sustainability

Article
A Real-Time Energy Consumption Simulation and
Comparison of Buildings in Different Construction
Years in the Olympic Central Area in Beijing
Chen Xu 1,2,3 ID
, Yu Li 1,3 , Xueting Jin 1,3 , Liang Yuan 4 and Hao Cheng 1, *
1 Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100101, China; xuc.14s@igsnrr.ac.cn (C.X.); Liy@igsnrr.ac.cn (Y.L.); jinxt.15s@igsnrr.ac.cn (X.J.)
2 Centre of Architecture Research and Design, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100190, China
3 College of Resource and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4 Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan; yuan.l.398@s.kyushuu.ac.jp
* Correspondence: chengh.12b@igsnrr.ac.cn; Tel.: +86-10-6488-9093

Received: 30 October 2017; Accepted: 29 November 2017; Published: 6 December 2017

Abstract: Energy consumed the in urban sector accounts for a large proportion of total world
delivered energy consumption. Residential building energy consumption is an important part of
urban energy consumption. However, there are few studies focused on this issue and that have
simulated the energy consumption of residential buildings using questionnaire data. In this research,
an eQUEST study was conducted for different residential buildings in the Olympic Central Area
in Beijing. Real-time meteorological observation data and an actual energy consumption schedule
generated by questionnaire data were used to improve the eQUEST model in the absence of actual
energy consumption data. The simulated total energy consumption of residential buildings in the
case area in 2015 is 21,262.28 tce, and the average annual energy consumption per unit area is
20.09 kgce/(m2 ·a). Space heating accounted for 45% of the total energy consumption as the highest
proportion, and the second highest was household appliances, which accounted for 20%. The results
showed that old residential buildings, multi-storey buildings and large-sized apartment buildings
consume more energy. The internal units, building height, per capita construction area, the number
of occupants and length of power use had significant impact on residential energy consumption. The
result of this study will provide practical reference for energy saving reconstruction of residential
buildings in Beijing.

Keywords: residential building; energy consumption; eQUEST simulation; Beijing city

1. Introduction
Residential and commercial end users together accounts for 20.1% of the total delivered energy
consumed worldwide. According to the IEO2016 Reference case, energy consumed in residential sector
will be 13% of total world delivered energy consumption in 2040 [1]. China has been the world’s largest
energy consumer since 2010 [2]. The residential sector is China’s second largest energy consumer [3],
which accounted for 20.5% of the total energy consumption of the final consumption in 2014 [4].
In response to global climate change and energy demand, residential building energy consumption
research in China has received extensive attention.
However, most of the methodologies used in existing residential building stock research lack
accuracy. Residential end-use energy consumption could be divided into a top-down model and
a bottom-up model [5]. Top-down models are easily to develop based on information provided
by macroeconomic indicators. Various methods, such as cluster analysis, the classification analysis

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245; doi:10.3390/su9122245 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 2 of 18

method [6] and the STIRPAT model [7] were used for top-down models. However, top-down models
do not objectively show the actual energy consumption situation. Bottom-up models are considered
relative more comprehensive. There is a growing interest in questionnaire survey. For example, Shan
Hu et al. surveyed Chinese 31 cities’ residential buildings in 2015, summarized the change trend of the
energy consumption of residential buildings in these cities and analysed the relationship of energy
consumption and energy use behaviours [8]. Iwan et al. promoted a questionnaire survey of 11 living
areas in Indonesia and used a lifestyle analysis to calculate the construction of residential energy
consumption [9]. This type of research was more concerned about the factors that influence the energy
consumption and the energy consumption of the families in the area. However, few of them payed
attention to the energy consumption of the public part of apartment buildings. Simulation tools, such
as BIM [10], Visual DOE (version 4) [11], IDA-ICE [12], and TRNSYS [13] showed good performance.
Among these sorts of software, eQUEST, which uses DOE-2’s building description language (BDL),
showed more practicability and convenience. It is in line with the U.S. LEED (Leadership in Energy
& Environmental Design Building Rating System) as the most commonly used tool for simulation
coding [14]. eQUEST software simulation has been used in the research of energy consumption of
the object from United States [15], Canada [16], South Korea [17] and China [18–21]. Further, the
accuracy of the energy consumption simulation in the Olympic centre area has been verified by the
simulation of the energy consumption in large public buildings in the case area [22]. The existing
simulation tools mainly used standard climate data, focused on the simulation of a building’s physical
structure and lacked studies on the actual energy consumption behaviour of residents. The weather
data change every year [23]. The use of real-time meteorological data to simulate the actual situation is
considered to be an appropriate approach to building simulation applications [24] which can effectively
improve the accuracy of energy consumption simulation and prediction [5]. Real-time meteorological
data includes a full range of data, including dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, wind
speed, wind direction, relative humidity, solar radiation intensity, and air pressure [24]. What’s
more, occupant behaviours are varied, which greatly affect the energy consumption of residential
buildings [5]. Different lifestyles of the residents lead to different energy consumption data [25].
Existing research showed that occupant behaviours had significant effect on space ventilation rates [26]
and affected overall residential energy consumption forecast accuracy by ±15–20% [27]. Therefore, we
combine eQUEST simulation, questionnaires survey and incorporate real-time meteorological data to
make the simulation results more accurate.
In order to simplify the calculation, it is necessary to classify the residential buildings in the study
area according to the obvious classification factors. Firstly, the age of construction is an important
basis for research. A research based on a survey in Basel showed that the energy consumption of
residential buildings and the construction age had a nonlinear correlation [28]. Brounen et al. surveyed
300,000 Dutch families, and the research results showed that the energy consumption of buildings built
before the 1980s is almost 50% higher [29]. The implementation of “Three Steps Energy Saving” in
Beijing City, which is the mandatory standards for building energy-saving heating energy consumption
in three stages, including a residential space heating energy saving of 30%, 50%, 65%, comparing 1980s
buildings with the residential buildings constructed from 1991 to 1999, from 2000 to 2004 and after 2005,
respectively [30]. Further, the residential building classification factor also includes building function,
floor area and building shape [4,31,32]. Xiaochen Liu et al. researched family energy consumption and
carbon dioxide emissions in the Greater Dublin area, and the results showed that the smaller residential
areas demand less energy use [33]. The simulation results of BIM software show that the annual energy
consumption of different orientations are quite different [10]. Tianren Yang and other scholars, in the
study of residential energy consumption in the residential area of Chongming Island, classified urban
residential buildings, platoon villas, Banlou and high-rise residential units [34]. It can be seen that
building construction, interior residential area, building height, building orientation, building function
and building shape greatly affect internal energy consumption, and they are important classifications
for building energy consumption research.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 3 of 18

