in
Fiker Bihwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage, Hawassa City, SNNPRS.
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
1) To explore psychological problems of orphan children in the study area.
2) To assess social problems of orphan children in the study area.
3) To examine if there is significant difference in psychosocial problems between single
and double orphan children.
4) To determine if there is significant relationship between psychosocial problems and
socio-demographic variables namely age, sex, and age at the time of parental loss.
5) To identify coping strategies of psychosocial problems faced among orphan children in
the study area.
1.5. Significances of the Study
Children are the future of any given country. Proper child wellbeing mechanisms are very
important in order to facilitate healthy growth of children. So research that explores the
psychosocial problems of orphan children help in order to create better understanding of the
situation. To influence policy makers and to improve the policy planning and implementation
process such research has paramount importance.
Women, Children, and Youth Affaire Office and Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage can
benefit from the study since the study forward recommendations that help to solve psychosocial
problems of orphan children. The findings of this study also serves as stepping stone for other
researchers who are interested in conducting further research on problems of orphan children.
1.6. Scope of the Study
Even though orphan children in most case, are subject to quite a great deal of complex problems
due to loss of their parents, this study will not attempt to address all matters concerning children
orphaned in the country, rather it delimits itself to only the psychosocial problems of orphan

15
children who lost at least one parent due to different reasons. In addition to this, though there are
different orphanages in Hawasssa City, this study delimited to only to two i.e. Fiker Behiwot and
Tesfa Goh Orphanages.
1.7. Limitations of the Study
Even though the study employed systematic and varied methods to exhaustively identify
available orphanage care providers and the quality of service, some practical limitations are
expected to inevitably be part of it. The first challenge is related to the children. In this regard is
time, to meet the children on the program. The second problem is related to the service
providers. Here, the service providers might not in an organized manner. The third challenge is
lack of full cooperation by selected orphanage and key informants to make the time convenient
to the researcher.
Finally, the high expectation of incentives from both children and relatives for interview
sessions was another challenge. This problem was compounded with the weak finance of the
researcher. But, the researcher will do his/her best to minimize those sources of bias by
employing all possible mechanisms to contact the study subjects repeatedly and ensuring
the necessary data without raising their interest for remuneration and get their full consent
to devote their time.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW LITRATURE
2.1. Overview of Orphan
An orphan is defined as a child who lost one or both parents(USAID, 2004). UNICEF and its
global partners adopted the definition of orphan in the mid of 1990s as the AIDS pandemic
resulted in the death of millions of parents worldwide and left an ever increasing number of
children growing up without one or more parents. Orphan is also defined by Framework for the

16
Protection, Care and Support of orphans as a child less than 18 years of age whose mother, father or
both parents have died from any cause of death.
The term single orphan indicates the loss of one the parents and double orphans refers the loss of
both parents became common definitions when dealing with the growing crisis. Other definitions
of an orphan include paternal orphans to represent those orphans who lost only a father and
maternal orphans refers those who lost only a mother (UNAIDS, 2008). There are also other
orphan definitions based on the causes of parental loss such as HIV/AIDS orphans, genocide
orphans and other orphans. Thus, this study adopts internationally accepted definition of an
orphan, which refers to children below the age of 18 years however, the youth who had lost their
parents due to AIDS and other causes were also included. Most of them live child headed
households or foster homes during survey.
2.2. Causes of Orphan
HIV/AID is the largest cause of orphanhood globally. Muhwava et al (2008), reported that
different causes of parental-death for orphans are “intentional” injuries to “unintentional”
injuries and include non communicable diseases (like deaths from heart disease); communicable
diseases (like tuberculosis); nutrition – related causes of death; and AIDS which though a
communicable diseases are considered separately, due to its magnitude as causes of mortality.
While it is difficult to differentiate HIV/AIDS related orphan hood from other types, it can be
inferred that, since HIV/AIDS is the leading cause of death, it is also the largest cause of
orphanhood. While it is difficult to differentiate HIV/AIDS-related orphanhood from other types,
it can be inferred that, since HIV/AIDS is the leading cause of death, it is also the largest cause
of orphanhood (Muhwava & Nyirenda 2008). The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the United States President’s
Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (US PEPFAR) (2006), indicate that sub-Saharan Africa has the
highest number of orphans in the world, with an estimate of 48.3 million from all causes of
death) at the end of the year 2009). It is further reported that about 12% (12 million) of all
orphans in sub-Saharan Africa are due to AIDS (UNICEF, UNAIDS & US PEPFAR 2006),
identifying AIDS as the leading cause of orphanhood in sub-Saharan Africa.
2.3. Classification of Orphans
The Framework for the Protection, Care and Support of Orphans and Vulnerable Children Living
in a World with HIV and AIDS (2004:7) classified main four category of orphans such as single

17
orphans a child whose lost one parents, double orphan a child whose lost both parents, maternal
orphans a child whose lost mother and paternal a child whose lost father. Most of orphans living
in the orphanage centers in the study area are single orphans (SNNPRSWCB,2017/18).
2.4. Situation of Orphans World Wide
By 2003 UNICEF, developed and implemented national policies and strategies to build and
strengthen government, family and community capacities to provide a supportive environment
for orphans and girls and boys including providing appropriate counseling and psychosocial
support; ensuring their enrolment in school and access to shelter, good nutrition, health and
social services on an equal basis with other children; to protect orphan and vulnerable children
from all forms of abuse, violence, exploitation, discrimination, trafficking and loss of
inheritance. At the international level, the global community, through the United Nations, has
emphasized the seriousness of the orphan crisis in sub- Saharan Africa and the urgent need for
governments’ action (UNICEF, 2012).
Convention on the right of the child (CRC) states that the right of survival, well-being and
development should not be limited to a physical perspective, but rather emphasizes the needs to
ensure full development of the child including at the spiritual, moral, psychological and social
needs. The world is well aware of the current situation of orphan children crisis, suffering,
disadvantages, and psychosocial problems facing them but governments’ actions sound less in
responding to orphans crisis. Death has the same unfavorable impact on different people like
adults; children do grief for the loss of their parents. However, unlike adult, children often do not
feel the impact of the loss simply because they without delay understand the condition of death
(Mshengu, 2014).

Most of the orphan children are taken care of by the extended family and those who do not have
a supportive extended family tend to take care of themselves (UNICEF, 2006). Orphan children
somewhere experience various change after the death of parents like change in relocation. Many
reasons prevail why people relocate but according to (Mshengu, 2014) relocation of orphan
children from their home create feeling of despair and cause psychosocial adjustment of children
hard. Studies reports that orphan children use to experience anxiety when they relocate after the
death of their parents; that some other orphan children are chased out by their relatives in their
parent’s house.

18
Subbarao, Mattimore, and Plangemann (2001) realize that even under the most optimistic
economic growth prospects, the number of the poor will remain large for the foreseeable future,
AIDS has reached devastating levels in many countries and conflicts in many countries continue
to cause immense distress and dislocation (p.13). As a result, these and other factors orphans and
vulnerable children have emerged as a large, high risk group.
2.5. The Situation of Orphan children in Sub-Saharan Africa
The orphan crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa has negative consequences for mental or psychological
firmness and human well-being that may affect extended family far beyond the regions, affecting
governments and people globally. Wealth nations must recognize that in the spirit of the
convention on the right of the child and in terms of global interests, they have a vital role to play
in accelerating the responses to the orphan crisis. The commitment and participation of the
international partners is essential. They must mobilize substantially increased resources to keep
this issue on the global agenda, provide technical and material support and ensure that progress
toward global goal is monitored and that stakeholders are held accountable.
The situation of orphans is complex, findings cannot necessarily be generalized and assistance to
orphans and vulnerable children is challenged by this complexity. Studies reported that to date,
more single orphans (Thielman, 2015; Sampathkumar, et al. 2015; Beegle, Weerdt, & Dercon,
2007) are paternal orphans than maternal orphans, this is mainly due to the fact that men have
children when they are older and fought wars and are more likely to die before their children are
grown.
Subbarao, et al. (2001) stated that of the many risks impacting adversely on sub- Saharan Africa,
the risk of orphan hood has assumed enormous visibility, largely due to AIDS and armed
conflicts. Coping with the risk of orphan hood presents extremely great problems for Sub-
Saharan Africa. AIDS and conflicts have orphaned millions of children on the African
subcontinent.
As a result, the problem of orphans and vulnerable children has reached catastrophic proportion
in some countries. However, mistreatment appears to be confined largely to stigmatization and in
some instances discrimination in food allocation, education and workload is over emphasized.
Rosenberg, Hartwig and Merson (2008) makes it clear that orphan children face increased
economic, medical, nutritional and psychosocial deprivation.

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2.6. The Situation of Orphan children in Ethiopia
Being orphan is one of the prevalent forms of social problems in Ethiopia (Belay, 2007). In
2005, it was estimated that there were 4,885,337 orphans aged 0-17 years of which 744,100 were
AIDS orphans (Chernet, 2007). About 40% of all orphans lack adequate food. It is reported that
6% are forced to beg in order to get their daily food and a large number also dropout of schools
due to lack of educational materials. Orphan children in Ethiopia are very vulnerable to all form
of abuses and exploitations, loss of inheritance right, loss of opportunity for education, basic
health care, normal growth and development as well as shelter.
The magnitude of orphans and vulnerable children crisis thus call for planed and intensified
efforts from the government, the international community, civil society, bilateral and multilateral
organizations (report on progress in implementing the World Fit for Children Plan of Action in
Ethiopia, 2007). Orphan children project, reported the challenges faced by orphan children which
involves:
 Lack of money for education and payment of school fees, uniform and other necessary
supply
 Psychosocial distress associated with anxiety, loss of parental love and nurture, burden of
caring for the sick, impact of family dislocation, depression, stigma, grief and frustration
 Abuse of property right
 Physical and sexual abuse
 Inadequate access to basic needs such as food, shelter, medical care and clothing
In Ethiopia, as in most traditional societies, there has been a strong culture of caring for orphans,
the sick, and disabled and other needy members of the society by the nuclear and extended
members, communities and churches (Chernet, 2007). However, the advent of urbanization
exacerbated by the recurrent drought and the couple of last decades have claimed a heavy toll of
human life. Millions of people were forced to migrate to centers where food was distributed.
Consequently, thousands of children were left unaccompanied due to inability of families,
communities and religious organizations to discharge their traditional roles and functions. Earlier
reports indicated that approximately 20,000 orphaned and children lacking necessities of life
were being cared for at homes in Ethiopia (Chernet, 2007).

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2.7. Psychosocial Experiences of Orphan Children
Parental death bring into existence different challenges in life of the child. The challenges may
involve failure to cope with orphan hood, poor social adjustment, poor relationship with others
and feeling of strong sadness (Abashula, Jibat, & Ayele, 2014). A study addressing emotional
needs of orphan children who took part reported the need of psychosocial support since they
experience loneliness and anger; rejection and discrimination from their peers, feeling of neglect
and so forth. Orphan children experiences losses differently. Mshengu (2014) stated that in the
absent of psychosocial support from the community, orphan children may experience
obstructions which may shift their focus from their studies in school.
Early separation from parents, deprivation of parental care, love, affection, warmth, security,
acceptance and discipline during childhood disrupt orphans educational development resulting in
adjustment problems (Sampathkumar, et al. 2015). Foster (1997) shows that beside these factors,
other factors make coping with the situation more difficult and painful for orphans. Examples of
such factors are: having to drop out of school, an increased workload, difficult relationship with
new caretakers and social isolation, lacking visits and neglect of support and responsibilities by
relatives, given to the children.
Orphaned boys and girls experience increased rate of psychological distress (Nyamukapa, et al.
2010). Research conducted shows that stress, grief and anxiety of orphan children during and
following the death of their parents are worsened by feelings that they are exploited and
stigmatized and discriminated against (Gray, 2015 & Belay, 2007). Common reactions of
children to terminal illness or death of a parent, are feelings such as depression, hopelessness and
suicidal ideation, loneliness, anger, confusion, helplessness, anxiety and fear of being
alone(Wild, 2001). Feelings of guilt and shame are particularly reported if the children
experienced limited or distorted communication about illness and death of their parents
(Veening, 2015: P.16). When being raised by someone other than a parent many influences are
associated with psychological distress such as physical abuse, stigma and discrimination.
The presence of these influences is more common among orphans (Veening, 2015). Being an
orphan can result in swift, possibly short term effects, such as trauma, poor health and
absenteeism at school, that develop overtime. It also can result in more gradual effects on
psychological well-being, such as fewer educational qualifications and skills in family
disintegration and destroyed family network (Veening, 2015).

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 2.7.1. Psychological experiences
The psychological damage that an orphan child experiences start even before the death of their
parents and (especially for AIDS orphans and orphans whose parent died from terminal illness)
suffers more from anxiety and depression (Subarao, et al. 2001). After death of a parent; orphans
can be more traumatized if they are separated from their siblings or if they find themselves head
of household overnight, responsible for their younger siblings (Subbarao, et al. 2001). Dalen, et
al. (2009) found that double orphans living in sibling-headed households are not only poor, but
appear to be living with a considerably higher level of stress than other orphans, and certainly
more than other children living in totally and in every way functioning family regardless of the
economic background. Schaal, Jacob, Dusingizemungu & Elbert (2010) stated that the loss of a
loved one through death is among life’s most stressful experiences.
The mode of death plays an important role in the development of prolonged grief. Schaal, et al.
(2010) conducted research on rates and risk for prolonged grief disorder in orphan children and
widowed genocide survivors in Rwanda and the results suggested that a significant proportion of
the interviewed samples continues to experience grief over interpersonal loses that occurred on
average 12 years ago and attest that unsolved grief will endure overtime if not addressed. This
indicate that grieving is a long lasting process in which without psychosocial intervention,
grieving will continue for significant period of time.
Studies indicated that majority of the orphans perceived parental loss related-grieving that last
quite longer to be accompanied by violent death (Whetten, et al. 2014; Suryadarma, Pakpahan &
Suryahid, 2009 & Schaal, et al. 2010). Older orphan children may experience in many ways due
to lack of maternal care; among orphans, the risk of child labor, poor learning outcomes and
lower educational attainments and disrupted living arrangements can impose trauma that has
harming effects on health and psychosocial well-being (Moucheraud, Worku, Molla, Finlay,
Leaning & Yamin, 2015). As a result, orphans seem to be particularly vulnerable to suffer from
having working memories that are negatively affected but they thus might find it more difficult
to be taught then other children.
Negative experiences of orphan children in their earlier lives, such as the death of parents as well
as the current living situation led to constant preoccupation with how to survive (Dalen, et al.
2009). Golberg and Short (2012) suggested that minimally, differences in kindness and care
could be relevant to orphans’ mental health outcomes. The orphan hood may contributes

22
significantly to psychological stress and thus an interpersonal relationship between the social
circumstances and the head of household’s psychological condition may cause substantial
anxiety among orphans and their siblings. Gumede (2009) notes that Orphan children experience
emotional stress; higher levels of anxiety, severe despondency and dejection and anger along
with the associated in activity bring about by the severe suffering they confront after a parent
dies. Escueta’s, et al. (2014) findings suggested that degree of exposure to potentially traumatic
events occurring among orphans and abandoned children are linked with increased emotional
difficulties and increases in emotional difficulties are related with delays in cognitive
development. As a result exposure to deeply distressing experience and emotional difficulties
constitute central barriers to educational achievement and result in isolative behavior for all such
exposed children including orphan.
Center for Global Health and Development (2009) suggested that “addressing the needs of
orphans and vulnerable children and mitigate negative outcomes and the growing OVC
population worldwide is high priority for national governments and international stakeholders
that recognize this as an issue with social, economic, and human rights dimension” (p.1). Center
for Global Health and Development (2009) also noted that collecting the pertinent data on OVC
in one setting, and accepting the gaps that still exist in our knowledge, will help policy makers
and program activities and maximize positive outcomes for orphans children and their
caretakers.
In 2007 Center for Global Health and Development found that “countries and regions differ by
their historical, political, and economic context; culture; level of development and urbanization;
health systems; respect for human rights; the nations’ AIDs and Orphan response; and household
coping mechanisms” (p.5). Beegle, Weerdt, and Dercon (2007) find notably distinctive diversity
in the orphan differential across countries and conclude that it is not easy to draw more widely
applicable ways about the extent to which orphans are disadvantaged. In 2003 UNICEF reported
that “the implications for generations of orphans in sub-Saharan Africa are extraordinarily
graves, but government, international agencies, non-governmental organizations, schools and
other community groups can still alter the course of the crisis” (P.6). Assefach, (2007), caution
that Ethiopia will encounter big costs in the long term if we don’t act accordingly to orphans
crisis soon and such costs may comprise increased “juvenile crime, reduced literacy and
economic burden on the states”.

