DISCUSSION

This study explored the endosymbiotic microbes in plant as well as insect system and
evaluated molecular and biochemical nature of their interaction with their respective hosts.
Most abundant symbiont was from genus Fusarium with 7% of total fungal species. The rich
diversity of  Fusarium species as endophytes in different tissues in medicinal of both the
plants may be due to plants providing optimum habitat for their rapid germination of more
number of spores of this fungus due to favourable environmental condition .[1].
Pseudomonas was second most dominant endophyte with 4.8% of total bacteria in the plants
studiedl species. Its adaptability in the plants is evident by the This might be explained by
production of of good quantity ofvarious secondary metabolites such as siderophore,
IAAPhytohormones (such as uxins), and solubilized inorganic phosphate by Pseudomonas
spp. ItThis metabolic exchange between Pseudomonas and the plant also enhances the
growth and antioxidant properties of the host plant[2]. The most abundant phylum in
medicinal plants were Ascomycota, represented by Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma,
Alternaria. It has been reported that Ascomycota fungi have higher species diversity due to
their faster evolutionary rate and adaptability [3]. Among bacteria, most abundant family was
Proteobacteria followed by firmicutes (represented by Pseudomonas and Bacillus
respectively). This can be explained by In exchange of carbon and nitrogen from the plant
most Proteobacteria accounting for most of the isolates possessing contribute to siderophore
production, phosphate solubilization, IAA-like indole derivatives production, HCN
production and ß-glucosidase activity in the host [9], respectively. Thus, these endophytes are
able to produce a wide variety of metabolites that may have significant pharmacological
potential. For example, Cladosporium cladosporioides isolated from Neem is reported to
causes rot of red wine grapevines, . It can occasionally cause pulmonary and cutaneous
phaeohyphomycosis and it has been isolated from cerebrospinal fluid in an
immunocompromised patient. It has been shown to produce an anti-cancer compound taxol
along with . p-Methylbenzoic acid, present in C.cladosporioides promotes the synthesis of
1,5-benzodiazepine which has . Benzodiazepines are widely used as antianxiety,
anticonvulsant, anti-depressive, anti-inflammatory agents, analgesics and sedatives properties
[7][8]. Similarly, Aspergillus versicolor , isolated from Turmeric, is the primary manufacturer
of sterigmatocystin, a carcinogen that is an aflatoxin precursor (Cole and Cox, 1981). Several
A.versicolor-made produce metabolites exhibiting antibacterial, fungicidal, insecticidal, and
cytotoxic properties. From The endophytes of bitter gourd , two species belonging tofrom
genus Chaetomium i.e, (Mmadrasense and Bbrasiliense) produce compounds such as were
isolated Chaetomadrasins A (1) and B (2)were isolated from the solid-state fermented culture
of desert soil-derived Chaetomium madrasense 375. Compounds 1 and 2that display ed
moderate cytotoxicity against HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. The fungus
Mollicellins K-N (1-4), and six known depsidones, mollicellins B (5), C (6), E (7), F (8), H
(9), and J (10) were extracted from C. brasiliense. One exhibited antimycobacterial activity
against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and antifungal activity against Candida albicans using in
vitro assays. Not only does these microbes help in producing certain novel metabolites or
their precursours, the symbionts are also able to degrade various xenobiotics and persistent
organic pollutants (such as Poly aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH) exposed or up-taken by the
plants.