The influencing
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 factors of energy consumption in residential buildings analysed in different 3 of 17
research have difference. Some macro-scale research involved energy market, climate, urbanization,
income, and so on. on. Hossein, for example, defined household, building, home appliances, energy
market, climate as five determinants of residential energy consumption consumption [35]. [35]. YANG
YANG Yanfang
Yanfang et et al.
al.
showed that urbanization is the most important factor affecting Beijing’s building
showed that urbanization is the most important factor affecting Beijing’s building carbon emissions carbon emissions [36].
However,
[36]. However, somesome of these factors
of these are are
factors notnot
significant
significant in in
micro-scale
micro-scale studies.
studies.Instead,
Instead, demographic
demographic
characteristics, building conditions, lifestyle, household appliances and energy-saving concept are
five main influencing
influencing items.items. PU Qingping selected 29 variables out of these items in his research, and
the result showed that permanent resident, per capita building area, building type, number of air
conditioning and computer,
computer, and air conditioning cooling method are the most important factors [37]. [37].
The variables analysed in this research came from survey questionnaire data, and 19 of them were
selected from the items items of of household
household income,
income, household
household conditions, building conditions, lifestyle,
household appliances and energy-saving energy-saving concept referencing
concept referencing to to PU’s
PU’s selection.
selection.
Beijing has become China’s second largest energy consuming city and entered the stage of
building a low-carbon city. The next 20 to 30 years will be the the crucial
crucial period
period for the construction
construction of
low-carbon city [38].To
[38].To face face the
the challenge,
challenge, energy-saving
energy-saving residential buildings renovation gradually
began from 2006 [39]. Beijing put forward the comprehensive transformation of the old district built
before 1990 [40] and further promoted energy-saving renovation plan [41] during the 12th Five-Year
and 13th
13thFive-Year,
Five-Year, respectively.
respectively. However, the energy-saving
However, design and
the energy-saving transformation
design of residential
and transformation of
buildings
residentiallacks scientific
buildings lacksresearch
scientificsupport.
research support.
Based
Based on onthe
theabove
aboverequirements,
requirements, residential
residentialbuildings
buildings which covered
which different
covered construction
different constructionages
and
agesarchitecture
and architecture forms in the
forms Olympic
in the Olympic Central Area
Central Areain in
Beijing
Beijing(Figure
(Figure1)1)were
werechosen
chosento to simulate
simulate
residential
residential building
buildingenergyenergyconsumption
consumption and analysis
and analysisinfluencing factors.
influencing ThisThis
factors. studystudy
surveyed a largea
surveyed
number of households
large number of households in 6 existing districts.districts.
in 6 existing SubjectedSubjected
to objective conditions,
to objective the actual the
conditions, electricity
actual
and naturaland
electricity gasnatural
energy gas consumption data cannotdata
energy consumption be obtained
cannot be through
obtainedthe through
energy supply sector.supply
the energy Thus,
the results
sector. Thus,cannot
the be calibrated.
results cannotHowever, we used
be calibrated. the real-time
However, meteorological
we used the real-timeobservation date in
meteorological
the case areadate
observation and in thethe actual
caseenergy
area andconsumption
the actual schedule of the residents
energy consumption to improve
schedule of thethe accuracy
residents to
of the eQUEST
improve software
the accuracy of(James J. Hirsch
the eQUEST & Associates,
software (James Camarillo,
J. Hirsch &CA, USA), and
Associates, converted
Camarillo, CA,theUSA),
final
energy consumption
and converted the final into standard
energy coal. We comparative
consumption into standardanalyze
coal. Wethe energy consumption
comparative analyze the intensity
energy
of per unit area
consumption in different
intensity of per residential
unit area building types
in different and explore
residential the social
building types behaviour
and explore influencing
the social
mechanism behind the energy
behaviour influencing mechanism consumption
behind thechange, to provide
energy practical
consumption reference
change, to for energy
provide saving
practical
reconstruction
reference for energyof residential buildings in Beijing.
saving reconstruction of residential buildings in Beijing.

Figure 1. The
Figure 1. The location
location of
of the
the Beijing Olympic Centre
Beijing Olympic Centre Area
Area and
and Six
Six Surveyed
Surveyed Districts.
Districts.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 4 of 18

2. Data and Methods

2.1. Source of Data

The eQUEST simulation data include meteorological data, building physical structure data,
appliance and usage data, and HVAC system data. To ensure the accuracy of the simulation, the Datun
Road area real-time meteorological data that are observed by Institute of Geographic Sciences and
natural resources research are used instead of the alternative Beijing city standard climate data file
downloaded from the EnergyPlus website. The residential buildings’ external contour shape data
and exterior window wall ratio data are, respectively, obtained by using the AIKE laser rangefinder
measurement, an interpretation of the July 2013 Olympic Centre District remote sensing image data,
and an interpretation of the residential building facade photo. Due to the difficulty of building
construction data, it was referenced from the corresponding national construction standards. The
reference specifications include Exterior Insulation Engineering (JGJ144-2004); Energy-saving Building
Construction (06J123); the Code for Acceptance of Construction Quality of Building Energy Saving
Project (GB40411-2007); and Exterior Insulation Construction (10J121). The appliance usage data in
residential buildings and HVAC system data come from a household survey.

2.2. Building Classification Method

According to the construction of the “Three Steps Energy Saving” plan in Beijing [30], the
residential area is divided into periods, including the 1980s, the 1990s, the period from 2000 to
2004, and post-2005 construction types. The external walls of the 1980s and 1990s residential buildings
in the study area have not been transformed, so they objectively reflect their characteristics. In addition,
the four types of construction include building height, architectural structure, architectural forms and
the construction of the interior and other differences.

2.3. Model Refinement

2.3.1. Real-Time Meteorological Data Conversion

The hourly real-time meteorological data for the eQUEST model simulation includes dry bulb
temperature, relative humidity, horizontal radiation, wind speed, and wind direction. They are
converted by eQUEST Weather Format Convertor.