23
 2.7.2. Emotional Experiences of Orphans
Jengendo and Nambi (1997) on their behalf states that orphan children experience emotional
problems and little is being done in this area of emotional support. Goldberg and Short (2010)
noted of both sex and described younger orphan as less “troublesome” and older orphans as more
able to work and more independent. Beatrice, Micah and Teresa (2012) makes it clear that a
parent plays an important parenting role in shaping a child in terms of interpersonal skills. In
Ethiopia, orphan children showed more emotional and social adjustment problems and girls
reported higher levels of difficulties than boys (Bhargava, 2005). In their work (Beatrice, et al.
2012) realizes that gradually, the parents’ death may traumatically affects a child’s psychological
and social well-being. Consequentially, such a child may experience retarded emotional and
social development, which has been known to negatively affect academic concentration and
relations with peers in the community, school and within their respective classes. UNICEF report
(2012) notes that such children may lack life skills like communication, decision making and
negotiation skills which may negatively affect their interpersonal relationships both within the
community and outside their community.
Perez (2012) as cited in Beatrice, et al. (2012) stated that the interpersonal relationship is an
indicative of better psychological well-being therefore, understanding the interpersonal
relationships of children and the factors that contribute to it will help toward clarifying and
defining ways to better their well-being. Kiirya (2003) as cited in Beatrice, et al. (2012) parental
death tend to make children seek more psychosocial support and satisfaction from many peers
which in turn improve their interpersonal relationships. Studies conducted reported that children
who are faced with loss of parents make up isolation by seeking social support from several
people including fellow peers.
The process that may contribute to psychological dimensions of disadvantage above the original
trauma of parental loss have received less attention so far. Stressful circumstances (toxic stress)
in early childhood can have a lifelong effect on brain development and health outcomes. When a
child experiences stressful events but receives the support of healthy nurturing relationships, a
health access response system develops, with no long-term effect on brain development
(PEPFAR, 2012). The primary aims of all psychosocial support programs should be to place and
maintain children in stable, affectionate family environment. The educational experiences of
girls seem to be more affected by the emotional loss of their parents (Hong, et al., 2010). Factors

24
such as worry and sadness may result in difficulty concentrating at school and poor interpersonal
experiences.
2.7.3. Self-Esteem of Orphan Children
The word self-esteem is used to define a person’s complete sense of self-respect or personal
value. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait which means that it tends to be stable and
enduring. Self-esteem can involve a variety of beliefs about the self, such as the appraisal of
one’s own appearance, beliefs, emotions and behaviors. Therefore, self-esteem arises habitually
from a person’s beliefs and consciousness. Self-esteem occurs in concurrence with a person’s
thoughts, behaviors, feelings and actions. High self-esteem and the self-serving attribution that
maintain it contribute to emotional well-being and project us against depression and anxiety
(Greenberg et al. 1992; Wanjiru & Gathogo, 2014).
Wanjiru & Gathogo, (2014) reported that low level of self-esteem may indicate feeling of
worthlessness possibly resulting in depression and anxiety. Self-esteem of orphans is central to
everything (Wanjiru & Gathogo, 2014). Self-esteem is the difference between success and
failure, affects thinking, cause one’s outlook to be positive or negative, affects confidences, self-
image, enable one to have the right attitude to succeed at work and affects happiness (Wanjiru &
Gathogo, 2014).
Orphan children in most cases lack the parental support needed to enhance their self-esteem
(Beatrice, et al. 2012). Orphan and vulnerable children (Takanyanagi, 2010; Assefach 2007;
Seruwagi, 2015) have had very little/limited chances to speak about their genuine views on their
life experiences; the voice of the child matters; as a child, he/she has his/her own thought on
learning, friends, school, community and dreams to disclose and less has been known whether
orphans are steadily at higher risk of experiencing psychosocial problems and problems related
to their self-esteems. Without parents, children are devoid of the support and care which help
them to develop a positive concept of who they are. They are also devoid to the self-care
instruction which help to prepare them for success in adult life after children lose parent, the
children become emotionally unstable and have a greater need to protection and care (UNICEF,
2012). Wild and Flisher (2004) states that low self-esteem favor individuals to adopt risk
behaviors. Studies show that people low in self-esteem may turn risk behaviors such as substance
abuse as a way of coping with the negative feelings associated with low self-worth because these

25
are the only means available to them to deal with stress or because they are influenced by others
through “peers pressure” (p.2.)
2.7.4. Social Experiences of Orphans
The lack of caring adults or significant others led to incomplete socialization for the orphan
children in sibling-headed household (Dalen, et al. 2009). Obtaining psychological, social and
cultural competences required for these children’s new way of life is been seriously limited
(Dalen, et al. 2009). In their conclusion (Dalen, et al. 2009) stated that psychosocial obstructions
of orphan children are the consequences of many and multifaceted problems they face such as
survival anxiety, lack of information from village members, lack of understanding and capacities
to support the orphan children. Research undertaken by Todres (2007) reported that when
children lose their parents, they lose what is usually their greatest source of protection.
As a result, orphans are typically more susceptible to human violation than children whose
parents are alive. Todres (2007) reported an estimated 250 million children between the ages of
five and fourteen work for a living; almost half work fulltime. He added that in Ethiopia more
than 75% of child domestic workers are orphan, working on average of eleven hours a day, seven
days a week.
2.7.5. Interpersonal Experience of Orphans
Humans are social beings, each child’s sense of well-being relays on a greater extent on
interpersonal relationships. Practically, in interpersonal relationship, children set up a firm basis
for their personal identity, express their thoughts, feeling and engage in collaborative activities
with others both within their community and outside. Beatric, et al. (2010) suggested the need to
create an emotional and caring climate that is conducive for quality learning. Such climate will
only be possible when there is a good quality child-caregiver and child-child relationships.

Globally, orphan hood has been on the increase due to the high death rate of parents. These
deaths are caused by terminal disease among them cancer, malaria, tuberculosis and AIDS. Other
parents are brutally murdered, others die from natural calamities such as landslides, moreover,
terrorists’ attacks through bomb blasts, road marine and airplane accidents, child birth and old
age have also left children orphaned. Therefore, the relationship between parental death on
children’s conduct and peer relationship problems is well documented (Kumar, Ramgopal,
Sriniva & Dandona, 2016). The possibility of psychopathic behavior among children raised

26
without supervision relating to unknown psychosocial effects of orphan hood by violent and
AIDS death is significantly associated with increased peer relationship problems.
2.8. Coping Strategies of Psychosocial Challenges of orphans
The number of orphans and other vulnerable children has been intensified as to threaten the
tradition of coping mechanism, strengthening the case for public intervention. All orphan
children experience the unpleasant and they differ from one and other. Some cannot cope when
they have no one to support them in their community and in their school environment; some
experience the feeling of hopelessness after losing their parents.
Fostering orphans by relatives is more accustomed to the African socio-cultural values than most
other options (Subbarao, et al. 2001) and this option is widely practiced across much of African
countries. The effects parental illness and death have on child’s mental health and ability to cope
are complex and depend upon the child’s development stage, resilience and culture
(Stefan,2005). A critical component of the responses to the orphans’ crisis is to increase access
to essential services and to ensure parity for orphans and other vulnerable children (UNICEF,
2012). Comprehensive local action plans are essential to meet the needs and coping mechanism
of orphans. Increasing access will depend on building district-level capacity for effective
decentralization and targeting of services as well as multi-sectorial coordination among service
providers. UNICEF (2012) stated that governments should protect the most vulnerable children
and families should held primary responsibility for the care and protection of children, therefore,
national governments should take the ultimate responsibility for protecting children ensuring
their well-being. NGOs can fulfill an important role in the support provision of resources of the
extended family members who are taking care of their orphaned relatives (UNICEF, 2006).
2.9. Theoretical Framework
2.9.1. Erikson’s view on Psychosocial Development
According to Erikson’s developmental theory individual development is characterized by
ongoing and long-lasting development of the person’s inborn potential. This is in keeping with
the epigenetic principle (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). Erikson (1980) argued that the epigenetic
principle originates with the growth of the child in the mother’s womb. According to this
principle “anything that grows has a ground plan and … out of this ground plan the parts arise,
each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all the parts have risen to form a
functioning whole” (Erikson, 1980, p. 53). Erikson (1980) further explained that when a child is

27
born he/she “leaves the chemical exchange of the womb for the social exchange of his/her
society, where his/her gradually increasing capacities meet the opportunities and limitations of
his culture” (p. 53).
Erikson’s theory covers the entire span of human development while at the same time
acknowledging that individuals are independent beings. This theory differs from that of Freud as
it acknowledges the important role that society plays in human development. In Erikson’s
developmental theory each life stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis that serves as a
basis for development. The epigenetic principle plays a significant role in development. The
emergence of the developmental crisis is determined by the person’s genes at a specific age. In
addition, the crises emerge in a set sequence. Each stage’s development crisis must be handled
during that stage in order to ensure the individual’s overall development during that period
(Meyer & Viljoen, 2008).

Erikson’s theory of human development outlined eight stages of development. These eight stages
cover the entire lifespan from childhood to adulthood. Each stage contains a characteristic
pattern that is linked to a fixation during that period. Unlike Freud, Erikson focuses more on the
psychosocial rather than biological meaning of these stages (Maddi, 1989).

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development consists of eight stages only the first five stages
are explored within this study as they relate specifically to childhood development. These stages
are referred to as basic Trust versus Mistrust, Autonomy versus Shame and doubt, Initiative
versus Guilt, Industry versus Inferiority, and Identity versus Role confusion. The last three stages
in Erikson’s developmental model, known as Intimacy versus Isolation, Generativity versus Self-
obsession and stagnation, and Ego integrity versus Despair, do not form part of this study (Meyer
& Viljoen, 2008).
2.9.2 An Outline of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is labeled Trust versus
Mistrust. This stage occurs between birth and 18 months (Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2010). The
developmental crisis at this stage involves basic trust versus mistrust (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008).
According to Erikson (1980) basic trust is an attitude that a person has toward him/herself and
others that results from the earliest experiences of life. If basic trust is not developed during this
stage the individual will manifest basic mistrust later in life. In adulthood, an individual may
manifest basic mistrust by withdrawing from situations when he/she is in conflict with

28
him/herself and others. Basic trust can therefore be regarded as a sign of good emotional and
psychological health.
UNAIDS, UNICEF and USAID (2004) acknowledged the importance of this stage by stating
that as soon as the child is born he or she becomes susceptible to many environmental factors
and that this susceptibility continues until about the age of five. The first few years are a
significant period in every child’s life. Children experience a high risk of death during this
period, particularly during birth and the month following birth. During this critical period
parental sickness or death, especially in relation to the maternal figure, can be life-threatening for
the child.
According to Erikson (1980) each new developmental stage brings with it some new challenges.
For instance, when the child is about eight months old he/she starts to assert his/her individuality
and this prepares the child for the imminent sense of independence. The child simultaneously
becomes more conscious of his/her mother’s facial appearance and starts to distinguish her from
other people. A child can be negatively impacted if the mother suddenly disappears for long
periods of time during this period. A sensitive child might react to this as a form of rejection and
think the mother has deserted him/her, which in turn provokes fears, causing the child to
withdraw from interactions. During this stage children are particularly vulnerable and rely on
others for care, shelter and reassurance. When children’s basic needs are met they develop trust
in their environment. However, when their needs are not met they will lack trust. This means that
children will develop a healthy balance between trust and mistrust if their needs are adequately
provided for during this stage (Maddi, 1989). It is important for children to develop a sense of
balance in terms of trust, which will allow them to form close relationships with others, and
mistrust, which will allow them to take care of themselves (Erikson, in Papalia et al., 2010). If
this balance is accomplished children develop an optimistic view of life (Boeree, 2006).
The first year of life is very important as it is during this period that the baby needs to form an
attachment with a trusted mother figure in order to ensure healthy development. During this
period babies are very sensitive to different sensory modalities that provide them with a sense of
comfort and love. For this reason, if a child loses a primary nurturer at an early stage he or she
might be deprived of the ability to form strong attachments to others. In addition, loss of such an
important person is associated with a high risk of sickness and death. Due to the high number of

29
people dying due to AIDS, children may lose their mothers to the disease during this critical
period. This in turn puts many children’s lives in danger (UNAIDS, UNICEF & USAID, 2004).
According to Erikson (1977), when a baby has developed social trust, he eats well, sleeps well
and his bowels are relaxed. The maternal care that the baby receives from the mother at this stage
helps him/her to overcome the pain and anxiety resulting from the earlier immature homeostasis
that he/she was born with. This is therefore a mutual process between the mother and the child.
Bergh (2006) referred to a critical time for a child as a period in a child’s life when issues in the
child’s environment might impact him/her in a good or a bad way. This may include issues such
as food shortage and parental neglect during the first year of life. In addition, if a child
experiences things that are not normal for a person his/ her age, this may lead to unhealthy
development (Bergh, 2006). During the first year of life the mouth becomes the focal point for
the child because it is through the mouth that the child gets fed through breastfeeding. The
mother shows the child love and care by feeding him/her. By feeding the child the mother show
the newborn baby that he/she is welcomed into the world (Erikson, 1980). It seems likely that
children orphaned by HIV/AIDS during the first year of their lives experience difficulties during
this stage and this may result in the development of mistrust.
For Erikson (1977) the baby’s first social success is allowing the mother to continue with her
daily activities without feeling anxious and angry. This ability to trust that the mother will
always be there provides the child with a sense of stability. The child’s ability to have confidence
that he or she can always trust the mother to be there at all times provides the child with a strong
sense of identity. Through this process the child acknowledges the fact that the mother and other
familiar people often present in the home will always be present. This provides the child with a
sense of trust. The sense of trust that the child develops at this stage does not only mean that the
child has learned to rely on the familiar faces he sees everyday but also that she/he can start
trusting him/herself and his/her own body to deal with his/her own impulses. This trust in the self
needs to develop to the extent where the child no longer needs his/her caregivers to be on
standby in case something goes wrong.
Children orphaned due to HIV/AIDS do not have access to a mother who can provide stability
and reliability. Trust remains very important in the early years of the child’s life. Maternal
caregivers can demonstrate this trusting relationship with their children by attending to the
children’s special needs in a caring and sensitive manner within their immediate environment.

30
This caring should be coupled with a fixed sense of personal integrity that is in line with their
daily lived experiences within their cultures. Trust in children is therefore not only about
expressing love to children and providing for their basic needs but also largely depend on the
nature of the relationship between the mother and the child (Erikson, 1980). Children in
institutions are deprived of parental love and care because caregivers are overworked and unable
to play the role of a substitute mother. Children who lose their parents at an early stage may
therefore lack the required sense of trust in their environment and later develop mistrust.
Erikson’s second stage of development is referred to as Autonomy versus Shame and doubt.
This stage takes place between the ages of 18 months and 3 years (Erikson, in Papalia et al.,
2010) and the conflict during this period is centered on issues relating to autonomy versus shame
and doubt (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). The object of focus during this stage is the anal area and the
focus is on whether the child has the ability to control his/her bowels. During this stage children
begin to realize that they have the ability to go to the toilet on their own and they therefore want
to exercise this ability. The ability to do this on their own will lead them to independence if
effectively carried out or to shame and doubt regarding their capabilities if they fail to do it
effectively (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). Richter et al. (2006) found that the AIDS pandemic has
resulted in many young children living with caregivers who are struggling with their own
physical and emotional problems and as a result are unable to attend to the children’s individual
needs. UNICEF (2006a) referenced studies that show that care provided in institutions fails to
meet the developmental needs of children as it is devoid of parental love and individual attention.
Children are sometimes abandoned, severely punished and abused. According to the Poku (2005)
although most children orphaned by HIV/AIDS are cared for by their relatives most of these
relatives experience high levels of pressure.
According to Erikson (1980), this is a very critical period for the relationship between the mother
and the child. In general, the parent/s or caregiver/s’ attitude towards the child will either have a
negative or positive effect on the child. A mother who is very harsh and interferes with the
process of allowing development to unfold naturally during the autonomy period can have an
immobilizing effect on the child. If a child feels helpless within himself and outside himself, then
he might be compelled to look for pleasure and control by either regressing or pretending to be
making progress. For example, a regressed child may suck his thumb and become irritable and
difficult. A regressed child might also become aggressive and stubborn and use his body waste

