MODULE 11.5.

AVIONIC
SYSTEMS
 PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AUTOMATIC
FLIGHT
CONTROL
SYSTEM
 PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT

Early Automatic Flight systems were primarily pilot relief devices, which did no
more than hold the aircraft straight and level. With the introduction of
transistorized electronics, dramatic changes occurred, not only in the size of the
systems, but in their performance. Present day Autoflight systems are utilized in
all phases of flight and as such have acquired a more modern identification, that
of "Automatic Flight Control System" (AFCS). A typical profile of a flight, almost
completely under an Auto-Flight Control System, is shown at Figure 11.5.2.1.

INITIAL CRUISE STEP CLIMB

FLIGHT LEVEL POINT

TOP OF
IMMEDIATE
TOP OF
CLIMB DESCENT
SPEED LIMIT CRUISE DESCENT
INTERCEPT
ALTITUDE DESCENT
CONSTRAINT PATH

ACCELERATION
ALTITUDE
SPEED LIMIT
ALTITUDE
THRUST
CONSTRAINT
REDUCTION
ALTITUDE
EXTEND
FLAPS
ORIGIN

DESTINATION
PRE-FLIGHT
ROLL OUT
PHASE PHASE <60kts
GND/SPD

TACTICAL CLIMB MODES TACTICAL CRIUSE MODES TACTICAL DESCENT MODE LANDING PHASE
TAKE OFF
• MAXIMUM CLIMB •
• MAXIMUM ENDURANCE •
MAXIMUM DESCENT
PHASE
• MANUAL SPEED • MANUAL SPEED • •
MANUAL SPEED

Figure 11.5.2.1 – Auto flight Vertical Flight Profile

SERVOMECHANISMS

A servomechanism is a closed loop control system in which a small power input

controls a much larger power output in a strictly proportional manner. In applying
such a mechanism to the automatic control of the aircraft, the system must be
capable of continuous operation and have the ability to:

 Detect the difference between input and output signals (error sensing).

 Amplify the error signal.

 Control the closing of the servo loop by providing feedback.

There are two main classes of servomechanism:

1. Remote Positional Control (RPC).

2. Velocity Control (velodyne).

REMOTE POSITIONAL CONTROL SERVOMECHANISM

This type of servo loop is one in which a load has to be rotated through an output
angle º. Figure 11.5.2 shows a remote position control servomechanism.

 ° INPUT
ERROR
DETECTOR
INPUT
SERVO
VARIABLE AMP LOAD
MOTOR
RESISTOR
ERROR
SIGNAL
 ° OUTPUT

POSITION
FEEDBACK OUTPUT
VARIABLE
RESISTOR

Figure 11.5.2 – Remote Positional Control Servomechanism.

VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISM

A velocity control servomechanism is one in which error signals are produced as

a result of a difference between voltages corresponding to input and output
speeds, such speeds being used to control the speed of the servomotor and
load. Figure 11.5.2.3 shows a velocity control servomechanism.

CONTROL
ERROR
ELEMENT
DETECTOR SERVO
MOTOR

LOAD

VELOCITY TACHO
FEEDBACK GEN

POSITIONAL FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK ELEMENT

Figure 11.5.2.3 - Velocity Control Servomechanism.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Automatic control systems can be split down into four main elements, these are:

ERROR SENSING

Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that
commanded by the pilot. Almost all modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for
this purpose, and there are two ways that the error signal can be generated,
either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude gyros only detect how far the
aircraft is away from the settings, the rate gyros detect the rate at which it is
deviating and, hence, are more accurate.

CORRECTION

This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control
systems. This input is simply the command from the auto-pilot to reverse the
movement of the aircraft away from its set
course. It does not have any idea of when to stop the correction, this is the job of
the follow-up mechanism.

FOLLOW-UP

Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under
the commands from the correction part of the auto-pilot. The mechanism
reduces the correction input as it nears the original selected position and, by the
time the aircraft is level, there will be no correcting input to the actuators.