2.3.2. Actual Energy Consumption Behaviour Schedule

Based on the field survey data, we made an actual energy consumption behaviour schedule for
HVAC systems, cooking, household appliances, lighting, domestic hot water and in-home rate. We
use 1 to stand for the appearance of a certain energy use activity, and we use 0 to stand for no certain
energy use activity.

2.4. Simulation and Calculation

2.4.1. eQUEST Modelling

We built an eQUEST model, which did not include the residential building elevator energy part.
The meteorological data, building physical structure data, appliances and usage data, HVAC system
data were put into the eQUEST model to obtain the simulation results.

2.4.2. Elevator Energy Consumption Calculation

Based on the Technical Conditions of Elevator GB/T 10058-2009 Appendix A (this method
is derived from the ISO/DIS25745-1:2008 standard [42]), which can be used to predict the energy
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 5 of 18

consumption of elevator operation, the results can be used for an energy consumption assessment of
the entire building. The calculation method is shown in Formula (1).

Eelevstor = (K1 × K2 × K3 × H × F × P)/(V × 3600) + Estandby (1)

Eelevstor refers to the elevator energy consumption within a year (kWh/a); K1 stands for drive
system coefficient, the value of which is 1.0; K2 refers to the average running distance coefficient; K3
refers to the average load factor, the value of which is 0.35; H refers to the maximum operating distance
(m); F refers to the number of starts in a year, the value of which is generally between 100,000–300,000;
P is the rated power of the elevator, the unit for which is kW; V is the elevator speed, the unit for which
is m/s; and Estandby refers to the total energy consumption in a year, the unit for which is kWh/a.
The power rate of Formula (1) can be calculated as follows:

P = P1 × P0 (2)


P0 = (0.5 × M × V × gn )/ 1000 × ns × n g × nn × nm (3)

M is the rated load; V stands for rated speed; P1 is the coefficient that is correlated with the
equilibrium coefficient, the value of which is 1.0; ns stands for suspension efficiency, the value of which
is 0.85; nm stands for the transmission efficiency, the value of which is 0.75; n g stands for the fact that
there is no gear transmission coefficient, the value of which is 1; nn stands for motor efficiency, the
value of which is 0.85; and gn stands for standard gravity; the value of which is 9.81 m/s2 .
The number of starts in a year F can be calculated according to Formula (4)

F = T × V × 365 × 3600/H (4)

T is the average running time, which, in the actual calculation is h/day, according to the use of the
characteristics of the building to determine the elevator running time and standby time, to determine
the F and Estandby .

2.4.3. The Standard Coal Conversion

According to the 2010 Chinese Energy Statistics Yearbook of all types of energy that are converted
to a standard coal reference coefficient table, the power conversion coefficient is 0.12 kgce/kWh, and the
coal conversion coefficient of natural gas is 1.33 kgce/m. The energy consumption of the whole building
standard coal can be divided into two parts: power and natural gas standard energy consumption,
as is shown in Formula (6). Among them, the standard coal consumption of electricity and natural
gas is calculated by multiplying the power consumption and the natural gas consumption and the
corresponding standard coal conversion coefficient, as is shown in Formulas (7) and (8). Because
the combustion of 1 cubic feet of natural gas produces 1031 Btu heat, 1 ft3 = 0.03 m3 , Formula (9)
shows the calculation of consumed nature gas volume Vngas . The annual energy consumption per unit
area of residential buildings in the study area is calculated by the quotient of the sum of the different
types of residential buildings’ energy consumption and the total area of the residential buildings, as
Formula (5) shows.
∑n Ei × Ai
E = i=1n (5)
∑ i =1 A i
Ei = Ei,electricity + Ei,ngas (6)

Ei,electricity = Qelectricity × ηelectricity (7)

Ei,ngas = Vngas × ηngas (8)

Qngas,Btu × 0.02831685 m3 / f t3
Vngas = (9)
1031 Btu/ f t3
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 6 of 18

Sustainability
E is the 2017,
case9, 2245
of the average energy consumption of unit building area, Ai is the total construction6 of 17

area of building i; Ei is the total standard coal energy consumption of building i; Ei,electricity is the
, is the standard coal power consumption of building ; , is the standard coal nature
standard coal power consumption of building i; Ei,ngas is the standard coal nature gas consumption
gasbuilding
of consumption of building
i; ηelectricity ; that is converted
is the power is the power that is coal
to a standard converted to aand
coefficient; standard
ηngas iscoal
the
coefficient; and is the natural gas that is converted
natural gas that is converted to a standard coal coefficient. to a standard coal coefficient.

3. Results
3. Results

3.1. Questionnaires
The research surveyed 600 samples, approximately 5% of 10,864 households from 154 residential
buildings in the central area of thethe 66 Olympic
Olympic residential
residential districts.
districts. The
The questionnaires
questionnaires were
were reasonably
reasonably
allocated according to the amount of the buildings and the the households,
households, asas well
well as
as the
thedifferent
different floors.
floors.
We
We hired
hired aa qualified
qualified professional
professional survey company,
company, with
with our
our research
research experts,
experts, to organize two times
field surveys.
surveys. The first time is from 13 July 2016 to 31 August 2016, and the second time is in December December
2016. Finally,
Finally, we
we filtered
filtered 572 valid questionnaires: 59 59 from
from the Guoaocun
Guoaocun District, 101 from the
Fenglinlvzhou District,230
Fenglinlvzhou District, 230from
fromthetheNanshatan
NanshatanDistrict;
District;6363 from
from thethe Kexueyuannanli
Kexueyuannanli 3rd3rd District,
District, 63
63
fromfrom
thethe Kexueyuannanli
Kexueyuannanli 4th4th District,
District, and
and 63 63 from
from thethe Kexueyuannanli
Kexueyuannanli 5th5th District.
District.