31
(and later in life, filthy language) as a defense mechanism. In contrast, a child who is pretending
to be making progress might just pretend to be independent and show the ability to cope on his
own when in actual fact he is not coping.
According to Erikson (1980) this stage is very significant for the relationship between feelings of
warm personal attachment and extreme hatred, and mutual assistance and determination. This
stage also determines whether the child will be assertive or not. When children are able to
restrain their feelings and actions without compromising their self-respect they develop a fixed
sense of independence and self-importance. In contrast, if the child feels helpless and dominated
by the parents this can create permanent feelings of distrust and worthlessness. In addition, for a
child to develop true independence it is important that a strongly developed and a convincingly
continuous early stage of trust is present. Boeree (2006) further asserted that a good positive
balance will lead to the psychosocial strength of willpower. According to Erikson (1980) the
experience of shame presumes that the child feels totally exposed and is very much aware of the
fact that other people are watching him/her. Thus, the child is not able to feel secure. In this way
the child is in complete view of everyone but is not ready for this exposure. A great deal of
shame does not result in the quality of being appropriate in social situations; instead it results in a
covert determination to deceive others when the person is not observed. Erikson (1980) also
observed that many children are disobedient and that this is a character trait common to criminal
behaviour in young people. He emphasized the importance of understanding the circumstances
that contribute to this disobedience.
Erikson (1977) characterized shame as anger directed inwards towards the person him/herself.
The person feels that he/she is being severely punished for trying to be independent. The person
therefore blames him/herself for being incompetent and not good enough. Children who are
treated in a harsh manner by adults around them doubt their own capability to work competently
and on their own. When these children become adults they constantly doubt themselves and as a
result hide from other people’s view as they fear that other people might be observing and
judging them (Maddi, 1989). This stage is likely to be challenging for children in institutions as
individual attention is not possible and the caregivers are already overwhelmed. These caregivers
may criticize and try to control the children and even deny them the opportunity to assert
themselves. Children may start to doubt their own ability to do things on their own and become
overly dependent on others, thereby developing feelings of shame and doubt. This lack of

32
independence may endanger all future development and result in incompetence. Erikson’s third
stage of development is referred to as Initiative versus Guilt. This stage takes place between the
ages of three and six years and the crisis during this stage is initiative versus guilt. The main
focus points during this stage are the child’s increasing ability to move around on his/her own as
well as developing interest in his/her sexual organs. During this stage children should be allowed
to explore their environment and deal with their own guilty feelings. Children are now able to
move around on their own and observe things happening around them and they therefore
experience conflict within themselves as they encroach into family members’ private space and
becoming aware of what is right or wrong. This sense of right and wrong is often reinforced
when children identify with the same sex parent, for example, a girl child will identify with the
mother while a boy child will identify with the father. During this period children experience
guilt regarding some of the ideas in their minds that they would like to explore (Meyer &
Viljoen, 2008).
This stage is likely to prove challenging for children orphaned as they have no parents to imitate
or with whom they can identify. According to UNAIDS and UNICEF (2005) many children
affected and infected by HIV/AIDS are in danger and as a result need to be protected. HIV/AIDS
is changing what it means to be a child for many children, depriving them of parental care,
warmth and love. UNAIDS, UNICEF and USAID (2002) postulated that due to severe economic
difficulties in their lives, many orphaned children are faced with the possibility of becoming
street children as they find it difficult to manage on their own without their parents. In addition,
Sherr (2005) reported that all children desire to be loved and when they are loved, they feel
important and appreciated. Children who grow up in a loving environment develop lasting role
models who become important in their later relationships. When children are orphaned they are
often deprived of such role models.
According to Erikson (1980) during the initiative versus guilt stage the child needs to discover
the kind of person she/he is going to become. During this period in a child’s life, they learn from
everything they hear, see or do. They see their parents as role models and want to be similar to
them. The child also develops the power to walk around and explore his/her surroundings
without any restrictions and becomes more aggressive, thus extending his role repertoire. In
addition, according to Erikson (1980) it is during this period that the child’s speech becomes
fully developed to the extent that he/she can start to make sense of what others around him/her

33
are saying. During this stage children become very inquisitive. The improvement in the child’s
speech and movement allows him/her to fully express his/her thoughts to such an extent that it
becomes impossible to avoid threatening him/herself with the power of his/her own dreams. The
child needs to use his/her imagination to develop a sense of continuous initiative that serves as a
foundation for an important and reasonable sense of purpose and autonomy (Erikson, 1980). It is
likely that children in institution might experience difficulties when they are cared for by many
caregivers and lack specific parental figures with whom they can identify. In addition, the
institutional setting might be limiting and therefore prevent the child from becoming
independent.
According to Boeree (2006) initiative is about experiencing positive reactions to the difficulties
that children are faced with during this stage and acquiring new skills. During this period parents
play an important role in persuading their children to experiment with their ideas and thoughts,
allowing them to be inquisitive and encouraging them to fantasize about future situations.
Initiative therefore involves the endeavor to make real that which appears to be unreal. The
ability to envision the future allows children to experience feelings of responsibility as well as
guilt. However, excessive feelings of responsibility or guilt can result in ruthlessness. When a
person is ruthless, he/she does not care who they hurt in order to get what they want. A positive
balance between initiative and guilt leads to the virtue of purpose. Erikson’s forth stage of
development is known as Industry versus Inferiority. This stage occurs between the ages of six
and twelve years and the crisis during this stage is industry versus inferiority. At this stage
children have already learned how to use different parts of their bodies and how to get credit
from others by being creative (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). During this stage the child is introduced
to the working world. If this stage is successfully negotiated the child will become an
enthusiastic and engrossed part of any work context. During this period children do their best to
begin tasks and finish them, instead of spending all their time playing (Erikson, 1977).
During this stage children acquire skills relating to how to become productive members in their
society by learning the ways of life appropriate to their society. Society’s function during this
stage is to ensure that space is provided for children to learn diligently and through teamwork
(Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). If this stage is successfully negotiated children develop competence,
which is the ability to learn and successfully carry out tasks. If children believe that they are not
as competent as their peers, they may withdraw to the safety of their family, which they may

34
experience as less judgmental. In contrast, if children work extremely hard they may not spend
as much time as they should with others in their environment and may become compulsive
workers (Papalia et al., 2010).
According to Erikson (1977) this stage prepares the child for “entrance into life” (p. 232),
whether that life begins in the fields, bushes or classrooms. During this period the child’s main
focus should be his work (preferably schoolwork) and should also be in line with his/her cultural
beliefs. This is the stage during which the child starts to take responsibility for acquiring skills
that are important in his or her culture. In order to do this the child needs to develop a sense of
what it feels like to start a task with the goal of finishing it while at the same time forgetting his
desire to play. In order for the child to later be a productive member of the society, he or she
must have learned at this stage the importance of work completion, both individual and
teamwork. Socially this is the most important stage because working entails the ability to do
things on his/her own and also teaches the child the importance of teamwork, while at the same
time learning from others in his/her environment.
The crisis during this stage relates to the inability to deal with life situations and feelings of
inferiority (Erikson, 1977), which can occur when children are unsuccessful in competently
acquiring their cultural skills (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). Erikson (1977) argued that if during this
period the child experiences problems with regard to his/her schoolwork and feels that he/she
cannot compete with other children of his/her age, he/she might develop a lack of interest and
may not be motivated to persist when she/he experiences tasks difficulties. This would result in a
child regressing. During this time other people in the child’s environment become important as
they play a significant role in helping the child understand the society’s technology and financial
systems. The child’s development can be negatively affected if his/her immediate family was
unsuccessful in getting him or her ready for school or if the school was unsuccessful in
maintaining the promises of the previous stages. Thus, when parents become ill and die this
result in a disruption of family and of schooling, in turn resulting in a failure to develop industry.
According to Erikson (1977) childhood can be assumed to have properly ended when the child
has acquired the skills necessary in his or her culture. The arrival of puberty signals the
beginning of youth. According to Erikson’s theory industry plays a very important role in
optimal development. Erikson’s fifth developmental stage is referred to as Identity versus Role
confusion. This stage begins around the age of twelve years and ends between the ages of 18 and

35
25 years. The age of maturity is largely dependent on the child’s way of life and the period of
training needed for the person’s chosen career. The crisis during this period relates to issues of
identity versus role confusion. During this period children develop both physically and sexually.
In addition, society expects teenagers to make decisions around their career interests. All these
factors compel the adolescent to re-evaluate what was previously considered to be obvious
(Erikson, in Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). If this stage is successfully negotiated adolescents develop
the psychosocial strength of fidelity (Boeree, 2006).
According to Erikson (1980) this stage marks the end of childhood as the child has now
established an excellent relationship to the working world. During the teenage years all the
things that the child previously relied on are brought into question because of the rapid growth of
the body and the development of sexual maturity. When the growing child is confronted with all
the changes in his/her body, their main concern becomes strengthening their social standing.
During this stage adolescents are more concerned with who they are from other people’s
perspectives than with how they feel about themselves. As part of this exploration for a new
sense of stability some adolescents find themselves having to re-examine many of the difficulties
from previous years (Erikson, 1980). During this period adolescents identify with respected
people in their communities who act as role models and with whom they can consult and
communicate their challenges relating to identity problems (Boeree, 2006). The adolescent stage
may be a very challenging one for children orphaned by HIV/AIDS. Lack of financial stability
and psychosocial problems can push adolescents to engage in dangerous behavior such as
unprotected sex and excessive use of dangerous substances.
Maddi (1989) argued that if this stage is successfully negotiated the person often has a good idea
of who he/she is; in contrast, failure to successfully negotiate this stage leads to a disorganized,
disengaged and broken sense of self. This may lead to doubt about sexual identity, delinquency
and even complete psychotic episodes. Adolescents are often negatively affected by their failure
to successfully resolve occupational issues as this may influence their self-esteem (Erikson,
1980). When adolescents experience identity problems they tend to deny the importance of
having an identity and as a result reject the need to have an identity. Some adolescents may
associate with others who might assist them with issues relating to their identity while others
may engage in destructive behaviors such as substance abuse as a way of dealing with the
difficulties in their lives (Boeree, 2006). The discussion of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial

36
development provides a clear overview of how children progress both psychologically and
socially. This discussion of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development clearly suggests that
children orphaned are likely to experience various difficulties with regards to their psychosocial
development. This is likely to lead to difficulties in the way in which they relate to others in their
environment (Thwala, 2008).
2.9.3. Psychosocial Development and Parental Loss
Parental loss during childhood can have a negative effect on the child’s social as well as
psychological development (Doka, 1994). However, regardless of these difficulties bereaved
children still have to complete key developmental tasks. Bereaved children have the added
challenge of learning to deal with the loss of their parents while attending to other tasks of daily
living (Oltjenbruns, 2001).
A study by Behrendt and Mbaye (2008) found that the death of a parent/s is a very painful
experience for every child and often provokes feelings of fear. Many children referred to this
experience as the most stressful experience in their lives. A number of factors relating to parental
loss contribute to this experience of suffering. These factors include children witnessing the
death process, loss of parental love and financial support, poor family condition when the family
provider dies, inability to satisfy basic needs, relocating, becoming accustomed to a new
environment and new caregivers, as well as unfair treatment and abuse by the foster parents.
When children are confronted with the difficulties mentioned above their sense of trust might be
affected when they learn that their environment is unable to provide for their needs. According to
Erikson (1980) children depend on their environment to meet their basic needs. It is during the
first year of life that children learn to trust themselves and others in their environment.
Boeree (2006) stated that if parents provide the child with intimacy, stability and continuity, the
child develops trust in his/her environment. The child also develops the belief that the world is
full of sensitive, caring and trustworthy people. Based on their parents’ reactions children learn
to trust themselves and their own biological urges. However, if parents are not reliable and
adequate, treat the child badly, or if they focus on things that are of interest to them and neglect
the baby’s needs, the child will develop feelings of mistrust. Mistrustful children are anxious and
distrustful in interactional relationships. Orphan children might develop feelings of mistrust
towards their parents or caregivers because these caregivers became sick and were no longer able

37
to attend to their needs. Children might experience their parents’ inability to care for them as
neglect as they are not yet matured enough to understand the difficulties and problems.
According to UNAIDS and UNICEF (2005) and Fonseca et al. (2008) many children are
traumatized when they witness their significant others dying. The death of a parent at the time
when the child was beginning to develop independence might have serious implications for the
child. According to Erikson’s developmental theory the child’s social environment plays a very
important role during the autonomy versus shame and doubt period in determining what the child
eventually becomes. A supportive environment allows children to be independent, whereas
children who are not supported and are severely punished when they attempt to apply
independent thinking later develop shame and doubt about their capabilities (Maddi, 1989).
Erikson (1980) argued that it is during the initiative stage that children develop a sense of right
and wrong. This means that if the child happens to engage in inappropriate behavior during this
stage, he does not only feel guilty when he is caught engaging in these behaviors but he is also
frightened of being caught. This stage is the foundation of individual morality. If children feel
overwhelmed by adults around them during this period this can have a harmful effect on the
child and the development of good behavior as it results in the formation of an undeveloped,
vicious and stubborn conscience. The effects of guilt provoked during this period usually do not
manifest until later on in a child’s life. Difficulties relating to initiative may manifest when
people limit themselves even in areas where they have expertise. In adulthood, these individuals
often do more than what is required of them by working tirelessly. In addition, these adults
believe that they can only be valued by others based on how well they perform their duties and
not on who they are as human beings. They may be constantly active, even during leisure times,
and place their bodies under great pain, which results in psychosomatic diseases (Erikson, 1980).
According to UNAIDS, UNICEF and USAID (2004) children orphaned are often faced with
financial difficulties that impact their ability to remain in school. Due to economic difficulties in
their lives these children often carry the financial burden of ensuring that basic necessities are
met and as a result drop out of school. This can result in role confusion as the growing child
assumes adult responsibilities and is unable to play and spend time with her/his peers. Although
Erikson (1977) stressed the significance of the family in preparing children for school in order to
acquire skills for their successful development, this is often not possible when parents die. As
noted previously, for many orphaned children parental death may result in children being moved

38
from their homes to live with foster families or in institutions. According to UNICEF (2006a)
institutionalized children are often permanently removed from their family members and larger
communities. These children often lose connections with their families. This is particularly
significant in the African context as in this context families provide a very important sense of
connection and belonging. This separation significantly impacts children’s sense of individuality
as well as family identity (UNICEF, 2006).
According to Bradshaw, Johnson, Schneider, Bourne and Dorrington (2002) in addition to the
traumatizing effect of parental loss, children orphaned lso lack the much needed supervised care
and assistance that is normally provided by parents to help them navigate through critical life-
stages. This impacts on their ability to develop a sense of who they are as well as on their ability
to learn about their cultural norms, values and behaviour. This might significantly impact on
their ability to make meaningful social and financial contributions to society. It could also result
in these young people committing criminal offenses. Children’s psychological and social
development may be further disadvantaged when their basic survival needs are not met.

It is also important that adolescents are able to perform appropriate rituals that mark their
progress from childhood to adulthood. However, if the adolescent fails to complete these rituals
they are likely to experience role confusion. These adolescents will be unable to claim their place
in their cultural context and in the rest of the world. When adolescents are confused as to their
roles in society, they experience problems relating to their identity. During this crisis they
experience difficulties regarding understanding who they are in relation to others (Boeree, 2006).
When adolescents feel that others do not see them in the same way as they see themselves they
experience identity confusion. This may result in adolescents experiencing difficulties in making
meaningful connections with those around them (Bergh, 2006). Based on this discussion it seems
likely that children living in institutions may experience identity problems. According to
Erikson’s developmental theory the role reversals that orphaned children are often exposed to are
likely to result in identity problems and role confusion for the orphans.
2.10. Demographic variable and psychological well being
In Africa gender plays an important role in the socio-cultural set up of families and societies.
Parenting practices, socialization, roles and expectations differ according to the sex of the child.
This makes investigation into gender difference among orphans on psychological distress critical

39
(Dahlback, 2008). Compared to girls, orphaned boys were found to show lower self-awareness
and to perform more poorly at school (Rutter, 2008).
Demographic characteristics also show some differential effects for wellbeing and ill-being.
Women have substantially higher rates of symptoms (or diagnosis) of common mental disorders
such as anxiety and depression than men, but the effect of gender is much less clear when it
comes to mental well-being.
Girls tend to suffer from more emotional difficulties, whereas boys tend to have more
behavioural problems. For example, depression increases from the early teens to the mid-
twenties for both girls and boys (Kessler, Avenevoli & Merikangas, 2001), but girls show larger
increases than boys during this period (Hankin, Abramson, Moffitt, Silva, McGee & Angell,
1998). Boys however, tend to show a greater increase in their engagement in problem behaviors
than girls (Bongers, Koot, Van der Ende & Verhulst, 2004), although behavioral problems often
peak in early to middle adolescence and then decline in later adolescence for both genders. This
gender difference may be due, in part, to the way in which boys and girls react to stressful
periods and traumatic events. Boys are more likely to externalize their behaviors by acting up,
whereas girls tend to internalize their problems, leading to depression, anxiety and other
psychological problems (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1983).
2.11. Empirical Studies
There are a number of academic literatures on the area of orphan children. When we closely
examined the existing literatures on the area, for instance:-

 Smyke et al. (2007) conducted a study in Romania using videotaped observations of the
child and favorite caregiver in their ‘home’ environment were coded for care giving
quality, and this was related to child characteristics. The study result shows that those
institutionalized raised children have demonstrated marked delays in cognitive
development, poorer physical growth, and marked deficits in competence.
 Zhao, Li, Kaljee, Fang, Stanton and Zhang (2009) conducted a study in two rural
countries of central China based on qualitative data from children and workers in AIDS
orphanages in order to examine the daily lives, needs, and feelings of orphans and
explore the advantages and disadvantages of institutionalized care of AIDS orphans. The