PAH are one of the most persistent ambient air, soil and water pollutants . endophytes help
plant host in utilizing these PAH as carbon source and convert them into Kreb cycle
intermediates or non-toxic compounds. A study indicated that, 60% of bacterial species
showed complete metabolism, 31.42% showed either co-metabolism or complete
metabolism, and only 5.71% showed co-metabolism. The key enzymes which played a role in
this process are oxygenase enzymes (in bacteria), monooxygenase (in alage) and cytochrome
P450 (in fungi) (Ghosal et al., 2016; Sack, U., et al., 1997; Eichlerová, et al., 2000; Sack, U.,
& Günther, T. ,1993). This is mainly because bacteria primarily promote aerobic conditions
for PAH degradation by oxygenase-mediated metabolism (including either monoxygenase or
dioxygenase enzymes). Laccase was the most recurring enzyme in fungal species. Laccases
are capable of catalyzing the oxidation of ortho and paradiphenols, aminophenols,
polyphenols, polyamines, lignins, and aryl diamines as well as some inorganic ions. Genes
such as nidA, pdoA, nidD, nidB and alkB play major role in microbial degradation.
Phenanthrene, naphthalene and anthracene are seen to be the most widespread and easily
atrophied. Genes such as nidA, pdoA, nidD, nidB and alkB play major role in microbial
degradation. The key enzymes which played a role in the process were oxygenase enzymes in
microbes and cytochrome P450 enzymes in fungi despite it being Ligninolytic and Non-
Ligninolytic, this can be catabolised through co-metabolism or as a sole carbon source.
(Ghosal et al., 2016; Sack, U., et al., 1997; Eichlerová, et al., 2000; Sack, U., &Günther, T. ,
1993). Bacteria have an important role to play in eliminating polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) from contaminated habitats (Mallick et al., 2011). Bacteria primarily
promote aerobic conditions for PAH degradation by oxygenase-mediated metabolism
(including either monoxygenase or dioxygenase enzymes). Biodegradation of PAHs by fungi
has been extensively studied in recent years, and numerous fungal species have been reported
to metabolize various PAHs (Cerniglia, 1992) degradation of bacterial PAHs mainly involves
dioxygenase enzymes (Cerniglia and Sutherland, 2010) and partially monooxygenase-
mediated reactions and the same is true for algae. In bacteria, Deoxygenase was the most
recurring enzyme. The catechol dioxygenases serve as part of nature’s strategy for degrading
aromatic molecules in the Environment. Laccase was the most recurring enzyme in fungal
species. Laccases are capable of catalyzing the oxidation of ortho and paradiphenols,
aminophenols, polyphenols, polyamines, lignins, and aryl diamines as well as some inorganic
ions. 60% of bacterial species showed complete metabolism, 31.42% showed either co-
metabolism or complete metabolism, and only 5.71% showed co-metabolism.
 In ants and in microbes isolated from various niches also, the most abundant bacterial family
was Proteobacteria followed by Rhizobium and Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Hemophillus,
Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Cycloclasticus, Aeromonas, and Alcanivorax., However, the most
dominant genus was Wolbachia (8.6%), followed by Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and
Arsenophonus (5.7%). Wolbachia exhibited use in the regulation of cell growth,
differentiation, diverse cell functions, and apoptosis. The most dominant genus was
Wolbachia (8.6%), followed by Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and Arsenophonus (5.7%). [4][5]
[6] Endosymbionts in ants were involved in functions like reproductive development and

Fig 1. Diversity
nutritional upgrading of embosymbionts
(Blochmannia in ants,
floridanus in environment
Camponotus andfloridanus),
medicinal plants
amino acid
supply (Oecophyllibacter saccharovorans in Oecophylla smaragdina) and anti- microbial
compound synthesis ( Pseudonocardia and Streptomyces in Atta sp.). InterestinglyIn fact, one
endosymbionts may have different functions in different hosts, a prominent example of this is
Serratia symbiotica had three different functions in four different ant species. Interestingly,
similar genes and pathways were found among those of the bioactive compounds and
endophytes, fumigaclavine A dimethylallyltransferase and Prenyltransferases in Aspergillus
sp. , Ochratoxin A biosynthesis, Patulin biosynthesis in Penicillium sp., FusA (fusarin C
synthetase), FUB1 (fusaric acid synthase) in Fusarium monoliforme. AZAI (azaphilone
biosynthesis cytochrome P450 monooxygenase) in Chaetomium globosum.