3.2. Building Classification

3.2. Building Classification and
and Typical
Typical Building
Building Selection
Selection
Fenglinlvzhou District residential
Fenglinlvzhou District residential buildings
buildings (built
(built in
in the
the period
period from
from 2000
2000 toto 2004)
2004) include
include
towers
towers and
and slab-type
slab-type apartment
apartment buildings. Some of
buildings. Some of the
the tower’s
tower’s planes
planes are
are larger
larger than
than others,
others, so
so the
the
Fenglinlvzhou District is divided into three types of simulation. The Nanshatan District
Fenglinlvzhou District is divided into three types of simulation. The Nanshatan District (built in the (built in
the period of 1980s) is divided into high-rise towers and multi-storey slab-types.
period of 1980s) is divided into high-rise towers and multi-storey slab-types. Kexueyuannanli’s Kexueyuannanli’s
residential buildings (built
residential buildings (built in
in the
the period
period ofof 1990s)
1990s) are
are divided
divided into
into mid-sized
mid-sized apartment
apartment buildings
buildings
and small-sized apartment buildings (see Figure 2). The final case area is divided into
and small-sized apartment buildings (see Figure 2). The final case area is divided into 8 categories 8 categories
(see
(see Table
Table 1),
1), and
and aa typical
typical residential
residential building is selected
building is selected for
for simulation
simulation andand analysis
analysis (see
(see Figure
Figure 3).
3).
From the basic information of 8 categories, we can see that reinforced concrete structures
From the basic information of 8 categories, we can see that reinforced concrete structures and high- and high-rise
buildings and and
rise buildings buildings withwith
buildings elevators are mostly
elevators concentrated
are mostly in constructions
concentrated afterafter
in constructions 2000.2000.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Residential
Residential building
building classification in study
classification in study area.
area.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 7 of 17

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 Table 1. Basic information of 8 selected typical buildings. 7 of 18

Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Construction Time 1980s 1980s 1990s 1990s 2000–2004
Table 1. Basic information of 8 selected typical buildings. 2000–2004 2000–2004 After 2005
construction form T SL SL SL T T SL SL
building structure RC BC BC BC RC RC RC RC
Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
floor level 22 6 6 6 33 18 10 6
Construction
elevatorTime 1980s
√ 1980s
- 1990s
- - 1990s 2000–2004
√ 2000–2004
√ 2000–2004
√ After√ 2005
number of households
construction form 308
T 48
SL 72SL 72 SL 132 T 36 T 120
SL 48
SL
building
number ofstructure
occupants RC
921 BC
129 256BC 236BC 413RC RC
113 RC
385 RC
173
floor levelsize
apartment 22
√S M6 S6 M 6 L 33
√ L 18
√ L10
√ 6
L
√
elevator
space heating -
DH/NG DH/NG DH/NG DH/NG - - DH/NG DH/NG DH/NG WSHP
number of households 308 48 72 72 132 36 120 48
space cooling DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS DCS WSHP
number of occupants 921 129 256 236 413 113 385 173
Domestic
apartment hotsize
water NGS NGM NGS NG M NG L NGL NG L NGL
Notes: T stands for tower
space heating DH/NG building;
DH/NG SL stands
DH/NG for slab-type
DH/NG building;
DH/NG RC stands
DH/NG for reinforced
DH/NG concrete
WSHP
space cooling
structure; BC stands DCS DCS
for brick-concrete DCS
structure; DCS for small-sized
S stands DCS DCS
apartment;DCS M standsWSHP
for
Domestic hot water NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG
mid-sized apartment; L stands for large-sized apartment; DH stands for district heating; NG stands
Notes: T stands for tower building; SL stands for slab-type building; RC stands for reinforced concrete structure; BC
for nature
stands gas; DCS stands
for brick-concrete forSdecentralized
structure; air conditioning;
stands for small-sized apartment; MWSHP stands
stands for for water
mid-sized source
apartment; heat
L stands
pump.
for large-sized apartment; DH stands for district heating; NG stands for nature gas; DCS stands for decentralized
air conditioning; WSHP stands for water source heat pump.

Figure 3.
Figure Typical building
3. Typical building selection
selection in
in study
study area.
area.

3.3. Real-Time
3.3. Real-Time Meteorological
Meteorological File
File
By using
By using the
the eQUEST
eQUEST Weather
Weather Format Convertor (James
Format Convertor (James J.
J. Hirsch
Hirsch &
& Associates,
Associates, Camarillo,
Camarillo, CA,
CA,
USA), these five types of meteorological data from the Olympic Centre in 2015 were converted
USA), these five types of meteorological data from the Olympic Centre in 2015 were converted from from
CSV format
CSV format files
files into
into bin
bin format
format files.
files. They
They were
were then
then imported
imported into
into the
the eQUEST
eQUEST simulation
simulation model
model
(Figure 4).
(Figure 4).
 Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 88 ofof1817

Figure 4. eQUEST Weather Convertor, Format Convertor software and converted real-time meteorological data.
Figure 4. eQUEST Weather Convertor, Format Convertor software and converted real-time
meteorological data.

3.4. Actual Energy Consumption Behaviour Schedule

We statistical calculated 6 energy usage scenarios for 8 types of residential buildings. Figure 5
showed the 6 energy usage scenarios for type 4 residential building. The cooking, appliances usage,
daily lighting, cooling and hot water supply of type 4 residential buildings was represented by a
frequency curve of 24 h, respectively, and the daily in home rate was represented by a frequency
curve of one year.

1 0.9
0.9 0.8
f appliances usage
ooking in one day

0.8 0.7
0.7 0.6
n one day

0.6 0.5
0.5 0.4
 Figure 2017,
Sustainability 4. eQUEST
9, 2245 Weather Convertor, Format Convertor software and converted real-time 9 of 18
meteorological data.

3.4.Actual
3.4. ActualEnergy
EnergyConsumption
ConsumptionBehaviour
BehaviourSchedule
Schedule
We statistical
We statistical calculated
calculated66 energy
energy usage
usage scenarios
scenariosfor
for88 types
types of
of residential
residential buildings.
buildings. Figure
Figure55
showed the 6 energy usage scenarios for type 4 residential building. The cooking, appliances
showed the 6 energy usage scenarios for type 4 residential building. The cooking, appliances usage, usage,
dailylighting,
daily lighting,cooling
coolingandandhot
hotwater
watersupply
supplyof oftype
type44 residential
residentialbuildings
buildingswas
wasrepresented
representedby byaa
frequency curve of 24 h, respectively, and the daily in home rate was represented by a
frequency curve of 24 h, respectively, and the daily in home rate was represented by a frequencyfrequency curve
of oneofyear.
curve one year.