40
 study result shows that children living in orphanages mostly felt that the living conditions
were better than the families they lived with after the death of their parents.
 In Iran, Mostafaei et al. (2012) compared happiness in orphanage and non-orphanage
children in Uremia City. The finding revealed that there is a significant difference
between orphanage and non-orphanage children in terms of their positive and negative
emotions. The explanation for this finding is that, orphan children who lived in the
institution had showed more negative and less positive emotions as compared to their
counter parts. However, the result suggested that there is no significant correlation
between age, education and happiness.
 In rural Uganda, Atwine et al. (2005) analyzed a survey of 123 AIDS orphans children
aged 11–15 and 110 non orphaned children of similar age and gender living in intact
households in the same neighborhood in a randomly selected sub-county in Bushenyi
District. The finding showed that orphans had greater risk (vs. nonorphans) for higher
levels of anxiety (OR = 6.4), depression (OR = 6.6) and anger (OR = 5.1).
 In Maputo, Mozambique Claret (2008) interviewed 12 known child care professionals
(six worked inside the orphanages, and six worked With OVC-related issues outside the
orphanages) whose age ranges 24 to 67. She was found that institutionalized orphans are
living under poor general care with few opportunities for lucid, educational, and social
growth. Also among the finding were neglect and abuse, attachment difficulties and
traumatic stress symptoms.
 A national survey in Zimbabwe (Nyamukapa et al., 2010) applied factor analysis to
compare orphans and non-orphaned children aged 12-17 (n = 5321). Findings showed
more psychosocial disorders amongst orphans (p < .05) which remained when controlling
for poverty, gender, age of household head, school enrolment and adult support.
Depression showed group differences, but anxiety did not (Cluver and Gardner, 2007).
 In Kenya, Gabriel et al. (2012) compared the self-concept and academic performance of
institutionalized and non-institutionalized AIDS orphaned children in Kisumu
municipality. The study found out that there was a difference in self -concept and
academic performance between AIDS orphaned children living in institutions and with
extended families, guardian homes and in parental homes. However, the difference in self

41
 concept was not significant but the institutionalized orphans performed better
academically than those who are non-institutionalized.
 Makame, Ani & McGregor (2002) in urban Tanzania, found that orphans had increased
internalising problems compared with non-orphans (p < .0001) and 34% reported that
they had contemplated suicide in the past year, compared to 12% of non-orphans (p < .
016) (Cluver & Gardner, 2007).
 In Ethiopia, Bhargava (2005) analysed data from a survey of 479 children who had been
maternally orphaned by AIDS, with a control group of 574 children orphaned for other
reasons. Children orphaned by AIDS showed more emotional and social adjustment
problems, and girls reported higher levels of difficulties than boys. Significant predictors
of higher scores in both groups included presence of the father, school attendance,
household income, clothing conditions, distribution of food and emotional support within
the fostering family (Cluver & Gardner, 2007).
 Afework (2013) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia conducted a comparative study to assess the
psychological well-being of orphan and non-orphan children in Yeka subcity. The finding
revealed that orphan children showed lower psychological wellbeing compared to their
counter parts. However, there is no significant difference regarding the demographic
background such as gender and age but has significant difference regarding their
educational level and parental status of the children. The study recommends that the
schools should consider the possibility of recruiting a qualified school counselors or child
psychologist in order to support orphans students.
 Hiwot et al. (2010) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, conducted an institution-based comparative
cross-sectional survey using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The study found
out that both AIDS and non- AIDS orphan adolescents were having psychological
problems. However, there was no significant difference in prevalence of depression and
anxiety between the two groups.
 Asfawesen, Aregay and Berhe(2009) while assessing the prevalence of psychological
distress and associated factors among AIDS orphan adolescents revealed that 74 (25.3%)
orphan adolescents were depressed, moreover, 52 (17.7%) orphan adolescents were
anxious.

42
2.12. Conceptual Framework of the Study
Parent loss
(Father/mother/dual)

Moderating Factors
Child sex
Child age
Place of residence
R/ship to prior death
Sequence of death
Duration of loss
Family cohesion
Social Connectedness

Immediate effect Intermediate effect

Trauma Inadequate care
Relocation Education support
Poor households Inconsistent parenting
less closely related care givers Child abuse
Loss of breadwinners Subling separation

Psychosocial Challenges
Depression
Self esteem
Self efficacy
Stress
Anxiety
Interpersonal relationship
Stigma & discrimination

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study

Source: Developed by the researcher (2019)

43
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH MEATHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
Research design is the blueprint for fulfilling research objectives and answering research
questions. To this end, the study employed cross sectional survey design. It aims to pool both
qualitative and quantitative approaches. Since cross-sectional survey design is an approach in
which the data collected on the whole study population at a single point in time to examine the
relationship between variables of the study. It provides a snapshot of the frequency of
characteristics in a population at a given point in time.
3.2. Research Approach
In this study the researcher employed a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach so as to get
the necessary information related to the study. Since qualitative approach helps to understand the
perceptions, views, and opinions of the participants. This data is beneficial in providing
subjective information that would be difficult to get through a quantitative approach. Whereas,
quantitative approach helps to grasp on the statistics, figures and facts from the study area. Thus,
due to their importance, a mixed approach to both data employed in this study.
3.3. Sources of Data
This study used primary sources of data. The sources of primary data were orphan children,
heads of orphanages, care givers, social workers and experts of women and child office. The
source of secondary sources were published and unpublished materials namely thesis, reports,
plans, journals, articles etc.
3.4. Population and Sampling
The target population of this study were 962 orphan children of Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh
Orphanage. In addition, heads of orphanages, social workers and experts of women and care
givers were the part of the study.
In this study in order to capture a representative sample multistage sampling technique were
employed. Firstly, out of ten orphanages in Hawassa City the study purposively selected Fiker
Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage due to they enroll largest number of orphan children
(SNNPRSWCB, 2017/18). According to SNNPRS women and Children Bureau (2017/18) there
are a total of 962 orphan children supported by Fiker Behiwot Orphanage(542) and Tesfa Goh
Orphanage(420).

44
In order to select sample size of the study from the total population (parents) the following
sample size a formula stated by Yamane Taro (Yamane, 1967) has been employed.

N
n=
1+ N ( e ) 2

962
1+962(0.07)2

962
= 5.7138

2060
= 168.3¿
17.686

n ≈ 168

Where n= Sample size, N= population size, and e refers to level of pricision(0.07).

were orphan children in two orphanages. Distribution of sample

The respondents of the study
respondents to each orphanage done using Probability Proportional Sampling (PPS) to the size
of population in each orphanage and taking under consideration about gender proportionality.
Sample respondents were accessed using systematic random sampling. The sampling frame for
this study were list of orphan children in selected orphanage.
Table 1: Sample size distribution of respondents
N Orphanages Orphan Children
o Pop(N) Sample (n)
Male Female Total Male Female Total
1 Fiker Behiwot 202 304 542 35 60 95
2 Tesfa Goh 230 190 420 40 33 73
Total 0 0 0 75 93 168
Source: Fiker Behiwot and Tesa Goh Orphanage (2019)
Regarding selection of key informant interview participants like heads of orphanages, social
workers, experts of women and care givers the researcher employed purposive sampling to select
key informants. Purposive sampling procedure used because heads of orphanages, social workers
and experts of women and care givers understand psychosocial problems faced on orphan
children of Fiker Bihiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanages.

45
The selection of the key informants done by collecting information about their knowledge as
key informant on the topic under study. Thus, 2 heads of orphanages, 4 social workers, 2
experts of women and 4 care givers generally a total of 12 key informants selected using
purposive method based on their knowledge and experience on the topic under study area.
Whereas, four focus group discussions (two male orphans and two female orphan children's)
planned to arrange that comprises 8-12 participants in each FGD sessions conducted. FGD
participants were selected through voluntary basis through purposive sampling technique.
3.5. Data Gathering Tools
For collection of data for the study questionnaire, Focus group discussions and Key informant
interviews used.
3.5.1. Questionnaires: For this study mainly adopted questionnaires of psychological and
social problems of orphans used to collect data from the participants of the study. The scale
will be tested for its validity and reliability by previous researchers. A questionnaire will be
prepared in English and translated to Amharic in order to be easily understood for the
respondents.
The questionnaire for orphans included three sections. The first section contain items about
the socio-demographic characteristic of respondents. The second section contains questions
about the psychological problems of orphans. This section subdivided in to questions related
with depression, self-esteem, self-efficacy, stress and anxiety. The researcher modified and
adopted the strengths and difficulties questionnaire, center for Epidemiological Studies
Depression scale for Children (CES-DC), Rosenberg self-esteem scale, General Self Efficacy
scale(GSE), Sheldon Cohen Perceived Stress scale and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) to
assess the above mentioned parts of psychological problem of the children respectively. The
third section, social problem of orphans measured through close ended questionnaire that
contains mainly interpersonal relation, and stigma and discrimination. The researcher
modified and adopted the strengths and difficulties questionnaire and Rif psychological
wellbeing standardized scale was used.
3.5.2. Interview: Key informants for interviews selected from different areas. The selection
of the key informants done by collecting information about their knowledge as key informant
on the topic under study.

46
 3.5.3. Focus Group Discussion: Focus group discussion conducted to collect basic
information concerning the study topic. FGD helps to cross check the truthfulness of
information collected by other tools. A checklist prepared to conduct focus group discussion
with the participants in the study area.
3.6. Procedure of Data Collection
Data collected using questionnaire or interview guide either from probability or non-probability;
randomized or non-randomized selected sample from target. For this study purpose a research
authorization permit obtained from both Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage in order to be
allowed to collect data from selected orphanages. The researcher proceeded to the orphanages to
collect data as per the schedule. Information collected treated with confidentiality. Those
selected orphanages was pre-visited by the researcher to establish rapport with them before the
actual data collection dates. This allowed familiarizing with the respondents. The researcher
oriented objective of the study and distributed the questionnaires.
Regarding key informant interview and FGD the researcher selected and appointed them in
appropriate places where the interview taken place. Similarly, the researcher met with FGD
participants in appropriate place and made discussion based on a prepared the guide-line which
lasts 1:30 - 2:00 hours and the researcher served as a moderator.
3.7. Validity and Reliability of Instruments
The researcher undertakes a pilot study prior to dispatching of instruments for final data
gathering. Thus, the researcher took 10% of sample respondents from other orphanages which
are not selected with the purpose of modifying the tools if there are defects found and secured
the validity and reliability of instruments before use and in which t the validity and reliability of
the questionnaires has been checked.
Regarding validity of the instrument face and content validity of the instruments was ascertained
by the researcher advisor and other experts in the field. The study adopted content and face
validity to ensure the test items represent the content that the test is designed to measure. For the
validity, the advisors as research experts scrutinized the instruments and their recommendations
were used to adjust the items accordingly. The researcher discussed the instruments with her
advisors and other experts to check its content and face validity and ensure the data collected was
relevant to the study. Some of the items were modified and others discarded to improve the
quality of the instruments thus increasing the validity.

47
Reliability of research instrument is the extent to which the instruments produce or yields
consistent results when repeatedly administered. The researcher used Cronbach's alpha since it is
the most commonly accepted measures of reliability. It measures the internal consistency of the
items in a scale. It indicates that the extent to which the items in a questionnaire are related to
each other. It also indicates that whether a scale is one dimensional or multidimensional. The
normal range of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha value ranges between 0-1 and the higher values
reflects a higher degree of internal consistency.
Different authors accept different values of this test in order to achieve internal reliability, but the
most commonly accepted value is 0.70 as it should be equal to or higher than to reach internal
reliability.
Table 2: Reliability statistics
No Constructs No items No of No items Cronbach
proposed items retained 's Alpha
dropped
1 Depression 27 2 25 .830
2 Self esteem 10 3 7 .773
3 General self efficacy 10 0 10 .721
4 Perceived stress 10 1 9 .701
5 Anxiety 10 2 8 .857
6 Interpersonal relation 20 2 18 .692
Average 0 0 0 .762
As it can be seen from the table above depression(as a part of psychological effect) has 27 items,
of which 2 were dropped because their correlated inter-item correlation were .281 which is
below the cut point 0.35 as a result, cronbach alpha was 0.830. Also, self esteem (as a part of
psychological effect) has began with 10 items and 3 items were dropped because it's correlated
item total correlation was .299 which is below the cut point 0.35 and to be equate its cronbach
alpha was 0.773 which is .86 for Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale . Whereas, general self efficacy
has began with 10 items and no item is dropped because it's correlated item total correlation
was .539 which is above cut point 0.35 and to be equate its cronbach alpha was 0.721 with
Internal reliability for GSE between .76 to .90.
Also, perceived stress (as a part of psychological effect) has began with 10 items and 1 item is
dropped because it's correlated item total correlation was .299 which is below the cut point 0.35
and to be equate its cronbach alpha was 0.701 which is between .84-.86 for PSS. Anxiety (as a
part of psychological effect) has began with 10 items and 2 items is dropped because it's
correlated item total correlation was .301 which is below the cut point 0.35 and to be equate its

48
cronbach alpha was 0.857 which is .92 for Beck Anxiety Inventors. Interpersonal relation (as a
part of psychological effect) has began with 20 items and 2 item is dropped because it's
correlated item total correlation was .198 which is below the cut point 0.35 and to be equate its
cronbach alpha was 0.692
Totally, for six fields, values of Cronbach's Alpha ranged from 0.692 to 0.857. This range is
considered between high and excellent reliability of each field of the questionnaire. Thus, total
cronbach's Alpha of questionnaire equals to 0.762 for the average for entire questionnaire. This
range is considered as high reliability of the entire questionnaire of students. Therefore, based on
the test, the results for the items are reliable and acceptable.
The KR 20 is a special case of Cronbach's Alpha in which the items are binary variables (usually
scored as 0 or 1) . The reliability procedure can calculate KR 20 for binary item variables. Alpha
is requested in the Model. KR 20 checks the internal consistency of measurements diactomus
choices.
Table 3: KR 20 reliability statistics result
Reliability Statistics
a
Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based N of Items
on Standardized Itemsa
.778 .779 29

Stigma and discrimination (as a part of social effects) has begun with 29 items and 2 items were
dropped because it's correlated item total correlation was .309 which is below the cut point 0.35
and to be equate its cronbach alpha was .779.
3.8. Method of Data Analysis
Collected data from the study were both quantitative and qualitative in nature following the
research questions. Data analysis conducted in a descriptive form having identified thematic
areas in reference to the research objectives. Quantitative data collected from questionnaires
coded and analyzed with the aid of software SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science)
version 20 program. The analyzed data then presented descriptively using frequency distribution,
percentage and tabulation and inferentially using independents sample t-test, Pearson correlation
and ANOVA. However, qualitative data to be collected through interview analyzed qualitatively
and the dominant themes captured and presented through narratives based on the research
objectives. Finally, conclusions drawn and recommendations made on the basis of the research
findings.

49
3.9. Ethical Considerations
This study carried in line with the approval obtained from Dilla University, Institute of
Education and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Psychology and Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa
Goh Orphanages given a written permission to conduct this study in response to a written
inquiry. The interview conducted by letting the participants to have information about the
purpose of the study and the type of information needed from them. Through this process the
researcher let the participants to know the purpose of the research and those who participated in
the study according to their willingness. The questionnaire provided to the respondents had
general information about the purpose of the study. In addition to that it indicated the
respondents need not mention their name in the questionnaire and it insures confidentiality.