In bacteria, Deoxygenase was the most recurring enzyme. The catechol dioxygenases serve as
part of nature’s strategy for degrading aromatic molecules in the Environment. Laccase was
the most recurring enzyme in fungal species. Laccases are capable of catalyzing the oxidation
of ortho and paradiphenols, aminophenols, polyphenols, polyamines, lignins, and aryl
diamines as well as some inorganic ions. 60% of bacterial species showed complete
metabolism, 31.42% showed either co-metabolism or complete metabolism, and only 5.71%
showed co-metabolism.

Cladosporium cladosporioides isolated from Neem causes rot of red wine grapevines. It can
occasionally cause pulmonary and cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and it has been isolated
from cerebrospinal fluid in an immunocompromised patient. It has been shown to produce
taxol. p-Methylbenzoic acid, present in C.cladosporioides promotes the synthesis of 1,5-
benzodiazepine. Benzodiazepines are widely used as antianxiety, anticonvulsant, anti-
depressive, anti-inflammatory agents, analgesics and sedatives [7][8]. Aspergillus versicolor ,
isolated from Turmeric, is the primary manufacturer of sterigmatocystin, a carcinogen that is
an aflatoxin precursor (Cole and Cox, 1981). Several A.versicolor-made metabolites exhibit
antibacterial, fungicidal, insecticidal, and cytotoxic properties. From bitter gourd, two species
belonging to genus Chaetomium i.e, madrasense and brasiliense were isolated
Chaetomadrasins A (1) and B (2)were isolated from the solid-state fermented culture of
desert soil-derived Chaetomium madrasense 375. Compounds 1 and 2 displayed moderate
cytotoxicity against HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. The fungus Mollicellins
K-N (1-4), and six known depsidones, mollicellins B (5), C (6), E (7), F (8), H (9), and J (10)
were extracted from C. brasiliense. One exhibited antimycobacterial activity against
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and antifungal activity against Candida albicans using in vitro
assays.

Endosymbionts in ants were involved in functions like reproductive development and

nutritional upgrading (Blochmannia floridanus in Camponotus floridanus), amino acid
supply (Oecophyllibacter saccharovorans in Oecophylla smaragdina) and anti- microbial
compound synthesis ( Pseudonocardia and Streptomyces in Atta sp.). Interestingly, Serratia
symbiotica had three different functions in four different ant species. Interestingly, similar
genes and pathways were found among those of the bioactive compounds and endophytes,
fumigaclavine A dimethylallyltransferase and Prenyltransferases in Aspergillus sp. ,
Ochratoxin A biosynthesis, Patulin biosynthesis in Penicillium sp., FusA (fusarin C
synthetase), FUB1 (fusaric acid synthase) in Fusarium monoliforme. AZAI (azaphilone
biosynthesis cytochrome P450 monooxygenase) in Chaetomium globosum.

PAH are one of the most persistent ambient air, soil and water pollutants .Phenanthrene,
naphthalene and anthracene are seen to be the most widespread and easily atrophied. Genes
such as nidA, pdoA, nidD, nidB and alkB play major role in microbial degradation. The key
enzymes which played a role in the process were oxygenase enzymes in microbes and
cytochrome P450 enzymes in fungi despite it being Ligninolytic and Non- Ligninolytic, this
can be catabolised through co-metabolism or as a sole carbon source. (Ghosal et al., 2016;
Sack, U., et al., 1997; Eichlerová, et al., 2000; Sack, U., &Günther, T. ,1993). Bacteria have
an important role to play in eliminating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from
contaminated habitats (Mallick et al., 2011). Bacteria primarily promote aerobic conditions
for PAH degradation by oxygenase-mediated metabolism (including either monoxygenase or
dioxygenase enzymes). Biodegradation of PAHs by fungi has been extensively studied in
recent years, and numerous fungal species have been reported to metabolize various PAHs
(Cerniglia, 1992) degradation of bacterial PAHs mainly involves dioxygenase enzymes
(Cerniglia and Sutherland, 2010) and partially monooxygenase-mediated reactions and the
same is true for algae.

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