1 0.9
0.9 0.8

Frequency of appliances usage

Frequency of cooking in one day

0.8 0.7
0.7 0.6

in one day
0.6 0.5
0.5 0.4
0.4 0.3
0.3 0.2
0.2 0.1
0.1 0
0

Mdnt-1

9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9

23-Mdnt
23-…
Mdnt-1

10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10

(a) (b)
1 1
Frequency of lighting in one day

0.9
0.8 0.8
Frequency of space cooling

0.7
0.6
in one day

0.6
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1
0 0
23-…

Mdnt-1

9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9

23-Mdnt
Mdnt-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23

(c) (d)
0.96 1.05
0.94
Frequency of hot water supply

0.92 1
Frequency of stay in home

0.90
in one year
in one day

0.88 0.95
0.86
0.84 0.9
0.82
0.80 0.85
Last ten days in May
First ten days in Jul.
Middle ten days in Jul.

Last ten days in Aug.

First ten days in Sep.

Last ten days in Sept.

First ten days in Oct.
Middle ten days in Oct.

Last ten days in Nov.

Middle ten days in Dec.

Last ten days in Jan.

First ten days in Feb.

Last ten days in Feb.

Last ten days in Mar.

First ten days in Apr.

Last ten days in Apr.

Last ten days in Jun.

First ten days in May
Middle ten days in May
Last ten days in Jul.
First ten days in Aug.
Middle ten days in Aug.

Middle ten days in Sep.

Last ten days in Oct.

First ten days in Nov.
Middle ten days in Nov.

First ten days in Dec.

Last ten days in Dec.

First ten days in JJan.
Middle ten days in Jan.

Middle ten days in Feb.

Middle ten days in Apr.

First ten days in Mar.
Middle ten days in Mar.

First ten days in Jun.

Middle ten days in Jun.

0.78
0.76
Mdnt-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21
21-22
22-23
23-Mdnt

(e) (f)
Figure
Figure5.5.Actual
ActualEnergy
EnergyConsumption
ConsumptionBehaviour
BehaviourSchedules.
Schedules.Notes:
Notes:(a)
(a)isisthe
thecooking
cookingschedule
scheduleof oftype
type
44building;
building; (b) is the appliances usage schedule of type 4 building; (c) is the daily lighting scheduleof
(b) is the appliances usage schedule of type 4 building; (c) is the daily lighting schedule of
type
type11building;
building;(d)(d)isisthe
thedaily
dailyspace
spacecooling
coolingschedule
scheduleof oftype
type44building;
building;(e) (e)isisthe
thedaily
dailydomestic
domestichot
hot
water
watersupply
supplyschedule
scheduleof oftype
type44building;
building; (f)
(f)isis the
the daily
daily in
in home
home rate
rate schedule
schedule of of type
type 44 building.
building.

3.5. eQUEST Models

The eQUEST simulation model for the construction of the 8 typical residential buildings are
carried out (see Figure 6).
 Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 9 of 17

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245

3.5. eQUEST Models 9 of 17

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 simulation model for the construction of the 8 typical residential buildings are
TheModels
eQUEST 10 of 18
3.5. eQUEST
carried out (see Figure 6).
The eQUEST simulation model for the construction of the 8 typical residential buildings are
carried out (see Figure 6).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 6. Models of 8 typical residential buildings. Notes: (a–h), respectively, show the model of type
Figure 6. Models of 8 typical residential buildings. Notes: (a–h), respectively, show the model of type 1
1 building to type 8 building.
building
(e)to type 8 building. (f) (g) (h)
3.6. Standard Coal Conversion Result
Figure 6. Models of 8 typical residential buildings. Notes: (a–h), respectively, show the model of type
3.6. Standard Coal Conversion
Through Result and energy consumption calculation, the energy consumption of
eQUEST simulation
1 building to type 8 building.
each type of residential construction unit is obtained. Among them, the energy consumption of type
Through eQUEST simulation 2 and energy consumption calculation, the energy consumption
1 to type 8 were 24.39 kgce/(m ·a), 36.58 kgce/(m2·a), 29.76 kgce/(m2·a), 30.37 kgce/(m2·a), 25.52
3.6. Standard
of eachkgce/(m
type ofCoal Conversion
residential
2·a),
Result
construction unit is obtained. Among them, the energy consumption of
25.57 kgce/(m2·a), 33.25 kgce/(m2·a), and 9.34 kgce/(m2·a). The total energy consumption
type 1Through
to type 8 were 24.39 2 ·a), 36.58 kgce/(m2 ·a), 29.76 kgce/(m2 ·a), 30.37 kgce/(m2 ·a),
eQUEST
of residential buildings inkgce/(m
simulation and
the case energy
area consumption
in 2015 calculation,
is 21,262.28 tce, the energy
and the average energyconsumption
consumption of
2 ·a), 25.57 kgce/(m
25.52 kgce/(m
per unit
each type area is 20.09
of residential kgce/(m2·a).2Separate
construction ·unit
a), 33.25 kgce/(m
from
is obtained.
2 ·a), and 9.34 kgce/(m2 ·a). The total energy
the winter
Among heating
them,part,
the the rest of
energy the consumption
consumption of type
per unit
consumption
1 to type area
of
8 were is24.39
11.17 kgce/(m
residentialkgce/(m 2·a), which is below the Beijing average energy consumption level of 19
buildings in thekgce/(m
2·a), 36.58 case area2·a),in 2015kgce/(m
29.76 is 21,262.28 tce, and
2·a), 30.37 the average
kgce/(m energy
2·a), 25.52

kgce/(m kgce/(m
consumption
2·a), based upon research by the Energy
per kgce/(m
2·a), 25.57 unit area2·a),is33.25
20.09 kgce/(m
kgce/(m ·a).Conservation
2·a),2and Separate
9.34 kgce/(m and
2·a). Research
from totalCentre
the winter
The ofconsumption
heating
energy Tsinghua
part, the rest
University in Beijing in 2009. The monthly energy consumption 2 results are shown in Figure 7.
ofofthe
residential buildings
consumption perinunit
the case
areaarea in 2015
is 11.17 kgce/(m ·a), tce,
is 21,262.28 whichandisthe average
below theenergy
Beijingconsumption
average energy
per unit area is
consumption 20.09
level of kgce/(m
19 kgce/(m 2 ·a), based
2·a). Separate from the research
upon winter heating
by thepart, the rest
Energy of the consumption
Conservation and Research
per unit
Centre ofarea is 11.17University
Tsinghua kgce/(m2·a),in which
Beijingisin
below
2009.the Beijing
The monthlyaverage energy
energy consumption
consumption levelare
results of 19
shown
kgce/(m 2·a), based upon research by the Energy Conservation and Research Centre of Tsinghua
in Figure 7.
University in Beijing in 2009. The monthly energy consumption results are shown in Figure 7.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(c) (d)