50
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
This chapter discusses the findings obtained from the primary instrument used in the study. It has
four sub sections. First sub section deals background characteristics of sample respondents, the
second sub section deals with psychosocial problems of orphan children, third sub section
discusses with difference in psychosocial problems between single and double orphan children
and finally in fourth sub section relationship between psychosocial problems and socio-
demographic variables (Age, sex, age in which orphans lost their parent/s and type of orphanage)
has been discussed. In order to make the discussions simpler, the researcher used tables to
summarize the collective responses of the respondents. For this study the return rate of
questionnaires is higher leading to higher probability of a sample being representative of a
population being studied. 168 questionnaires distributed for data collectors whereas, 164 (97.6%)
were returned and fully filled. Therefore, the response rate for the respondents was 97.6%.
4.1. Socio demographic Characteristics of Respondents
In this sub section socio-demographic characteristic of sample respondents like sex of the
respondent, age of the respondent, religion they follow, living arrangement, age of respondents
when they loss their parent/s, family size and orphanage type has been dealt.
Table 4: Summary of socio-demographic characteristics of orphan children
Items Responses No %
Sex Male 45 27.4
Female 119 72.6
Total 164 100
Age 8 - 13 year 83 50.6
14-18 years 81 49.4
Total 164 100
Unable to read and write 28 17.1
Education status Primary education 136 82.9
Total 164 100
Orthodox 61 37.2
Muslim 38 23.2
Religion
Catholic 17 10.4
Protestant 48 29.3
Total 164 100
With father only 25 15.2
Living arrangement With mother only 100 61.0
With brother/sister 23 14.0
With others relatives 16 9.8
Total 164 100

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 Before birth 19 11.6
Birth- 4 year 82 50.0
Age your lost parent/s 5-10 year 37 22.6
After 10 year 26 15.6
Total 164 100
Source: Own survey data (2020)
With regards to sex composition of sample respondents, majority 119 (72.6 %) were females
while, the rest 45 (27.4 %) were male. However, for this study the respondents were enough to
see psychosocial problems of orphan children from both type of sex that implies the study was
inclusiveness.
Table 4 depicts that majority of the age of respondents was in the age group 8-13 years, which
constituted 83 (50.6 percent) of the respondents. Whereas, the age group that ranges from 14-18
years accounts 81 (49.4%) of the respondents were included.
Concerning education status of respondents, Table 5 shows that, 136 (82.9 %) were in primary
education and the remaining 28 (17.1 %) were unable to read and write. Thus, we can conclude
that majority of respondents (mothers) were able to read and write and have information
regarding psychosocial problems of orphanage.
Of the total respondents included in the study, 61 (37.2 %) were followers of Orthodox Christian,
38 (23.2 %) were Muslim, 17 (10.4 %) were Catholic and 48 (29.3 %) were Protestants. Thus,
most of the respondents were Orthodox Christian.
Regarding the living arrangement of sample respondents, of the total respondents included in the
study, 100 (61.0 %) live with only with their mother, 25 (15.2 %) live only with their father, 23
(14.0 %) live with their brother/sister and 16 (9.8 %) live with others like relatives. Thus,
majority of sample respondents live only with their mother since they lost their father.
Age in which a child lost their parent/s was one of the factors that had impact on psychosocial
wellbeing of children is discussed. In this regards, majority of the respondents 82 (50.0 %)
between birth and 4 years, followed by 37 (22.6 %) when they were between 5-10 year, 26 (15.6
%) after 10 year and 19 (11.6 %) before birth. Thus, majority of the respondents lost their parents
between birth and 4 years. In line with the above finding, qualitative data obtained from FDG
participants reveled that children under their guardianship were 12 years old, being the youngest,
to 18 years of age being the oldest during the time of loss. Whereas, FGD participants also added
children have problem of interacting with other peers or the community in total due to the stigma
and discrimination towards orphan children. Some of the respondents replied, the children used to

52
play with their friends before losing their parent, now they only focus on their responsibility at
home since she/he might be the older child in the household. This indicates not only children
face challenge in their interpersonal relation but there is also shift in role and they perform the
responsibilities of a parent in such early years of their lives.
Figure 2: Percentage distribution of respondents by family size

64.60%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00% 35.40%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
1-3 persons 4-6 persons

Source: Own survey data(2020)

Family size has its own impact on psychological wellbeing of orphan child. As depicted in figure
1 above, most of the respondents i.e. 106 (64.4 %) had medium household size (4-6), followed
by 58 (35.4 %) having small household size. Thus, we can infer that majority of sample
respondents were having medium household size.
Figure 3: Percentage distribution of respondents by type of orphanage
21%

Single orphan
Double orphan

79%

Source: Own survey data(2020)

53
Studies indicated that type of orphanage is one of the factors that affect psychological wellbeing
of orphan child. Thus, as depicted in figure 2 majority of the respondents i.e. 129 (78.7 %) were
Single orphans that lost either their father or mother, followed by 35 (21.3 %) were Double
parents that lost both their mother and father Thus, we can infer that majority of respondents
were single parents.
With regards to the socio-demographic characteristics’ of the FGD participants. Eight of them
were male and ten of them were male. Regarding their age they ranged 15-18 years. Regarding
their grade level all of them were primary school students. However, regarding socio-
demographic characteristics of Key informants, most of them were men, aged from 26-46 years,
most of them were first degree holders and they processioned as teachers, nurses, social workers,
experts and psychologists.
4.2. Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children
There were a set of multidimensional and intertwined psychosocial problems that were poorly
addressed with orphan child. The findings of the study revealed that participants encountered
psychological problems due to being orphan children. The psychological problems are organized
and described under the following categories:- depression, self-esteem, self-efficacy, stress,
anxiety, interpersonal relation and stigma and discrimination.
Table 5: Level of psychosocial problems of loss of parents
Depression Self General Perceived Anxiety Interpersonal Stigma
esteem Self- stress relationship and disc.
Efficacy
Mean 1.3132 1.5872 2.2234 1.7634 1.9854 1.2284 0.6619
Gr.mea 26.262 15.8716 22.234 14.4074 39.7586 31.9396 8.7631
n
SD 0.2993 0.1571 0.6344 0.1644 0.2487 0.1786 0.3495
Min 0.45 1.50 1.20 1.40 1.76 0.81 0.00
Max 2.40 2.10 3.60 2.10 2.52 1.50 1.00
Source: Own survey data(2020)
Table 5 presents a summary of psycho-social problems of orphan children by the participants of
the study when facing with such a psycho-social problems. As the table shows, out of the seven
different psycho-social problems, depression, anxiety and interpersonal relationship were higher
whereas, self-esteem, perceived stress, and stigmatization and discrimination became low and
general self-efficacy and interpersonal relationship became moderate among orphan children in
the study area.

54
Depression among orphan children in the study area was at higher level with a sum score
(26.26), mean value(1.31) and standard deviation (0.29). Thus the higher CES-DC scores which
indicate increasing depression and the scores over 15 which is above the cut point which is
indicative of significant levels of depressive among orphan children in the study. In line with this
FGD participants reveled that negative outcome of the participants’ experiences of losing a
parent(s) was reported by most of them and this manifested in depression. The sub-theme was
deduced from the participants’ expression of sadness, fear, perpetual worries, and distress, lack
of sleep, loneliness, and withdrawal as expressed by many of the participants. Similarly, key
informants stated that most of the children felt sad, depressed, and in stress due to lack of good
relationship with service providers and the community, and due to grief and bereavement of their
parental loss.
Regarding self-esteem of orphan children, it became at low level with a sum score(15.87), mean
value(1.58) and standard deviation (0.15). Thus the higher the score, the higher the self-esteem
which indicate increasing self-esteem and the scores over 20 which is above the cut point which
is indicate low level of self-esteem among orphan children in the study area. In line with this
finding KII and FGD participants reveled that children reported that they had low self-
confidence to succeed in their life goals. They think that they could not have the desired inputs
and capacities to achieve their goals confidently by comparing themselves. Similarly, FGD
participants mentioned a lot of things about their perception of their self-esteem. Virtually every
participant articulated low self-esteem. Orphan children in this regard have deleterious values
and disrespect for themselves just because of orphan hood. Lack of someone to fulfill desires and
wants are the reasons behind low self-esteem of orphan children. Orphan children seems to
compare themselves with those peers who are living with employed parents.
Concerning general self-efficacy of orphan children, it became at moderate with a sum
score(22.23), mean value(2.22) and standard deviation (0.63). Thus the higher the score, the
higher the general self-efficacy which indicate moderate general self-esteem and the scores over
20 which is above the cut point. In line with this finding key informant participants reveled that
orphans experiencing a negative self-image which comprises over or under self-esteem, lack of
confidence, hopelessness, inferiority, lack of motivation for change. All participants have
negative self-image about themselves, this is due to the fact that, they have low self-esteem when

55
they think that they are orphan children. They view themselves as failure, useless, worthless,
weak / incompetent, burden for others and fearful to describe their current self.
Stress became another psychological problem that affect psychosocial wellbeing of the child, in
which it became at low with a sum score(14.40), mean value(1.76) and standard deviation (0.16).
Thus the higher the score, the higher the perceived stress which indicate lower increasing
perceived stress and the scores less than 20 which is above the cut point which is indicate lower
level of perceived stress among orphan children in the study area.
Concerning anxiety of orphan children, it became at potentially concerning level of
anxiety(higher) with a sum score(39.75), mean value(1.98) and standard deviation (0.24). Thus
the higher the score, the higher the anxiety which indicate higher anxiety and the scores over 36
which is above the cut point which is indicate higher level of anxiety among orphan children in
the study area. Thus it indicates something that needs to be proactively treated or there could be
significant impacts on child mentally and physically.
FGD participants also expressed their deep feelings of anxiety and stress. The feeling stemmed
from their fear of future survival as there was intermittent interruption and decrement in the flow
of funds. As the result of this and other things, like lack of trust and love from people they, look
at the future negatively. The children reported that their problem of poor concentration was in
one or another way related to other psychological maladies like stress, depression, anxiety, lack
of sleeping and love, and memory of parental death. Majority of the discussants expressed that
the difficulty was mainly related to the orphanages’ rules of conduct, perception, lack of self-
confidence, low self-confidence to succeed in their life goals and social skills.
KII interview participants reveled that at the time of their parents alive it was possible they had
good interpersonal experiences but now after they are gone due to over thinking and their
thought is up to my father always, making interpersonal relationship become difficult. But they
still maintain good interpersonal experience with people they use to interact and feel happy with
close friends and play with them. Similarly, FGD participants added that their interaction with
their friends is reduced because if they meet people and if they talk indecently this may require
a father who can stand behind you because when it comes to fighting they only have a mother.
One more thing they suffered is grieving and deep sadness about their parents.
KII and FGD participants stated that one of the psychological problems of participants was the
problem of hopelessness and loneliness. Whenever they think about the cause of the death of

56
their parents they feel empty, lonely and hopeless. In addition, they stated that self-blame is the
other psychological problem faced by orphans in the study area. They blame themselves as the
real cause for the death of their parents and other regrets that they should have to express their
real feelings about their parent’s before their death. They also added that the negative outcome of
the participants’ experiences of losing a parent(s) was reported by most of them and this
manifested in depression. The sub-theme was deduced from orphans expression of sadness,
fear, perpetual worries, and distress, lack of sleep, loneliness, and withdrawal as expressed
by many of the participants.
Other negative aspects mentioned by KII participants experienced by orphans in the study area
included low self-esteem, stigmatization and rejection, and self-pity. Negative self-image which
comprises over or under self-esteem, lack of confidence, hopelessness, inferiority, lack of
motivation for change. Most of orphans have negative self-image about themselves; this is due to
the fact that, they have low self-esteem when they think that they are orphans. They view
themselves as failure, useless, worthless, weak / incompetent, burden for others and fearful to
describe their current self.
Interpersonal relationship became one of the social problem that affect social wellbeing of the
child, in which it became at low with a sum score (31.93), mean value(1.22) and standard
deviation (0.17). Thus the higher the score, which indicate interpersonal relationship which
indicate lower increasing interpersonal relationship among orphan children.

Finally, stigma and discrimination became another social problem that affect social wellbeing of
the child, in which it became at low with a sum score(8.71), mean value(0.66) and standard
deviation (0.34). Thus the higher the score, which indicate they exposed to stigma and
discrimination which indicate higher stigma and discrimination among orphan children.
As stated by KII and FGD participants’ weak social lives/relationship: the first social problem
reported by the participant was poor social contact. In order to get deeper understanding into the
challenges individuals face in their social lives (social relationship and social interactions) they
were asked to tell their social life. The finding revealed that there were observable differences in
their social lives. Most of the participants of the study revealed that said that before this problem
orphans social relationship was good and predictable.

57
4.3. Difference in Psychosocial Problems Between Single and Double Orphans
Before conducting t-test, it is necessary to check whether the assumption is fulfilled or not. T-
test is used to compare the means of two groups and determine if there is statistical difference
between the groups. As Ravid (2011) stated there are three assumptions to use t-test independent
samples: the groups are independent of each other, a person or case may appear in only one
group, and the two groups come from two populations whose variances are approximately the
same. Thus, the researcher has used independent t-test because the above mentioned assumptions
are fulfilled in this study.
Table 6: Independent Sample t-test to show orphanage type on psychosocial problems
Orphanage T P
Scales
type n Mean Df
Single 129 1.29
Depression .004 .048**
Double 35 1.03 232
Total 0 0
Single 129 2.25
Self-efficacy Double 35 2.26 232 .598 .440
Total 0 2.25
Single 129 1.57
Self esteem Double 35 1.58 232 2.447 .119
Total 0 1.57
Single 129 1.77
Perceived stress Double 35 1.41 232 .026**
1.230
Total 0 1.56
Single 129 1.98
Anxiety Double 35 1.99 232 .010 .919
Total 0 1.98
Single 129 1.22
Interpersonal .085
Double 35 1.21 232 .770
relationship
Total 0 1.20
Single 129 .65
Stigma and
Double 35 .65 232 .116 .734
discrimination
Total 0 .65
Source: Own survey data(2020)
An independent sample t-test was conducted to see if there is difference between single and
double orphan children in terms of experiencing psychosocial problems. The result shows that
there is statistically significant difference between single and double orphans for depression and
perceived stress t (232) = .004, p = 0.048) and t (232) = 1.230, p = 0.026), respectively. This
implies that there is significant difference between single and double orphan children in
depression and perceived stress. However, there is no statistically significant difference between

58
 single and double orphan children in the rest five psychosocial effects t (232) = 0.598, p =
0.440); t (232) = 2.447, p = 0.119) ; t (232) = .010, p = 0.919) ; t (232) = 0.085, p = 0.770) and
t (232) = .116, p = 0.734) in self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, interpersonal relationship and
stigma and discrimination, respectively. This implies that there is no significant difference
between single and double orphan children in self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, interpersonal
relationship and stigma and discrimination.
4.4. Relationship Between Psychosocial Problems and Socio-demographic Variables.
The correlation of the variable is measured by Pearson correlation coefficient. The result of the
Pearson correlation is presented in the following table and interpreted by the guide line suggested
by Field (2006); he mentioned that the Pearson correlation coefficient shows the relationship and
direction between the predictor and outcome variable. Accordingly, if the relationship is
measured in the range of 0.1 to 0.29 it is a weak relationship, 0.30 to 0.49 is moderate, above
0.50 shows strong relationship; while the positive and negative sign tell us the direction of their
relationship.
Table 7: Pearson correlation between selected variables and psychosocial measurement parameters
Correlations
Sex Age Year of Depressio Self Self- Stress Anxiety Relatio Stigma
losing n esteem efficacy nship
parents
Pearson Corr. 1
Sex Sig. (2-tailed)
N 164
Pearson Corr. .208** 1
Age Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 164 164
Year of Pearson Corr. .217** .122* 1
losing Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .047
parents N 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. -.046 .393** -.039 1
Depression Sig. (2-tailed) .456 .000 .523
N 164 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. .011 .168** -.382** .106 1
Self esteem Sig. (2-tailed) .864 .006 .000 .085
N 164 164 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. .143* .407** -.376** .088 -.087 1
Self
Sig. (2-tailed) .020 .000 .000 .154 .156
efficacy
N 164 164 164 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. -.395** -.391** .057 .132* -.341** -.453** 1
Stress Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .351 .032 .000 .000
N 164 164 164 164 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. .155* -.126* -.350** .140* -.116 .181** .048 1
Anxiety Sig. (2-tailed) .012 .041 .000 .022 .058 .003 .438
N 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164
Relationship Pearson Corr. .332** -.025 .254** .209** -.020 -.555** .073 -.279** 1

59
 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .691 .000 .001 .743 .000 .233 .000
N 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164
Pearson Corr. -.217** -.293** .235** -.015 .406** -.495** .104 -.733** .223** 1
Stigmatizatio
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .805 .000 .000 .091 .000 .000
n
N 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164 164
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Source: Own survey data (2020)
Table 7 above shows that the correlation relationship between selected variables (i.e. sex, age
and the age at which a child lost his/her parent/s) and dependent variable (psychosocial problems
namely depression, self-esteem, self-efficacy, stress, anxiety, interpersonal relationship, and
stigma and discrimination).
Accordingly, sex has strong and positive correlation with self-efficacy, anxiety, interpersonal
relationship and at Pearson correlation (r) value of 0.143, 0.155 and 0.332, respectively. Whereas
sex has strong and negative correlation with stress and stigma and discrimination at pearson
correlation (r) value of -.395 and -.217, respectively. However, is no relationship between sex
and depression(p> .05) and sex and self-esteem(p> .05).
Regarding age of the respondents, there was a moderate and positive relationship between age
and depression with r = 0.393 and P < 0.01, age and self-esteem has weak and positive
correlation with r = 0.168 and P < 0.01, age and self-efficacy has moderate and positive
correlation with r = 0.407 and P < 0.01, age and stress has moderate and negative correlation
with r = -.391 and P < 0.01, age and anxiety has weak and negative correlation with r = -.126
and P < 0.05 and age and stigma and discrimination has moderate and negative correlation with
r = -.293 and P < 0.01. However, is no relationship between age and interpersonal relationship
(p> .05).
Year in which a child lost his/her parent/s is moderate and negatively correlated with self-esteem
with r = -.382 and P < 0.05, with self-efficacy with r = -.376 and P < 0.05 and with anxiety with r
= -.350 and P < 0.05. However, year in which a child lost his/her parent/s is weak and positively
correlated with interpersonal relationship with r = .254 and P < 0.05 and with stigma and
discrimination with r = 0.235 and P < 0.05. However, is no relationship between year in which a
child lost his/her parent/s and depression and perceived stress (p> .05).