COMMAND

The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading,
height, speed or rate of climb he wants
the aircraft to follow. This can be a simple 'Heading Hold' system which is
controlled by a "bug" on the compass, which the pilot sets with a knob on the
instrument. Alternatively, the system 'Mode Control Panel' shown in figure
11.5.2.4 can have many different parameters commanded by the pilot, such as
auto-pilot modes, altitude, vertical speed and airspeed/mach number modes.
 AUTOPILOT AILERON ELEVATOR
COMPUTER ENGAGE ENGAGE
SELECT SWITCH SWITCH

VOR B ENGAGED OFF

LOC A AB ALT
AUTO TURB HOLD
MAN
APP
MAN
G/S
HDG OFF

AIL DISENGAGED ELEV

HDG ON

MODE SELECT
HEADING ALTITUDE
HOLD SELECT
SELECT

Figure 11.5.2.4 - Mode Control Panel

The closed loop servo technique can be applied as a means of achieving
automatic flight control of an aircraft. A functional diagram is at Figure 11.5.2.5.
This forms the basic control system for all classes of automatic flight control
systems. This system controls what is termed “Inner Loop” stabilization.

AERODYNAMICS

MANUAL PILOT’S DEMANDS

FLIGHT
CONTROLS

ATTITUDE ERROR
SENSING SENSING SIGNAL SERVOMOTORS
PROCESSING (ACTUATORS)

FEEDBACK

AUTOPILOT
MODE SELECT

Figure 11.5.2.5 – Inner Loop Stabilization

The number of control loops, or channels, comprising an automatic flight control
system is dependent on the number of axes about which control is to be effected
and in this connection it is usual to classify systems as:

1. Single Axis System.

2. Two-Axis System.

3. Three-Axis System.

SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM

In the single axis system, control is normally about the “Roll” axis. The control
surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the “Ailerons”. It is found on
small aircraft to provide lateral stabilization (wing levelling).

TWO-AXIS SYSTEM

In the two-axis system, control is normally about the “Roll” and “Pitch” axes. The
control surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the “Ailerons” and
“Elevators”. These are found on medium sized aircraft and provide a means of
automatically controlling the aircraft’s heading and altitude.

THREE-AXIS SYSTEM

In the three-axis system, control is about all three axes (Pitch, Roll and Yaw).
These systems are designed to meet the requirements for stabilization and
control of high performance category aircraft, and have a large number of modes
of operation.

SENSING ATTITITUDE CHANGES

Under automatically controlled flight conditions, the sensing of all changes in the
aircraft’s attitude is accomplished by referencing them against some form of
stabilized device. The device universally adopted for this purpose, from the
earliest types of control system to those now current, has been the gyroscope.

In addition to the gyro, t is also the practice in many cases to adopt a pendulous
device which although not purely stabilizing in function, can serve as a “back-up”
to a gyro by sensing short-term attitude changes brought about by the effects of
accelerations, vertical speed changes, and by side-slip.
Figure 11.5.2.6 shows the configuration for a three-axis automatic control
system.

YAW

ROLL
PITCH

Figure 11.5.2.6 - Three-axis Automatic Control System.

INTERLOCKS

Before an automatic control system can be engaged with an aircraft's flight

controls, certain preliminary operating requirements must be fulfilled to ensure
that the system is in a condition whereby it may safely take control of the aircraft.
The principal requirements are that the connections between system power
supplies, the elements comprising the system and the appropriate signal and
engage circuits are electrically complete. It is the practice, therefore, to
incorporate within any automatic control system, a series of switches and/or
relays, known as interlocks, which operate in a specific sequence to ensure
satisfactory engagement, and the coupling of input signals from outer loop
control elements. Figure 11.5.2.7 shows an autopilot interlock circuit.

A/P DISCONNECT A.C - D.C. MACH TRIM PITCH TRIM ALT REF

CAPT F/O

MODE
YAW
SELECTOR MAN
K1 DAMP SWITCH
ENGAGE AUTO
OFF
RELAY
AUTO
PILOT
ENGAGE
RELAY
K2
OFF
SERVO
RUDDER
CLUTCH
SERVOS
ELEVATOR
AILERON
OFF CLUTCHES

Figure 11.5.2.7 - Autopilot Interlock Circuit.

Note: The signals from the pitch roll and yaw computers are at their respective
servos, but cannot impose their influence until the servo clutches are engaged.
In the yaw damper only position, K1 relay will close and energise the rudder
servo clutch and engage it to accept signals from a gyro or computer to move the
rudder. With No 1 switch in the autopilot position, it will energise K1 relay subject
to all the interlock switches being made, switch No 2 will now engage the aileron
and elevator clutches, and switch No 3 will pick a voltage from switch No 2 and
energise the rudder clutch. So in the yaw damper position, it is yaw damper only,
and in the autopilot position it is yaw, pitch and roll engagement.

In the yaw damper switch position, only the pilot's disconnect and power valids
are needed; in the full autopilot condition all switches must be made.