Figure 7. Cont.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 11 of 18
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 10 of 17

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 7. The simulation results of 8 typical residential buildings. Notes: (a–h), respectively, show the
model of type 1 building to type 8 building.
Figure 7. The simulation results of 8 typical residential buildings. Notes: (a–h), respectively, show the
model of type 1 building to type 8 building.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4.1. Composition and Variance Analysis of Total Energy Consumption
4.1. Composition andenergy
Of the overall Varianceconsumption
Analysis of Total Energy Consumption
structure, space heating represents the greatest annual energy
consumption per unit
Of the overall area, with
energy a proportion
consumption of 45%.space
structure, Appliance
heatingenergy consumption
represents is second,
the greatest annualwith a
energy consumption
proportion per unithot
of 20%; domestic area, withenergy
water a proportion of 45%.isAppliance
consumption third, withenergy consumption
11%; space cooling is
energy
second, with a proportion of 20%; domestic hot water energy consumption is third, with
consumption is fourth, with 9%; and elevator and cooking are 5%, respectively. In apartment buildings11%; space
cooling
with energy the
elevators, consumption
unit area of is residential
fourth, withbuilding
9%; andelevator
elevator energy
and cooking are 5%, respectively.
consumption accounted forIn7% of
apartment buildings with elevators, the unit area of residential building elevator energy consumption
the total energy consumption. Visible elevator energy consumption in residential buildings represents
aaccounted for 7% of the
certain proportion of total
energyenergy consumption.
consumption (seeVisible elevator energy consumption in residential
Table 2).
buildings represents a certain proportion of energy consumption (see Table 2).
Table 2. Annual energy consumption composition of case area and buildings with elevators.
Table 2. Annual energy consumption composition of case area and buildings with elevators.
Buildings of Case
Buildings of CaseArea
Area Buildings
Buildings with Elevators
with Elevators
Type of of
Type Energy
Energy
Consumption Annual
Annual Energy
Energy Annual
Annual Energy
Energy Proportion/%
Consumption Proportion/%
Proportion/% Proportion/%
Consumption/kgce
Consumption/kgce Consumption/kgce
Consumption/kgce
Space cooling 1,851,379 9 1,341,474 8
Space cooling 1,851,379 9 1,341,474 8
Ventilation
Ventilation fan fan 393,530
393,530 22 354,078.9
354,078.9 2 2
Water
Water pump
pump 186,186.2
186,186.2 11 117,400.8
117,400.8 1 1
Appliance
Appliance 4,227,628
4,227,628 20
20 3,395,449
3,395,449 21 21
Lighting
Lighting 505,866.7
505,866.7 22 413,266.5
413,266.5 2 2
Elevator
Elevator 1,069,895
1,069,895 55 1,069,895
1,069,895 7 7
Space
Space heating
heating 9,782,272
9,782,272 46
46 7,001,752
7,001,752 43 43
Domestic
Domestic hothot water
water 2,491,761
2,491,761 12
12 1,783,222
1,783,222 11 11
Cooking
Cooking 1,093,551
1,093,551 55 774,240.3
774,240.3 5 5
Total
Total 21,262,282
21,262,282 100
100 16,250,779
16,250,779 100 100

We identified 8 types of residential building energy use, including space heating, space cooling,
fan, water pump, appliances, lighting, domestic hot water, and cooking. We obtained the annual total
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 12 of 18

energy consumption using an SPSS analysis of variance, and we analysed the differences between the
groups (see Table 3). Because the space heating and cooling consumption is extremely different among
the seasons, the influence of a non-cooling season and a non-heating season is eliminated in the two
analyses. In this analysis, elevator energy consumption is determined in accordance with the “elevator
technical conditions” GB/T 10058-2009 Appendix A calculation, and not the simulation value. The
results showed that there was no significant difference in space cooling consumption between the
groups, and there were differences in fan energy consumption among the groups. In general, building
type has a great impact on the final energy consumption.

Table 3. Analysis of Variance.

Space Space Ventilation Domestic Total Energy

Pump Appliance Lighting Cooking
Heating Cooling Fan Hot Water Consumption
SSA 55.880 0.723 0.010 0.090 6.356 0.023 1.002 0.192 12.944
SSE 0.378 4.178 0.057 0.020 0.024 0.033 0.195 0.001 37.443
sig. 0.000 0.600 0.043 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

4.2. Comparison of Energy Consumption in Different Types of Buildings

In this part, we comparative analyzed the energy consumption in different types of buildings,
according to construction age, building height, apartment sizes, and construction forms. The type 8
(Guoaocun District, built after 2005) applied the water source heat pump system, which reduced space
heating and space cooling energy consumption much more than the natural gas district heating system,
will affect the results of the comparative analysis. Therefore, in the comparative analysis for energy
consumption per unit area according to building height, apartment sizes, and construction forms,
we exclude the type 8, and only analyzed the other 7 types residential buildings, which applied the
natural gas district heating system.

4.2.1. Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings in Different Ages

Generally, the difference in energy consumption per unit area of residential buildings during
different construction time periods is large, and the energy consumption per unit area decreases
over time. The buildings that were constructed after 2005 have a minimum energy consumption
per unit of 9.34 kgce/(m2 ·a), and the 1980s buildings have a maximum energy consumption per
unit of 30.52 kgce/(m2 ·a). The 1980s and 1990s building heating unit area energy consumption was
25.07 kgce/(m2 ·a) and 14.92 kgce/(m2 ·a), which is higher than the average value of Beijing city civil
building heating energy consumption in 2014, at 13.9 kgce/(m2 ·a) [43]. Buildings that were built in the
1990s, the period from 2000 through 2004, and after 2005 have heating energy savings of 14.1%, 26.2%,
76%, respectively, compared to the heating energy consumption of buildings that were built in the
1980s. The building energy consumption is greatly reduced in the buildings that were built after 2000,
which is related to the upgrading of the building structure and the change of heating form. The hot
water energy minimum was in the 1980s buildings, at 1.13 kgce/(m2 ·a), followed by the 2000 building,
at 2.49 kgce/(m2 ·a), and the highest were the buildings that were built in the 1990s, at 4.24 kgce/(m2 ·a).
In addition, the unit area of space cooling and cooking consumption is influenced by the age of the
building. The 1980s and 1990s building exterior wall insulation performance is poor, and the space
cooling energy consumption is higher than the 2000–2004 buildings, and the buildings that were built
after 2005 had lower space cooling energy consumption due to the use of water source heat pump
centralized space cooling. Cooking gas is more affected by user behaviour.