Generally, majority of all the psychosocial problem variables have a positive relationship with
significance important of less than 0.05 degree of error. Therefore, the researcher argues that

60
most of the stated variables have positive relationship among them with a positive coefficient
and significant importance.
4.5. Strategies Used to Cope Up with Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children
Data collected from KII and FGD deals with strategies an orphan used to cope up the problems
they faced. Thus, one of the strategies that children used was emotion-focused strategies like
managing negative emotions associated with the stressful situation or related with their situation.
With regard to this most participants of the study revealed that children tried to solve those
stressful situations and their challenges using various emotion focused strategies like
searching for people to communicate, using cognitive distraction and avoidant coping. They
talk to people and share information about their thoughts and feelings; especially the social
stigma.
According to key informants of the study most participants discuss and share their feeling with
their family or significant others or for those people who approached and helped them. In
contrary to the above idea, some of key informants stated that there were few children who were
not comfortable to talk or share their feeling with friends, or any significant others. They added
that sharing feelings or ideas resulted in back biting, when secrete is disclosed for other people
and make fun on them. Hence; they were not interested to talk with people about their
feelings. As a result their relationship with other people/close relatives was declining from
time to time.
According to FGD participants of the study cognitive distraction is another as strategy orphan
children in Fiker Behiwot and Tesefa Goh Orphanage used to settle psychosocial problems. They
stated that most of children use of cognitive distraction which includes passive appraisal
(utilizing passive appraisal activities, such as watching television, using social medias, relying
on luck, feeling helpless about the problem, and believing that time will solve the problem) to
limit their attention or prevent concentration on stressful events distracts the mind from
thinking about stressful situations and limit/minimize reactivity. Similarly, focus group
discussants stated that positive cognition as coping strategy is used by most of orphan children
helps them to change their perspective about their problem such as, thinking positive things
about their future and positive self- image. Avoidant as coping mechanism is another important
strategy mentioned by FGD participants in which orphan children used like sleeping and being

61
alone during the worst feeling, most adolescent preferred to sleep and isolating themselves when
they feel depressed and isolated.
Qualitative data obtained from KII participants stated that access support is another important
strategy used by orphan children in the study area to cope up with psychosocial problem they
faced. According to KII participants most of orphan children believed on the importance of
support networks to stay well. This included friends, community and health care professionals.
With assistance from their support networks, participants described learning to set limits and
boundaries and, set up harm minimization strategies. However, most of orphan children
participants felt that they had no consistent and proper support. In contrast to the above idea,
FGD the entire participants believe that the organization has been giving orphans extensive
support. Being an expert and protect oneself from being harmed; participants stressed the
need for more information about the coping strategies to be an expert to their
psychosocial problems and develop a good knowledge about it. Some KII participants stated that
even if the need for more information of all kinds to help children, understand the complexity
and effects of the challenge to develop their coping strategies accordingly, they didn’t find
adequate information provision.
Religiosity/spirituality as another important coping strategy for psychosocial problems faced by
orphan children in selected orphanages stated both by FGD participants and KII participants.
They stated that perceived, personally supportive components of their relationship with God
as spiritual support. They believed spiritual support was important for orphan’s recovery from
bad feelings. Their connection with God offered relieve, help, understanding, unconditional
love and forgiveness. Their personal relationship with the Almighty God contributed to their
sense of well-being. Whenever they face challenges which are beyond their capacity, they go to
Church/mosque request him his mercy, his support; talk to God their problems openly, by crying
out to God in prayer. They have hope and trust with God’s support. The comfort in which
orphans found in God was a component of spiritual support that helped them carry on whenever
things were difficult. The relief they received from God eased the load to them.
Generally, most of respondents stated coping mechanisms are emotion based coping mechanism,
orphans refuse social participation to avoid conflict/or distrust, or crying. Sometimes read books,
watch televisions or films, use social media, used to go church, praying and singing a lot, listen
to music, sometimes tried to be busy with work and so on.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
The overall objective of the study was to assess the psychosocial problems of orphan children in
Fiker Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanages in Hawassa City administration. The discussion
regarding this central issue is presented in four sections. This chapter begins with discussion of
the psychosocial problems of orphan children followed by discussion of difference in
psychosocial problems between single and double orphan children in section two and discussion
on relationship between psychosocial problems and socio-demographic variables presented in the
third section. Finally, strategies used by orphans to cope up psychosocial problems dealt in
section four.
5.1. Psychosocial Problems of Orphan Children
Regarding psychosocial problems of orphan children, majority of respondents having an
increasing depression. In line with this finding, studies indicated that psychological damage that
an orphan child experiences start even before the death of their parents and suffers more from
anxiety and depression (Subarao, et al. 2001). After death of a parent; orphans can be more
traumatized if they are separated from their siblings or if they find themselves head of household
overnight, responsible for their younger siblings (Subbarao, et al. 2001).
Regarding self-esteem of orphan children, it became at low level with a sum score (15.87), mean
value (1.58) and standard deviation (0.15). Consistent with finding studies indicated that orphan
children in most cases lack the parental support needed to enhance their self-esteem (Beatrice, et
al. 2012). Orphan and vulnerable children (Takanyanagi, 2010; Assefach, 2007; Seruwagi, 2015)
have had very little/limited chances to speak about their genuine views on their life experiences;
the voice of the child matters; as a child, he/she has his/her own thought on learning, friends,
school, community and dreams to disclose and less has been known whether orphans are steadily
at higher risk of experiencing psychosocial problems and problems related to their self-esteems.
Children and youth orphan children who have reported as being depressed have been found to
have poor self-esteem (Sengendo & nimbi, 2004, Germann, 2001).
Concerning general self-efficacy of orphan children, the level of self-esteem became at
moderate. According to Schwarzer & Jerusalem (1995) it indicate moderate level of general
self-efficacy which characterized by certain level of efficacy, depression, stress, health
complications, burn out and anxiety among orphan children.

63
Stress became another psychosocial problem that affects psychosocial wellbeing of the child, in
which it became at low. Harmonious with this finding studies indicated that when children lose
one or both of their parent(s) due to any cause, they experience multiple psychological problems,
like stress, depression, anxiety, lack of parental love, lack of self-confidence, poor concentration,
feelings of loneliness and helplessness as well as sleeping disturbances (Gilborn et al., 2001;
Chipungu & Bent-Goodley, 2004; FHAPCO, 2007). Similarly, studies indicated an increase
large numbers of young people are faced with stressful experiences that include traumatic events,
adversity such as the death of a loved one or both parents and the accumulation of stressful life
events and daily hassles (Garmezy & Rutter, 2004).
Concerning anxiety of orphan children, it became at potentially concerning level of
anxiety(higher). In line with this finding Gumede (2009) notes that orphan children experience
emotional stress; higher levels of anxiety, severe despondency and dejection and anger along
with the associated in activity bring about by the severe suffering they confront after a parent
dies. Similarly, Gray, (2015) & Belay (2007) reported that, grief and anxiety of orphan children
during and following the death of their parents as worsened by feelings that they are exploited
and stigmatized and discriminated against. In line with studies done by UNICEF (2006)
indicated that due to the hardships children faced after the loss of one or both of their parents,
their psychological and emotional well-being are threatened. Study in Uganda revealed that
orphan children had greater risk for higher levels of emotional stress like anxiety, depression,
aggression, and showed significantly higher feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide
than non-orphaned children (Atwine, Cantor-Graae & Bajunirwe, 2005). Furthermore, high
levels of psychological distress found in orphan children suggest that material support alone is
not sufficient for these children. However, Beatrice, et al. (2012) parental death tends to make
children seek more psychosocial support and satisfaction from many peers which in turn improve
their interpersonal relationships. Studies conducted reported that children who are faced with
loss of parents make up isolation by seeking social support from several people including fellow
peers.
Similarly, a study by Hiwot et al. (2010) pointed out orphans adolescents experience high level
of psychological problems namely depression, anxiety and self-esteem. Moreover, Afework
(2013) study revealed that orphan children showed lower psychological wellbeing compared
than nonorphans. Similarly, he explained that they experienced stigma in different ways and at

64
different level: From the family setting, the health clinics and the community as a whole, stigma
and discrimination are communicated in different forms. It has been shown that multiple
stressors experienced by young people who have lost parents have the potential to impact
negatively by causing undue anxiety, eroding their self-esteem and causing them to be depressed
(Germann, 2004; Sengedo & Nambia,1997; Bicengo et al.,2003).
Generally, Zhao et al. (2011) revealed that orphan and vulnerable children showed lower
psychological wellbeing than comparison groups. Moreover, Delva et al. (2009) reported that
orphan children had significantly lower psychological wellbeing than non-orphans. Another
study by Sengendo and Nambi (1997) found that orphans had significantly higher depression
scores and lower optimism about the future than non-orphans. When children lose one or both
parents due to any cause, they experience multiple psychosocial problems like grief,
hopelessness, depression, anxiety, stigmatization, physical and mental violence, labor, abuse,
lack of community support, lack of parental love, withdrawal from society as a whole, feeling of
guilt, depression, aggression, as well as eating and sleeping and learning disturbance
(Sampathkumar, et al. , 2015).
5.2. Difference in psychosocial problems between maternal and paternal orphan children
The result shows that there is statistically significant difference between single and double
orphans in depression and perceived stress. This implies that there is significant difference
between single and double orphans in depression and perceived stress. However, there is no
statistically significant difference between single and double orphans in the rest five
psychosocial effects and in self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, interpersonal relationship and
stigma and discrimination, respectively. This implies that there is no significant difference
between single and double orphans in self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, interpersonal
relationship and stigma and discrimination. Consistent with the findings of the present study is a
study conducted by Zhao et al. (2011) on orphans’ psychological wellbeing reported that there is
no significant differences with regard to a child lost both their father/mother and both. This
shows that there is no difference in experiencing psychosocial problems with losing single and
double parents which is consistent with the findings of the present study.
5.3. Relationship between psychosocial problems and socio-demographic variables
Accordingly, sex has strong and positive correlation with self-efficacy, anxiety, interpersonal
relationship. Whereas sex has strong and negative correlation with stress and stigma and
discrimination. In line with this finding Solomon (2008) who examined the degree to which

65
orphan children demonstrate resilience, reported statistically significant difference on emotional
symptoms of male and female orphans. The study stated that male children registered lower
(normal) emotional symptoms than their female counterparts. Majeed et al. (2014) stated that
females are significantly differing in dependency compared to males. Similarly, they also are
significantly different in emotional instability than their counter part and regarding the negative
world view, males have more negative worldview than female. Furthermore, the study of
Nyamukapa et al. (2010) also revealed that girls reported more psychological distress than boys.
Inconsistent with the finding there is no statistical significant difference between male and
female orphans in their psychological wellbeing. Inconsistent with finding studies (e.g. Hong et
al., 2011; Mostafaei et al. 2012; Afework, 2013; Bhat , 2014; Oluwadamilola, 2014) indicated
being male or female does not have significant effect on the psychological wellbeing of children.
Furthermore, Solomon (2008) who examined the degree to which children orphaned demonstrate
resilience reported statistically significant difference on emotional symptoms of male and female
orphans. He stated that male children registered lower (normal) emotional symptoms than their
female counterparts.
Regarding age of the respondents, there was a moderate and positive between age and depression
and weak and positive correlation with self-esteem, moderate and positive correlation with self-
efficacy, moderate and negative correlation with stress, and weak and negative correlation
anxiety and moderate and negative correlation with stigma and discrimination. Consistent with
this finding Afework(2013) stated that when the age of the orphan increased their psychological
wellbeing decreased or vice versa. As children get older and older, their awareness about their
situation and the societal attitude towards them increases. When children realized the fact that
they lack one of the important needs for them, which is parental love, care and affection their
psychological wellbeing may get deteriorated.
Year in which a child lost his/her parent/s is moderate and negatively correlated with self-
esteem, self-efficacy and anxiety. However, year in which a child lost his/her parent/s is weak
and positively correlated with interpersonal relationship and with stigma and discrimination. The
findings are similar to those of Hogan (1997), Gilborn et al. (2006), Behendt (2008), Gumede
(2009), Malimi (2009), Gwalema et al. (2009) and Zhou (2012).

66
5.4. Strategies to Cope up psychosocial problems faced by Orphans
The study found that participants were striving to cope with their problem in their day to day
activities. Their coping strategies are immature, weak, and inconsistent. Most of the coping
strategies are emotion focused strategies which includes crying, avoidance, talk to people
and cognitive distraction, and the problem focused coping strategies which are access to support,
being an expert; not to be harmed and spiritual support. Supporting the above idea educators
(Perkins, et al., 2004) found that some orphans use positive coping strategies to manage
and to help them manage their situation, such as positive thinking and the utilization of
appropriate social supports, which include family, friends, and holy places. The finding is
consistent with Pearlin and Schooler (2008) which stated any response to external life strains that
serves to prevent, avoid, or control emotional distress. Similarly, the above idea Lazarus &
Folkman (2004) view that even though depression is inevitable; it is the coping that makes the
difference in adaptation outcomes. They also added orphans cope with their situation by
sharing their feelings only with their immediate care givers, and through this, receive support
and understanding. It is also supported by Nehra, et al., (2005) they said that avoidant strategies
may include ignoring care givers, friends, etc by decreasing physical and emotional contact, such
as not communicating and visiting them regularly and limiting their affection.
Problem focused coping strategy was the second major category under the themes of
cope with the psychosocial problems. Almost all participants have limited problem focused
coping mechanisms. These mechanisms are access support, being an expert of their illness or and
searching spiritual support. As the participants said, they frequently went to church when they
face difficult situation. They have strong believe and hope on God’s help so they have strong
contact (they pray, listen preaching or religious songs) with God. They are comfortable and feel
good when they are in holy places. They also said that it is the only place where no
difference among orphans and the community. In favor of the above findings, Rammohan, et
al., (2002) said that the use of spirituality is seen as a positive emotion-focused coping
strategy. Spirituality may mean different things to different individuals, but has been seen to
increase levels of wellbeing and decrease the level of stress in one’s life.

67
 CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Summary of Major Findings
This research at investigating the psychosocial problems of orphan children orphaned on Fiker
Behiwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanages in Hawassa City administration. This was done by
investigating the relationship between each dependent and independent variables using
correlation analysis. In addition, the research study examined how well parental loss affect
psychosocial wellbeing of child who lost their parents using which descriptive and mean scores
of the response of the participants which is summarized under the descriptive statistical analysis.
In this section, summary of major findings, conclusions inferred from the data analysis in chapter
four, and suggested recommendations are illustrated in detail.
 In assessing psychological problems of orphan depression, anxiety and interpersonal
relationship were higher whereas, self-esteem, perceived stress, and stigmatization and
discrimination became low and general self-efficacy and interpersonal relationship became
moderate among orphan children in the study area.
 The other thing that the study set out to do is to examine difference in psychosocial
problems between single and double orphan children. To this effect, the study has found
out that there was a statistically significant difference between single and double orphan
children on depression and perceived stress however, there was no statistically significant
difference single and double orphan children on anxiety, interpersonal relationship, stigma
and discrimination, self-esteem and self-efficacy.
 The values generated in the Pearson correlation for sex of the respondents sex has strong
and positive correlation with self-efficacy, anxiety, interpersonal relationship and at
Pearson correlation (r) value of 0.143, 0.155 and 0.332, respectively. On the other hand
Regarding age of the respondents, there was a moderate and positive between age and
depression with r = 0.393 and P < 0.01, self-esteem has weak and positive correlation with
r = 0.168 and P < 0.01, age and self-efficacy with r = 0.407 and P < 0.01, age and stress
with r = -.391 and P < 0.01, age and anxiety with r = -.126 and P < 0.05 and age and stigma
and discrimination with r = -.293 and P < 0.01. Also, year in which a child lost his/her
parent/s is correlated with self-esteem with r = -.382 and P < 0.05, with self-efficacy with r

68
 = -.376 and P < 0.05 and with anxiety with r = -.350 and P < 0.05. However, year in which
a child lost his/her parent/s correlated with interpersonal relationship with r = .254 and P <
0.05 and with stigma and discrimination with r = 0.235 and P < 0.05.
6.2. Conclusion
Based on the major findings of the study the following conclusions are drawn;
While majority of orphan children scored higher on d epression, anxiety and interpersonal
relationship whereas, self-esteem, perceived stress, and stigmatization and discrimination
became low and general self-efficacy and interpersonal relationship became moderate among
orphan children. That means these psychosocial problems exposed orphans to various
psychological and social problems which need great concern for maintaining their psychosocial
wellbeing.
As we shown from independent sample t-test results there was a statistically significant
difference between single and double orphan children on depression and perceived stress
however, there was no statistically significant difference single and double orphan children on
anxiety, interpersonal relationship, stigma and discrimination, self-esteem and self-efficacy.

On the other hand as shown from correlation results sex has association with self-efficacy,
anxiety, interpersonal relationship. Similarly, age of the respondents, has relationship with
depression, self-efficacy, anxiety, stigma and discrimination. Also, year in which a child lost
his/her parent/s is correlated with self-esteem, self-efficacy, anxiety, interpersonal relationship
and stigma and discrimination.