Here is a review of the interlock switches.

Firstly, the autopilot disconnects: either the Captain's or the First Officer's switch
will disconnect the autopilot; the switches are usually located on the control
column.

The power ac and dc valids are qualifying that power is available and any loss of
power will disconnect.

Mach trim has to be engaged in this case.

In some systems, Mach trim is on all the time, whether the autopilot is engaged
or not, and in others it is disengaged when the autopilot is engaged.

The pitch trim switch is qualifying that auto pitch trim is available in the autopilot
mode. The reason that this is important is that if there is a mis-trim, the autopilot
can compensate for that situation until the autopilot is disconnected, either
through malfunction or deliberate action, or the aircraft could nose up/down
rather dramatically.

The attitude reference switch is checking that the valids from the vertical gyro are
all correct, and the attitude references are available for the autopilot.

On more sophisticated systems, there are other interlock switches, for example
air data computer, compass system, hydraulic pressure monitoring and radio
altimeters.

Some systems, apart from those that use electrical interlocks, do not use an
electrical servomotor. Instead they use a hydraulic servo.
AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

Once the controller has been selected, and activated, the aircraft is controlled by
the Flight Director/Autopilot System. Rate gyros detect any movement of the
aircraft from the selected flight datum and will output a signal proportional to the
disturbance and in the opposite sense. The gyro output, along with other signals
from associated systems, are processed in the Flight Director/Autopilot
Computer, which in turn will give flight director information and or outputs to
move the control surfaces to bring the aircraft onto the correct flight datum.

Figure 11.5.2.8 shows a schematic of a Flight Director/Autopilot System.

AERODYNAMIC RESPONSE

FLIGHT FLIGHT
DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
ENGAGED COMMAND BAR

GYRO INPUT

MODE SELECT PILOT’S

INPUT
AUTOPILOT
NAV AIDS INPUT COMPUTER

HEADING INPUT FEEDBACK

ALTITUDE INPUT
SERVO

AUTOPILOT
ENGAGED

Figure 11.5.2.8 -Flight Director/Autopilot System

ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM

We know that any change in the aircraft's attitude will be detected by the
Autopilot system. This system alone will not be able to detect a pure vertical
displacement of the aircraft. To maintain an aircraft at a selected altitude we
require further sensing elements.

The purpose of the Altitude Hold system, is to maintain the aircraft at a selected
height. The pilot will select "ALT" on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP) and the
system will maintain that altitude. The sensing element consists of a pressure
transducer, similar to that in the Air Data System. Any change in the static
pressure will be felt and an output produced, this output will be fed to the pitch
channel of the autopilot system to adjust the aircraft's altitude.

A simplified Altitude Hold system is shown at Figure 11.5.2.9.

ANEROID
CAPSULE

STATIC

CONTROL
CHASER
MOTOR MOTOR
ERROR
AMP

TO PITCH
CONTROL REF
CHANNEL

Figure 11.5.2.9 - Altitude Hold System

AIRSPEED HOLD

Since airspeed hold sensors are used in conjunction with altitude hold sensors,
the methods of transmitting error signals are of a common nature. The only
difference is that whereas an altitude sensor measures only staic pressure
changes, an airspeed sensor is required to measure Static and Pitot pressures.

ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

The Altitude Alerting System allows the pilot to make changes to the aircraft's
altitude and provide alerts to the pilot when the selected altitude is reached. The
pilot sets the required altitude, from 0 - 50,000 feet, in steps of 10 feet, on the
Flight Mode Panel (FMP).

The altitude alerter gives the pilot an alert when the aircraft approaches the
selected altitude, entry alert ("C" Chord) and illuminates a warning lamp. The
system will then alert the pilot when the aircraft does not follow the selected
altitude with an exit alert ("C" Chimes) and illuminates a warning lamp. Figure
11.5.2.10 shows the different alerts.

1000 feet

ENTRY ALERT
ON EXIT ALERT
ON
ENTRY ALERT
“C” CHORD OFF
250 feet

SELECTED HEIGHT

250 feet

EXIT ALERT
ON

“C” CHIME
1000 feet

Figure 11.5.2.10 - ALERT LEVELS

AUTOTHROTTLE SYSTEM

An Autothrottle system serves a dual purpose of maintaining constant airspeed

during automatic approach and landing phases by adjustment of the engine
power, and closing the throttles at a constant rate during an autoflare phase. A
Typical Autothrottle system is at Figure 11.5.2.11.