4.2.2. Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Heights

The residential buildings in the study area are divided into two types according to the height of
the buildings. They are high-rise buildings (more than 10 floors) and multi-storey buildings (between
3 and 6 floors). These structures appear to correspond to the reinforced concrete structure and the brick
 Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 13 of 18

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 12 of 17

and concrete structure buildings in Figure 8. The overall energy consumption differences between
brick andtypes
the two concrete structure
of building buildings
is small, in 1.27
at only Figure 8. The2 ·a).
kgce/(m overall energy
The total consumption
energy consumption differences
per unit
between the two types of building is small, at only 1.27 kgce/(m 2 ·a). The total energy
area of the high-rise buildings was lower than the energy consumption in multi-story buildings by 4%. consumption
per unit area
High-rise of theshowed
buildings high-risegoodbuildings
structural was lower than
insulation the energy
performance consumption
because they are 22%in multi-story
more energy
buildings byspace
efficient in 4%. High-rise
heating, 16%buildings showedingood
more efficient spacestructural insulation
cooling, and 37% moreperformance
efficient inbecause
domesticthey
hot
are 22% more energy efficient in space heating, 16% more efficient in space cooling,
water energy consumption compared with multi-storey buildings. However, high-rise buildings per and 37% more
efficient
unit areainof
domestic hot appliance
household water energy consumption
energy compared
consumption is 7.26 with
kgce/(mmulti-storey buildings.
2 ·a), which However,
is 53% higher than
high-rise buildings per unit area of household appliance energy consumption
that in multi-storey buildings. Elevator energy consumption accounted for 7% of high-rise buildingsis 7.26 kgce/(m 2·a),

which is 53%
per unit areahigher thanconsumption.
of energy that in multi-storey buildings.
To reduce such Elevator energy consumption
energy consumption, accounted
the high-rise for
building
7% of high-rise buildings per unit area of energy consumption.
relative to the multi-storey building energy savings per unit area is 11%. To reduce such energy consumption,
the high-rise building relative to the multi-storey building energy savings per unit area is 11%.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure
Figure8.8.Different
Differenttypes
typesofofbuildings
buildingsper
perunit
unitarea
areaofofdifferent
differentsources
sourcesofofenergy
energyconsumption
consumption
comparison
comparison (a) Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings in Ages;
(a) Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings in Different (b)
Different
Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Heights;
Ages; (b) Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Heights; (c) Comparison
of(c)Energy Consumption
Comparison of Energyof Residential
Consumption Buildings with Different
of Residential Building
Buildings Structures;
with Different (d) Comparison
Building Structures;
of(d)
Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Apartment sizes;
Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Apartment(e) Comparison of
sizes;
Energy Consumption
(e) Comparison of Residential
of Energy Buildings
Consumption with Different
of Residential Construction
Buildings Forms.
with Different Construction Forms.

4.2.3. Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Apartment sizes
According to the building interior units, the residential buildings in the case study area are
divided into three types of building: small-sized apartment buildings (apartment area is less than 60
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 14 of 18

4.2.3. Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Apartment sizes
According to the building interior units, the residential buildings in the case study area are
divided into three types of building: small-sized apartment buildings (apartment area is less than
60 m2 ), medium-sized apartment buildings (apartment area is between 60 and 120 m2 ), and large-sized
apartment buildings (apartment area is more than 120 m2 ). Among them, small-sized apartment
buildings have the lowest energy consumption per unit area of 29.02 kgce/(m2 ·a), and medium-sized
apartment buildings’ energy consumption per area is the highest, at 32.32 kgce/(m2 ·a). Some of
the recent research has shown that small-sized apartments are more energy efficient, and the state
has published policy terms to encourage small apartment buildings. However, large-sized buildings
in the case study area showed more energy reduction in space cooling (18%), space heating (7%)
and domestic hot water (14%) than the small-sized buildings. This may be because the large-sized
apartment buildings in the case study area were constructed later and have more energy-efficient
exterior structures. In addition, there is an average of 0.02 people per unit area in large-sized apartment
buildings, whereas the number in small-sized ones is 0.05. Occupants in small-sized apartment
buildings are more intensive, so is the energy use. In the Kexueyuannanli District, the buildings were
constructed during the same time period, and their external maintenance structures are similar. The
small-sized apartment buildings save 2% of all energy consumption and have a lower space heating
energy consumption than the medium-sized apartment buildings at 15%.

4.2.4. Comparison of Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings with Different Construction Forms

The residential buildings in the study area are divided into two main types of slab-type building
and towers. Overall, the total annual energy consumption per unit area of towers is lower than that
of slab-type buildings by 15%. Based on the composition of the energy consumption, towers’ annual
space cooling, space heating and appliance energy consumption per unit area of energy consumption
are 72%, 63% and 69%, respectively, compared to the slab-type buildings. However, towers have
abundant orientations, and the number of north- and west-oriented rooms accounted for a relatively
large proportion. Therefore, space cooling and heating energy demand more, and energy consumption
should be relatively high. In the Fenglinlvzhou District, the space heating energy consumption per unit
area in slab-type buildings (type 4) is 11.95 kgce/(m2 ·a), which is relatively less than that in towers,
which is 12.46 kgce/(m2 ·a) (type 2) and 12.90 kgce/(m2 ·a) (type 3), respectively.