69
6.3. Recommendations
Based on the results of this study recommendations can be made for the families, community
members and management of institutions or orphanages that care for orphan children.
1) The results of this study suggest that orphan children need the support of all members of
society to deal with their psychosocial issues and ensure optimal development. Although
families are overwhelmed it is important that mechanisms be put in place that allow
orphaned children to be raised in family units in order to allow them to eventually
become fully functioning members of society.
2) Community members need to be educated about the implications of stigmatizing orphan
children. Caregivers of orphan children need to receive proper training and assistance in
order to equip them to handle the psychological difficulties experienced by orphaned
children.
3) Those institutions working on adolescents should consider making counseling services
available to caregivers in order to help them to deal with the difficulties they experience
in interacting with the orphaned children. Helping the caregivers deal with their own
issues and difficulties will enable them to provide better care for the orphaned children.
4) It is important that more research be conducted in the city administration context in order
to meet the needs of these children. In addition, future research should focus on
psychosocial issues specific to orphaned children raised in children’s homes. These
research projects should also take into account caregivers’ perspectives.
5) Placing orphan children in institutions can be still considered as one alternative childcare
option since the children are more or less similar with non-institutional children in their
psychological wellbeing. Hence the government needs to revise the direction which
focused on deinstitutionalization of children.

70
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APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNIER ENGLISH VERSION
DEPARTEMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, DILLA UNIVERSITY
STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE TO BE FILLED BY ORPHAN CHILDREN
OF FIKER BIHWOT AND TESFA GOH ORPHANAGE
Dear Respondent,

Good morning/good afternoon. Thank you for your interest in talking with me today. The
purpose of this questionnaire is to obtain data for a study to psychosocial problems of orphan
children's in Fiker Bihwot and Tesfa Goh Orphanage, Hawassa City, SNNPRS. You are selected
for this study by assuming that you could give enough information on the issue. Therefore, your
unreserved cooperation in providing the most genuine information will have a great significance
to the solution of the problem. Your name will not be written on this form, and will never be
used in connection with any of the information you tell me. You do not have to answer any of the
questions that you do not feel comfortable with, and you may end this talk at any time you want
to, the information you give will be used for this research purpose only, Name of the Association
you are in will not be written anywhere in this paper. All information you are giving will not be
disclosed to anyone. However, your honest answers to these questions will help to better
understand the psychosocial effect of parental loss on child in this city that will eventually help
in designing and implementing appropriate intervention programs to alleviate the problem. I
would greatly appreciate your willingness in responding to the Questionnaire. It will take about
50 minutes. Would you be willing to participate?

Agree [ ] ------1 Continue

Disagree [ ] ------2 End

SCHEDULE NUMBER
NAME OF enumerator
DATE (DD/MM/YY)

RESULT CODE
Completed …………………………………............1
Partially completed ………………………………….2
Refused……………………………………………….3

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Incapacitated…………………………………………4
Others(Specify)______________________________5
SECTION– 1 – Socio-demographic information

Now, I am asking you some Questions regarding your socio demographic background.
S. No. Questions Coding Categories code Skip to
No.01 How old are you? Years
No. 02 Sex Male 1
Female 2
No.03 What is your highest level of No education 1
primary education 2
educational attainment?
Secondary/higher education 3
Other specify 4
______________
No.04 How long has it been since _____Years _____ Months 1
you lost your parent?

No.05 Whom do you live with 1

currently? A. With father
B. With mother 2
C. With grandparents 3
D. With relatives 4
E. With non-relatives 5
F. Institutions 6
H. Other ________________ 7

SECTION TWO: Psychological effect of parental loss

2.1. Depression Measurement
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Instructions: Below is a list of the ways you might have felt or acted. Please check how much you have
felt this way during the past week
Not A Some A Skip
S.No DURING THE PAST WEEK
At All little Lot to
No.08 I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me. 0 1 2 3
No.09 I did not feel like eating, I wasn’t very hungry. 0 1 2 3
No.10 I wasn’t able to feel happy, even when my family or 0 1 2 3
friends tried to help me feel better.
No.11 I felt like I was just as good as other kids. 3 2 1 0
No.12 I felt like I couldn’t pay attention to what I was doing. 0 1 2 3
No.13 I felt down and unhappy. 0 1 2 3
No.14 I felt like I was too tired to do things. 0 1 2 3
No.15 I felt like something good was going to happen. 3 2 1 0
No.16 I felt like things I did before didn’t work out right 0 1 2 3
No.17 I felt scared. 0 1 2 3
No.18 I didn’t sleep as well as I usually sleep. 0 1 2 3
No.19 I was happy. 3 2 1 0
No.20 I was more quiet than usual. 0 1 2 3
No.21 I felt lonely, like I didn’t have any friends. 0 1 2 3
No.22 I felt like kids I know were not friendly or that they 0 1 2 3
didn’t want to be with me.
No.23 I had a good time. 3 2 1 0
No.24 I felt like crying. 0 1 2 3
No.25 I felt sad. 0 1 2 3
No.26 I felt people didn’t like me. 0 1 2 3
No.27 It was hard to get started doing things. 0 1 2 3

2.2. Self-Esteem Measurement

Instructions: Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. If you
strongly agree, circle SA. If you agree with the statement, circle A. If you disagree, circle D. If you
strongly disagree, circle SD.
Code Skip to
S.No ITEM
SA A D SD
No.28 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 3 2 1 0
No.29 At times, I think I am no good at all. 0 1 2 3

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 No.30 I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 3 2 1 0
No.31 I am able to do things as well as most other people. 3 2 1 0
No.32 I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 0 1 2 3
No.33 I certainly feel useless at times. 0 1 2 3
No.34 I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal 3 2 1 0
plane with others.
No.35 I wish I could have more respect for myself. 0 1 2 3
No.36 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 0 1 2 3
No.37 I take a positive attitude toward myself. 3 2 1 0
2.3. General Self-Efficacy measurement
Instructions: Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. If you strongly
agree, circle NT If the statement doesn’t represent your feeling at all, HT if it does little, MT if it does
sometimes and ET if it definitely does express your feeling.
Code Skip to
S.No Item Not at Hardly Moderately Exactly
all true true true true
No.38 I can always manage to solve difficult 1 2 3 4
problems if I try hard enough
No.39 If someone opposes me, I can find the 1 2 3 4
means and ways to get what I want.
No.40 Is easy for me to stick to my aims and 1 2 3 4
accomplish my goals.
No.41 I am confident that I could deal efficiently 1 2 3 4
with unexpected events.
No.42 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know 1 2 3 4
how to handle unforeseen situations.
No.43 I can solve most problems if I invest the 1 2 3 4
necessary effort.
No.44 I can remain calm when facing difficulties 1 2 3 4
because I can rely on my coping abilities.
No.45 When I am confronted with a problem, I 1 2 3 4
can usually find several solutions.
No.46 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a 1 2 3 4
solution
No.47 I can usually handle whatever comes my 1 2 3 4
way.
2.4. Perceived Stress Measurement
Instructions: The following questions ask about your feelings and thoughts during THE PAST MONTH. In
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each question, you will be asked HOW OFTEN you felt or thought a certain way. For each statement, please
tell me if you have had these thoughts or feelings: never, almost never, sometimes, fairly often, or very often.
code Skip
to
S.NO Item
Never Almost Some Fairly Very
Never times Often Often
No.48 In the past month, how often have you been 0 1 2 3 4
upset because of something that happened
unexpectedly?
No.49 In the past month, how often have you felt 0 1 2 3 4
unable to control the important things in your
life?
No.50 In the past month, how often have you felt 0 1 2 3 4
nervous or stressed?
No.51 In the past month, how often have you felt 4 3 2 1 0
confident about your ability to handle personal
problems?
No.52 In the past month, how often have you felt that 4 3 2 1 0
things were going your way?
No.53 In the past month, how often have you found 0 1 2 3 4
that you could not cope with all the things you
had to do?
No.54 In the past month, how often have you been 4 3 2 1 0
able to control irritations in your life?
No.55 In the past month, how often have you felt that 4 3 2 1 0
you were on top of things?
No.56 In the past month, how often have you been 0 1 2 3 4
angry because of things that happened that
been outside of your control?
No.57 In the past month, how often have you felt that 0 1 2 3 4
difficulties were piling up so high that you
could not overcome them?
2.5. Anxiety Measurement
Instructions: Below is a list of common symptoms of anxiety. Please carefully read each item in the
list. Indicate how much you have been bothered by that symptom during the past month, including

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today, by circling the number in the corresponding space in the column next to each symptom.
Code Skip
to
S.No Not Mildly but it Moderately - it Severely –
Item
At didn’t bother wasn’t pleasant it bothered
All me much at times me a lot
No.58 Numbness or tingling 0 1 2 3

No.59 Feeling hot 0 1 2 3

No.60 Wobbliness in legs 0 1 2 3

No.61 Unable to relax 0 1 2 3

No.62 Fear of worst happening 0 1 2 3

No.63 Dizzy or lightheaded 0 1 2 3

No.64 Heart pounding/racing 0 1 2 3

No.65 Unsteady 0 1 2 3

No.66 Terrified or afraid 0 1 2 3

No.67 Nervous 0 1 2 3

No.68 Feeling of choking 0 1 2 3

No.69 Hands trembling 0 1 2 3

No.70 Shaky / unsteady 0 1 2 3

No.71 Fear of losing control 0 1 2 3

No.72 Difficulty in breathing 0 1 2 3

No.73 Fear of dying 0 1 2 3

No.74 Scared 0 1 2 3

No.75 Indigestion 0 1 2 3

No.76 Faint / lightheaded 0 1 2 3

No.77 Face flushed 0 1 2 3

No.78 Hot/cold sweats 0 1 2 3

SECTION THREE: Social effect of parental loss

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 3.1.Interpersonal relation Measurement

Instructions: For each item, please mark the box for Not True, Somewhat True or Certainly True. It
would help us if you answered all items as best you can. Please give your answers on the basis of how
things have been for you over the last month.

Code Skip
S.No Item Not Somewhat Certainly to
True True True
No. 79 I try to be nice to other people. 0 1 2
No. 80 I am restless, I cannot stay still for long 0 1 2
No. 81 I can easily interact with people 0 1 2
No. 82 I usually share with others (food, games, pens) 0 1 2
No. 83 I get very angry and often lose my temper 0 1 2
No. 84 I am usually on my own. I generally play alone 0 1 2
No. 89 I usually do as I am told 0 1 2
No. 90 I worry a lot 0 1 2
No. 91 I am helpful if someone is hurt or feeling ill 0 1 2
No. 92 I feel social isolated 0 1 2
No. 93 I feel self-isolated 0 1 2
No. 94 I have one good friend or more 0 1 2
No. 95 I fight a lot. I can make other people do what I 0 1 2
want
No. 96 I am often unhappy, down-hearted or tearful 0 1 2
No. 97 Other people my age generally like me 0 1 2
No. 98 I afraid to talk with opposite sex 0 1 2
No. 99 I easily lose confidence in new situations 0 1 2
No. 100 I am kind to younger children 0 1 2
No. 101 I am often accused of lying or cheating 0 1 2
No. 102 Other children or young people pick on me 0 1 2
No. 103 I often volunteer to help others 0 1 2
No. 104 I take things that are not mine from home, school 0 1 2
or elsewhere
No. 105 I get on better with adults than with people my 0 1 2
own age
No. 106 I have many fears, I am easily scared 0 1 2
No. 107 I like to attained social gathering 0 1 2
No. 108 I like to live a solitary life 0 1 2

3.2. Stigma and discrimination Measurement

Instruction: For each item, please mark under Yes or No on the basis of how things have been for you
After you lost your parent. It would help us if you answered all items as best you can.
Code Skip to
S.No Item
Yes No

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No. 109 Have you been excluded from a social gathering? 1 0
No.110 Have it been difficult in making or keeping friends? 1 0
No. 111 Have you been isolated by your friends? 1 0
No. 112 Have you been treated unfairly by your teacher? 1 0
No. 113 Have you been teased, insulted or sworn at? 1 0
No. 114 Have you been treated unfairly in getting welfare benefits 1 0
No. 115 Have you stopped yourself from having a close personal 1 0
relationship?
No. 116 Have you been denied religious rites/services? 1 0
No. 117 Have you had your property taken away? 1 0
No. 118 Have you been gossiped about? 1 0
No. 119 Have you lost respect/standing within the family and/or community? 1 0
No. 120 Have you been threatened with violence? 1 0
No. 121 Have you concealed or hidden being orphan from others? 1 0

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNIER AMHARIC VERSION

ዲላ ዩኒቨርሲቲ
የሳይኮሎጂ ትምህርት ክፍል
በጥናቱ ለሚሳተፉ ወላጅ አጥ ህጻናት የተዘጋጀ መጠይቅ

ውድ ተሳታፊዎች !!!

የዚህ መጠይቅ ዋና ዓላማ ''ፍቅር በህይወትና ተስፋ ጎህ ወላጅ አጥ ተቋማት ስር በሀዋሳ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ
ህጻናት የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነልቦናዊና ማህበራዊ ችግሮችን አስመልክቶ'' መረጃ ለመሰብሰብ የተዘጋጀ
መጠይቅ ሲሆን አገልግሎቱም ለሁለተኛ ድግሪ ማሟያ መመረቂያ ጽሁፍ መረጃ ለማሰባሰብ ነው፡፡ ይህ
መጠይቅ አራት ዋና ዋና ክፍሎች አሉት፡፡ የመጀመሪያው ክፍል የጥናቱ ተሳታፊዎች ግለሰባዊ መረጃን
የተመለከተ ሲሆን በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ህጻናት የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነልቦናዊ ችግሮችን በተመለከተ
የቀረቡት ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ክፍል ሶስት ወላጅ አጥ ህጻናት የሚያጋጥማቸው ማህበራዊ ችግሮችን በተመለከተ
የቀረቡት ጥያቄዎች ናቸው፡፡ ስለዚህ አንተ/አንቺ የምትሰጠው/ጪው መረጃ ለጥናታዊ ፅሁፍ አላማ ብቻ
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 የሚውል ከመሆኑም ባሻገር ሚስጥራዊነቱ የተጠበቀ ነው፡፡ በመሆኑም ስም መፃፍ ሳያስፈልግ ከታች
የተዘረዘሩትን ጥያቄዎች በአግባቡ በማንበብ ምላሽህን/ሽን እንድትሰጥ/ጭ በአክብሮት እጠይቃለሁ፡፡

ስለ ትብብርህ/ሽ በቅድሚያ አመሰግናለሁ!!!