4.3. Analysis of Household Energy Impact Variables in Residential Buildings in Case Area
The impact of energy consumption in residential buildings usually involves household income,
household conditions, building conditions, lifestyle, household appliances and energy-saving concept.
This study select the per capita income, resident population, construction age, residential floor, and so
on, from the six aspects. The correlation of these variables to the energy consumption of households in
residential buildings are analyzed. Household energy consumption is calculated by eQUEST energy
consumption simulation of all types of residential buildings per unit area (Table 4).
19 selected factors that affect household energy consumption are shown in Table 3. Semi-parametric
treatment was made for building height (BH), building structure (BS), architectural form (AF), internal
unit (IU) and construction age (CA). For BH, the high-rise building is assigned to 1, multi-storey building
assignment 2; for BC, the concrete building is assigned to 1, brick and concrete structure is assigned to 2;
for AF, the tower building is assigned to 1, floor building is assigned to 2 ; for CA, the construction after
2005 is assigned to 1, the 2000–2004 construction is assigned to 2, the 1990s construction assignment
to 3, the 1980s construction assignment to 4; for IU, the large-sized apartment is assigned to 1, the
medium-sized apartment is assigned to 2, the small-sized apartment is assigned to 3.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 15 of 18

A stepwise linear regression analysis was performed using SPSS20.0. The final model variables
are internal units, building height, per capita building area, the number of residents, length of power
use five variables. The R2 of the model is 0.949 and the Sig value is 0.000, which proves that the model
has high accuracy and the result of regression is feasible (Table 5).

Table 4. Influencing Variables.

Item Variable Symbol Variable Declaration Unit

Resident per capita
Household income Per capita income PCI Yuan per capita
net income
Household Number of
Number of residents NR person
condition family residents
Building height BH Height of the buildings Semi-parametric
The structure of
Building structure BS Semi-parametric
the building
Architectural form AF The form of the building Semi-parametric
Building condition
Internal Unit IU The size of internal unit Semi-parametric
The construction age of
Construction age CA Semi-parametric
the building
Per capita possession of
Per capita building area PCA Square meter
the building area
Floor number FN Living floor number Floor
Summer air Summer air conditioning
SAC Hour
conditioning strategy daily cooling time
The number of
NWC Weekly cooking times Time
weekly cooking
Lifestyle Hot water supply strategy Hot water daily supply
HWW Hour
in winter time in winter
Hot water supply strategy Hot water daily supply
HWS Hour
in summer time in summer
Hot water supply strategy Hot water daily supply
HWSA Hour
in spring and autumn time in spring and autumn
Number of air Number of air
NAC Unit
Household conditioners conditioners
appliance Number of televisions NT Number of televisions Unit
Number of computers NC Number of computers Unit
The proportion of energy
Energy-saving Energy saving lamp ratio ESL saving lamp out of Percentage
concept total lamp
The amount of time spent
Length of power use PU Hour
on power use each day

Table 5. Model Summary.

Adjusted Std. Error of the Change Statistics Durbin

R R2 R2 Estimate Watson
R2 Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change
0.974 0.949 0.948 1301.62688 0.002 13.846 1 421 0.000 1.317
Predictors: (Constant), IU, BH, PCA, NR, PU.

From Table 6, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 16 of 18

Table 6. Coefficients.

Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity

Correlations
Variable Coefficients Coefficients t Sig. Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Zero−Order Partial Part Tolerance VIF
IU −4433.415 167.628 −0.737 −26.448 0.000 −0.954 −0.790 −0.292 0.157 6.384
BH −1927.197 174.641 −0.152 −11.035 0.000 0.219 −0.474 −0.122 0.644 1.553
PCA 72.552 6.682 0.308 10.857 0.000 0.827 0.468 0.120 0.151 6.611
NR 853.120 107.631 0.140 7.926 0.000 0.162 0.360 0.087 0.389 2.574
PU 40.809 10.967 0.047 3.721 0.000 0.042 0.178 0.041 0.776 1.289
(Constant) 17,061.611 944.149 18.071 0.000
Dependent Variable: Energy consumption.

According to the building condition item, the internal units, building height, and per capita
construction area were inputted into the model. The internal unit for the residential building energy
consumption is a negative impact, indicating that the smaller the units, the less the energy consumption
of the family, because the small apartment building is relatively compact; building height for the family
energy consumption is a negative impact, indicating that the high-rise building relatively multi-storey
building energy consumption is less, because the high-rise building shape coefficient is smaller; per
capita building area was positively correlated, indicating that the larger the per capita construction
area, the higher the energy consumption, the greater the area of heating and cooling.
From the household condition, the number of occupants entered the final model. The number
of residents is the positive factor, indicating that the more people living there, the greater the family
energy consumption, because the greater the number of residents, the more intensive the use of energy,
and the greater the need for household electricity and gas use.
From the energy-saving concept, the length of power use entered the final model. Power
consumption and the final carbon dioxide emissions were positively correlated, indicating that the
longer the use of household appliances, the more will be the energy consumption of the family.
Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the residents of the energy-saving education to make the
occupants consciously reduce the unnecessary use of household appliances.

5. Conclusions
This study used eQUEST software to simulate the energy consumption of 8 types of residential
buildings. To improve the simulation accuracy, real-time meteorological data based on field observation
and actual energy consumption behaviour schedule were imported. Buildings in different construction
age, different building height, different architecture forms, different apartment sizes were compared
and a stepwise regression was used to calculate the main household energy impact variables. The
following conclusions are summarized.
Residential buildings built in 1980s and 1990s in the case area consume more energy in space
heating and cooling, and they need further energy-saving transformation. Water source heat pumps
used in Guoaocun district had better energy-saving performance, and are suitable for residential
applications throughout the study area. From the household and unit area energy consumption
comparison point of view, the energy consumption per unit area in small-sized and high-rise buildings
are lower. We recommend that small-sized units should be applied to normal apartment buildings and
large-sized units should be applied to elite housing. Different energy price policies should be enacted
to them. It is worth noting that high-rise building elevator energy consumption accounted for 5% of
the total energy consumption in the case area. Therefore, small-sized high-rise apartment buildings
should be encouraged to constructed appropriately and energy-saving strategies are required for
public space in residential buildings. Household appliances accounted for second-largest proportion
of total energy consumption, and the length of power use is one of most important impact variables of
household energy consumption. Therefore, the application of energy-saving household appliances
and the cultivation of good electricity habits is very important.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2245 17 of 18

Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the Natural Science Foundation Projects ‘The Process and
Influence Mechanism of Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Different Areas of Beijing Based on Flux Footprint’
(No. 41771182), and ‘Micro-scale research on stimulation and optimal regulation of carbon emission process in
typical function area of metropolis’ (No. 41271186).
Author Contributions: Yu Li and Chen Xu designed the research method; Yu Li and Chen Xu carried out the
questionnaire survey; Yu Li, Chen Xu and Hao Cheng wrote the paper; Chen Xu and Xueting Jin analyzed the
data; Chen Xu and Liang Yuan established the simulation models.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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