የመጠይቁ ኮድ___________

መጠይቁ የተሞላበት ቀን___________

ክፍል አንድ፡ የጥናቱ ተሳታፊዎች ግለሰባዊ መረጃ

መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል አንድ የቀረቡትን ግለሰባዊ መረጃዎች በማንበብ መልስህን /ሽን ትክክለኛ መልስ
የያዘውን ሆሄ በማክበብ መልስ ስጪ/ጥ

1) ፆታ፡- 1) ወንድ 2) ሴት

2) ዕድሜ____________

3) የትምህርት ደረጃ
1) መጻፍና ማንበብ የማይችል/ትችል 3) ሁለተኛ ደረጃ
2) አንደኛ ደረጃ 4)
ሌላ/ይግለጹ/____________

4) ሃይማኖት፡- 1) ኦርቶዶክስ 2) ሙስሊም 3) ካቶሊክ 4) ፕሮቴስታንት 5)

ሌላ(ይግለጹ)____________

5) ወላጆችህን/ችሽን ካጣህ/ሽ ምን ያህል ጊዜ ሆኖሀል/ሻል ____________

6) ከማን ጋር ነው የምትኖረው/ሪው
1) ከአባቴ ጋር ብቻ 3) ከወንድሜ ጋር 5) ከሌሎች ሰዎች ጋር
2) ከእናቴ ጋር ብቻ 4) ከእህቴ ጋር 6) ለብቻዬ

7) የቤተሰብ ብዛት ፡- 1) 1-3 2) 4-6 3) ከ 6 በላይ

ክፍል ሁለት፡ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነልቦናዊ ችግሮች በተመለከተ

2.1. መቆዘም (Depression)
መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚገጥማቸውን ጭንቀት በተመለከተ የቀረቡ
ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ባለፉት ሳምንታት ያጋጠመህን/ሽን ከዚህ በታች በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
አይደለምሁልግዜ

መልኩበተወሰነ

አልፎ አልፎ

በአብዛኛው

ተ.ቁ ባለፉት ሳምንታት

1 በማያስቸንቁ ጉዳች ላይ እጨነቅ ነበር 0 1 2 3

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2 የምግብ ፍላጎቴ አናሳ ነው 0 1 2 3
3 ቤተሰቦቼም ይሁን ጎደኞቼ እኔን ለማስደሰት ጥረት ቢያደርጉም 0 1 2 3
ብዙም ደስታ አይሰማኝም
4 እንደሌሎች ልጆች ጥሬ ልጅ የሆንኩ ያህል ይሰማኛል 3 2 1 0
5 ለማከናውናቸው ተግባራት ተገቢውን ትኩረት እየሰጠው እንዳልነበረ 0 1 2 3
ይሰማኛል
6 ደስተኝነትና አሸናፊነት ስሜት አይሰማኝም ነበር 0 1 2 3
7 ነገሮችን ለማከናወን በጣም ስልቹነት ይሰማኝ ነበር 0 1 2 3
8 መልካም ነገሮች በህይወቴ ውስጥ አይታዩኝም ነበር 3 2 1 0
9 ስራዎችን ከማከናወነኔ በፊት መወጣት አልችልም የሚል ስሜት 0 1 2 3
ይሰማኝ ነበር
10 ፍራቻ ያድርብኝ ነበር 0 1 2 3
11 በአግባቡ መተኛት አልችልም ነበር(የእንቅልፍ ችግር ነበረብኝ) 0 1 2 3
12 ደስተኛ ነበርኩ 3 2 1 0
13 ከሌላው ግዜ ይልቅ በዝምታ ነው ያሳለፍኩት 0 1 2 3
14 ጉደኛ ባለመኖሬ የተነሳ ብቸኝነት ይሰማኝ ነበር 0 1 2 3
15 ጎደኞቼ ከኔ ጋር የማሳለፍ ፍላጎት እንዳልነበራቸው ይሰማኛል 0 1 2 3
16 ጥሩ ጊዜ ነበረኝ 3 2 1 0
17 አለቅስ ነበር 0 1 2 3
18 በሀዘን አሞላ ነበር 0 1 2 3
19 ሰዎች ለኔ ጥሩ ነገር እንደሌላቸው(እንደማይወዱኝ) ይሰማኝ ነበር 0 1 2 3
20 ስራዎችን ለመጀመር ከባድ ይሆንብኝ ነበር 0 1 2 3
2.2. ለራስ የሚኖር ግምት(Self-Esteem)
መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች ስለራሳቸው የሚሰማቸውን ስሜት በተመለከተ
የቀረቡ ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹ ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
ኮድ
እስማማለሁ በማም

አልስማማ በጣም
ም አልስማማ
እስማማለሁ
ተ.
ጥያቄዎች
ቁ

1 በአጠቃላይ በራሴ ደስተኛ ነኝ 3 2 1 0

2 አሁን ላይ ጥሩ እንዳልሆንኩ ይሰማኛል 0 1 2 3
3 ጥሩ ነገሮች በእኔ ዘንድ እንዳሉ ይሰማኛል 3 2 1 0
4 ሌሎች ሰዎች የሚያከናውኗቸውን እኔም ማከናወን እችላለሁ 3 2 1 0
5 በራሴ ብዙም ኩራት አይሰማኝም 0 1 2 3
6 አንዳንድ ጊዜ ጠቃሚ የሆንኩ ያህል አይሰማኝም 0 1 2 3
7 እንደሌሎች ሁሉ ጠቃሚ ሰው የሆንኩ ያህል ይሰማኛል 3 2 1 0
8 ለራሴ ትልቅ ክብር አለኝ 0 1 2 3
9 በአጠቃላይ ስለራሴ ሳስብ ያበቃልኝ ያህል ይሰማኛል 0 1 2 3
10 ለራሴ በጎ የሆነ አመለካከት አለኝ 3 2 1 0
2.3. በራስ መተማመን(General Self-Efficacy)
መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች ያላቸው በራስ መተማመንን በተመለከተ የቀረቡ
ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹ ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡

86
 ኮድ

አላከናውንምሁልጊዜ

አከናውናለሁሁልጊዜ
አላከናውንምአልፎ አልፎ

አከናውናለሁአልፎ አልፎ
ተ.
ጥያቄዎች
ቁ

1 ከፍተኛ ጥረት ካደረኩ የሚገጥመኝን ችግር መወጣት እችላለሁ 1 2 3 4

2 ሰዎች ሲቃወሙኝ የምፈልገውን ነገር ለማሳካት የሚያችሉኝን 1 2 3 4
መንገዶች እፈልጋለሁ
3 በቀላሉ አላማዎቼና ግቦቼ ላይ ማተኮር እችላለሁ 1 2 3 4
4 ያልተጠበቀ ነገር ቢያጋጥመኝ ተጋፍጬ ችግሩን ለመፍታት 1 2 3 4
የሚያስችል በራስ መተማመን አለኝ
5 ገነሮችን አስፎቶና በጥንቃቄ መመልከት ብቃቱ አለኝ 1 2 3 4
6 አስፈላጊውን ዋጋ ብከፍል የሚያጋጥሙኝ ችግሮች ማለፍ ችላለሁ 1 2 3 4
7 ችግሮች በሚያጋጥሙን ጊዜ በተረጋጋ ሁኔታ ችግሮቹን መፍታት 1 2 3 4
የሚያስችሉ መንገዶች አሉኝ
8 ችግሮች በሚያጋጥሙኝ ጊዜ ለችግሮቹ መፍቻ የሚሆኑ የተለያዩ 1 2 3 4
መፍትሄዎችን መተግበር እችላለሁ
9 ችግሮች ሲያጋጥሙኝ ሁልጊዜ መፍትሄዎቻቸው ላይ አተኩራለሁ 1 2 3 4
10 ምንም ቢያጋጥመን ችግሮችን ተቋቁሜ አልፋለሁ 1 2 3 4

2.4. ውጥረት(Perceived Stress)

መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች ስለራሳቸው ባለፈው ወር የተሰማቸውን ስሜት
በተመለከተ የቀረቡ ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹ ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
ኮድ
በሚባልበፍጹም

በሚባልበአብዛኛው
አልፎ አልፎ

በአብዛኛው
በፍጹም

ምላሽ

1 ባለፈው ወር ያላሰብከው/ሽው ነገር በመከሰቱ ብስጭት ውስጥ 0 1 2 3 4

ገብተህ/ሽ ታውቃለህ/ለሽ ?
2 ባለፈው ወር ያላሰብከው/ሽው ነገር በህይወትዎ ተከስቶ 0 1 2 3 4
መቆጣጠር አቅቶሃል/ሻል ?
3 ባለፈው ወር ብስጭት ወይም ንዴት ውስጥ ገብተህ/ሽ 0 1 2 3 4
ታውቃለህ/ለሽ ?
4 ባለፈው ወር የሚያጋጥሙህን ግለሰባዊ ችግሮች ለመጣት በራስ 4 3 2 1 0
መተማመን አለህ/አለሽ ?
5 ባለፈው ወር ነገሮች ምን ያህል አንተ በፈለከው መልኩ 4 3 2 1 0
ሄደውልሃል/ሻል ?
6 ባለፈው ወር ማከናወን ካለብህ/ሽ ነገሮችን ማከናወን 0 1 2 3 4
አልተቻለህም/ሽም ?
7 ባለፈው ወር ምን ያህል በህይወትህ/ሽ ያለብህን/ሽን ድክመቶች 4 3 2 1 0
መቆጣጠር ችለሃል/ሻል ?
8 ባለፈው ወር ምን ያህል በነገሮች ግንባር ቀደም ሆነሃል/ሻል? 4 3 2 1 0
9 ባለፈው ወር አንዳንድ ነገሮችን መቆጣጠር ባለመቻልህ/ልሽ ምን 0 1 2 3 4

87
 ያህል ብስጭት ውስጥ ገብተሃል/ሻል ?
10 ባለፈው ወር ነገሮች ከአንተ/አንቺ አቅም በላይ ሆነው መቆጣጠር 0 1 2 3 4
አልቻልክም/ሽም ?

2.5. ጭንቀት(Anxiety)
መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች ባለፉት ወራት እንዲሁም አሁን ያጋጠማቸውና
እያጋጠማቹ የሚገነውን ጭንቀት አስመልክቶ የቀረቡ ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹ ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት
በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
ኮድ

አይደለም አጋጥሞኛል ግን

አጋጨጥሞኛል ግንመካከለኛ በሚባል

አላጋጠመኝምበጭራሽ

በሆነ መልኩበከፋ ደረጃ ጎጂ

ብዙም ጎጂ የተወሰነ
ተ.ቁ

ደረጃ
ጥያቄዎች

ጎጂ አይደለም
1 ማቀርቀር 0 1 2 3

2 የንዴት ስሜት 0 1 2 3

3 የእግር መዛል 0 1 2 3

4 ጭንቀት 0 1 2 3

5 ሥጋት 0 1 2 3

6 ጭልም ማለት 0 1 2 3

7 ልብ ምት 0 1 2 3

8 አለመረጋጋት 0 1 2 3

9 መሸበር ወይም ፍራቻ 0 1 2 3

10 የስሜት መረበሽ 0 1 2 3

11 የጭንቀት ስሜት 0 1 2 3

12 የእጅ መንቀጥቀጥ 0 1 2 3

13 የሰውነት መራድ 0 1 2 3

14 ራስን መቆጣጠር አለመቻል 0 1 2 3

15 ለመተንፈስ መቸገር 0 1 2 3

16 እሞታለሁ ብሎ መጨነቅ 0 1 2 3

88
 17 የፍርሃት ስሜት 0 1 2 3

18 የምግብ አለመፈጨት 0 1 2 3

19 እራስን መሳት 0 1 2 3

20 የፊት ፍካት 0 1 2 3

21 ማላብ 0 1 2 3

ክፍል ሶስት፡ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸው ማህበራዊ ችግሮች በተመለከተ

3.1. ግለሰባዊ ግንኙነት(Interpersonal relation)
መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች ያላቸውን ግለሰባዊ ግንኙነት አስመልክቶ የቀረቡ
ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹች ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
ምላሽ
ትክክል በተወሰነ ትክክል
ተ.ቁ ጥያቄ
አይደለም መልኩ ትክክል ነው
ነው
1 ለሌሎች ጥሩ ሰው ሆኜ ለመገኘት ሞክራለሁ 0 1 2
2 እረፍት አልባ ነኝ፤ ተረጋግቼ ስራዬን ማከናወን አልቻልኩም 0 1 2
3 ከሌሎች ጋር በቀላሉ እግባባለሁ 0 1 2
4 ያለኝን ነገር ከሌሎች ጋር እጋራለሁ 0 1 2
5 በጣም ከመበሳጨቴ የተነሳ አልፎ አልፎ ስሜቴን መቆጣጠር 0 1 2
አልችልም
6 በአብዛኛው ከራሴ ጋር ነገሮችን አወጣለሁ አወርዳለሁ 0 1 2
7 የምናገረውን ነገር በአብዛኛው አደርገዋለሁ 0 1 2
8 አብዝቼ እጨነቃለሁ 0 1 2
9 ሌሎች ችግር ላይ ሲወድቁ ችግራቸውን መጋራት ያስደስተኛል 0 1 2
10 በማህበራዊ ህይወት መገለል ይሰማኛል 0 1 2
11 እራሴን ከሌሎች ማግለል እመርጣለሁ 0 1 2
12 አንድ ወይም ከአንድ በላይ ጎደኛ አለኝ 0 1 2
13 የምፈልገውን ነገር ሌሎች እንዲፈጽሙ ትግል አደርጋለሁ 0 1 2
14 ብዙን ግዜ ደስተኝነት አይሰማኝም 0 1 2
15 ለእድሜ እኩዮች ጋር ግንኙነት ማድረግ እፈራለሁ 0 1 2
16 ለተቃራኒ ጾታ ጋር ግንኙነት ማድረግ እፈራለሁ 0 1 2
17 አዲስ ነገር ሲከሰት ለመሳተፍ ድፍረቱን አጣለሁ 0 1 2
18 ለሌሎች ልጆች ርህራሄ ይሰማኛል 0 1 2
19 ለአብዛኛው ሌሎች እኔን በማታልና በስርቆት ይወነጅሉኛል 0 1 2
20 ሌሌች እኔን ይጠቋቆማሉ 0 1 2
21 ሌሎችን ለመርዳት ፍቃደኛ ነኝ 0 1 2
22 በቤት ውስጥ፣ በትምህርት ቤትና በአከባቢዬ የማገኘውን 0 1 2
የሌሎችን ንብረት መውሰድ ያስደስተኛል
23 ከእድሜ እኩዮቼ ይልቅ ከጎልማሶች ጋር ጥሩ ግንኙነት አለኝ 0 1 2
24 አብዝቼ ሰጋለሁ/እፈራለሁም 0 1 2
25 በማህበራዊ ጉዳዮች ላይ መሳተፍ እመርጣለሁ 0 1 2

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26 ከሌሎች ተነጥዬ መኖር እመርጣለሁ 0 1 2

3.2. ማግለልና መድልዎ(Stigma and discrimination)

መመሪያ፡-ከዚህ በታች በክፍል ሁለት ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚደርስባቸውን መድሎና መገለል አስመልክቶ የቀረቡ
ጥያቄዎች ሲሆኑ ጥያቄዎቹች ላይ ያላችሁን መስማማት በማክበብ ምላሽ ስጥ/ጪ፡፡
ምላሽ
ተ.ቁ ጥያቄ
አዎ አይደለም
1 ከማህበራዊ ተሳትፎ ተገልለህ/ለሽ ታውቂያለሽ 1 0
2 ጎደኛ ለማፍራት ይም አብሮ ለመዝለቅ ተቸግረህ ታውቃለህ/ለሽ 1 0
3 በጎደኛህ/ሽ መገለል ደርሶብህ/ሽ ያውቃል 1 0
4 መምህርህ/ሽ ያለአግባቡ ቀርቦህ/ሽ ያውቃል 1 0
5 ስድብ ወይም ማንጓጠጥ ደርሶብህ/ሽ ያውቃል 1 0
6 ማሕበራዊ ግልጋሎት ለማግኘት መገለል ደርሶብህ/ሽ ያውቃል 1 0
7 ከግለሰባዊ ግንኙነት ተቆጥህ/ሽ ታውቃለ/ለሽ 1 0
8 ከሀይማኖታዊ ግልጋሎት ተገለህ/ለሽ ታውቃሉ/ለሽ 1 0
9 ንብረትህ/ሽ በሌሎች ተወስዶብህ/ሽ ያውቃል 1 0
10 አሉባልታ ውስጥ ገብተህ/ሽ ታቃለህ/ለሽ 1 0
11 በማህበረሰብ ውስጥ ከሌሎች ከበሬታ ታገኛለህ/ለሽ 1 0
12 ሁከት አጋጥሞህ ያውቃል 1 0
13 ወላጅ አጥ በመሆንህ/ሽ ከሌሎች ትሸሻለህ/ለሽ 1 0

ጊዜሽ/ህን ሰውተህ/ሽ መጠይቁን ስለሞላህ/ሽ ከልብ አመሰግናለሁ!!!

APPENDIX C: KEY INFORMANT GUIDE

ለቁልፍ መረጃ ሰጪዎች የተዘጋጁ መሪ ጥያቄዎች

ጾታ ______________________________________________

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እድሜ ______________________________________________
የትምህርት ደረጃ ______________________________________________
የስራ ቦታ ______________________________________________
የስራ ድርሻ ______________________________________________

1) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነልቦናዊ ችግሮች ምን ይመስላሉ ?

 ከመቆዘም አንጻር
 ለራስ ከሚኖር ግምት አንጻር
 በራስ ከመተማመን አንጻር
 ከውጥረት አንጻር
 ከጭንቀት አንጻር

2) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸው ማህበራዊ ችግሮች ምን ይመስላሉ ?

 ካላቸው ግለሰባዊ ግንኙነት አንጻር
 ከመድሎና መገለል አንጻር

3) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነ ልቦናዊና ማህበራዊ ችግሮች

ለመቅረፍ ምን መደረግ አለበት ይላሉ ?

APPENDIX D: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE

ለአትኩሮተ ቡድን ውይይት የተዘጋጁ መሪ ጥያቄዎች

የተሳታፊዎች ዝርዝር ______________________________________________

የተሳታፊዎች ብዛት ______________________________________________
የውይይት ቀን ______________________________________________
የውይይት ቦታ______________________________________________

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1) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች እንደመሆናቹ የሚያጋጥማቸው ስነልቦናዊ ችግሮች ምን
ይመስላሉ ?
 ከመቆዘም አንጻር
 ለራስ ከሚኖር ግምት አንጻር
 በራስ ከመተማመን አንጻር
 ከውጥረት አንጻር
 ከጭንቀት አንጻር

2) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች እንደመሆናቹ የሚያጋጥማቸው ማህበራዊ ችግሮች ምን

ይመስላሉ ?
 ካላቸው ግለሰባዊ ግንኙነት አንጻር
 ከመድሎና መገለል አንጻር

3) በህጻናት ማሳደጊያ የሚገኙ ወላጅ አጥ ልጆች የሚያጋጥማቸውን ስነ ልቦናዊና ማህበራዊ ችግሮች

ለመቅረፍ ምን መደረግ አለበት ትላላችሁ ?

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