POST-WORLD WAR II MASCULiNiTiES

iN BRiTiSH AND AmERiCAN

LiTERATURE AND CULTURE
This page has been left blank intentionally
Post-World War II Masculinities
in British and American
Literature and Culture
Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies

Edited by

STEFAN HORLACHER
Dresden University of Technology, Germany

and

KEViN FLOYD
Kent State University, USA
ROUTLEDGE

Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2 013 by Ashgate Publishing
Published 2016 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © Stefan Horlacher, Kevin Floyd and the contributors 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

Stefan Horlacher and Kevin Floyd have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the editors of this work.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows:

Post-World War II masculinities in British and American literature and culture: towards
comparative masculinity studies / edited by Stefan Horlacher and Kevin Floyd.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4094-6598-0 (hardcover: alk. paper)
1. English literature—20th century—History and criticism. 2. American literature—20th
century—History and criticism. 3. Masculinity in literature. 4. Literature and society—
England—History—20th century. 5. Literature and society—United States—History—20th
century. I. Horlacher, Stefan, editor of compilation. II. Floyd, Kevin, editor of compilation.
PR478.M34P67 2014
820.9’353—dc23
2013012949
ISBN 9781409465980 (hbk)

Excerpts from The Diary of a Rapist by Evan S. Connell. Reprinted by permission of Don
Congdon Associates, Inc. ©1966, renewed 1994 by Evan S. Connell, Jr.
 Contents

Notes on Editors and Contributors   vii

1 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies: On the Interdependence

of National Identity and the Construction of Masculinity   1
Stefan Horlacher
2 The Early Cold Warrior on Screen: An All-Purpose Signifier?   15
Kathleen Starck
3 The Flexible Mr. Ripley: Noir Historicism and Post-War Transnational
Masculinity in Patricia Highsmith’s The Talented Mr. Ripley   35
Elizabeth A. Hatmaker and Christopher Breu
4 “And I Mean Is It Any Wonder All the Men End up Emasculated?”
Post-War Masculinities in Richard Yates’s Revolutionary Road and
John Braine’s Room at the Top   55
Claudia Falk
5 The Colors of Masculinity: Gender and the Camera from Sixties
Street Photographers to Paul Graham and Martin Parr   69
Christoph Ribbat
6 Accounting for a Crisis—A Transatlantic Analysis of Male First-Person
Narratives: Martin Amis’s Money versus Evan S. Connell’s The Diary
of a Rapist   85
Erik Pietschmann
7 Anxious Men: Male Friendships and Domesticity in James Dickey’s
Deliverance   101
Lisa Felstead
8 ‘Cubism’ as Intersectionalism: John Berger’s Figures of Masculinity   113
Dirk Wiemann
9 “It’s One Hell of a Mess in Here”: Masculinity, the Myth of the
Frontier, and the Renunciation of the Mother in Arthur Miller’s
Death of a Salesman, David Mamet’s American Buffalo, and
Sam Shepard’s True West   129
Christa Grewe-Volpp
10 Constructions of Masculinity in Philip Roth’s Portnoy’s Complaint,
Frank Chin’s The Chickencoop Chinaman, and Ishmael Reed’s
Flight to Canada   143
Angelika Köhler
vi Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

11 Gendered and Racialized: Reclaiming Chinese American Masculinities

since the 1970s   159
Mirjam M. Frotscher

Index   175
 Notes on Editors and Contributors

Christopher Breu is Associate Professor of English at Illinois State University

where he teaches courses on cultural and critical theory, American literature,
American popular culture, gender, and sexuality. In the fall of 2011 he was the
Fulbright Research Chair in Globalization and Cultural Studies at McMaster
University. He is the author of Hard-Boiled Masculinities (U of Minnesota P, 2005)
and Insistence of the Material: Literature in the Age of Biopolitics (forthcoming,
U of Minnesota P, 2014).

Claudia Falk is currently working on her dissertation with the working title
“Concepts of Masculinity in the English Novel since the 1950s.” She completed
her MA in English, German, and History of Art at Ruprecht-Karls-University
Heidelberg in 2007. From 2007 to 2009 she was the personal assistant to the Vice-
Rector for International Affairs, Prof. Dr. Vera Nünning, at the rectorate of the
University of Heidelberg. Since September 2009 she has been in charge of Prof.
Nünning’s office at the English Department. Claudia Falk has published articles on
crime fiction and works as a freelance contributor to the Arts and Culture section
of the Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung Heidelberg.

Lisa Felstead is currently working on her doctoral thesis which is provisionally

entitled “The Violent Protection of the Homosocial: Male Friendships in Post-
War American Literature” at the University of Portsmouth. Her thesis examines
the representation of male friendships and violence in American fiction written
after the Second World War. Lisa was recently a co-organizer of a postgraduate
conference at the University of Portsmouth which took place in May 2010, entitled
“Framing the Self: Anxieties of Identity in Literature and Culture, 1800 to the
present day.” She also gave a paper entitled “James Dickey’s Deliverance and
Homosocial Desire” at the British Association for American Studies Conference
(BAAS) in April 2010.

Kevin Floyd is associate professor of English at Kent State University, Ohio,

where he teaches courses in twentieth-century literature and culture of the United
States, Marxist theory, gender studies, and queer studies. He is a 2009 Fulbright
recipient and the author of The Reification of Desire: Toward a Queer Marxism (U
of Minnesota P, 2009), as well as of articles in journals including Works and Days,
Social Text, Science and Society, Cultural Critique, and Rethinking Marxism.

Mirjam M. Frotscher received her MA in American Studies from Dresden

University of Technology in 2010. She is currently working on her doctoral thesis,
provisionally entitled “Re/presentation and Visibility of Trans* Characters in US
American and British Contemporary Fiction.” She has published two articles
dealing with female representation in German academia. Her research interests
viii Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

include queer theory, postcolonial studies, diaspora and transnational writing,

gender b(l)ending in contemporary art, and intersectionality.

Christa Grewe-Volpp received her PhD in American Studies from the University
of Heidelberg in 1983, after which she held teaching positions in Constance,
Heidelberg, and Mannheim. In 1997 she received the Margarete von Wrangell
Stipend in order to complete her habilitation dissertation “‘Natural Spaces Mapped
by Human Minds’: An eco critical and eco feminist analysis of contemporary
American novels” (transl.) in 2002. Since 2004, Christa has held a permanent
teaching position at the University of Mannheim, where she also received the title
apl. Prof. in 2005. Her research interests focus on eco-criticism and eco-feminism,
minority literature of the US, and US American poetry. Her most recent publication
is Words on Water: Literary and Cultural Representations, a study she co-edited
with Maureen Devine.

Elizabeth Hatmaker is an Instructional Assistant Professor at Illinois State

University, where she teaches courses in urban studies, twentieth-century
popular culture, working-class studies, and film. Her recent book Girl in Two
Pieces (2010), a collection of poetry and essays about the 1947 “Black Dahlia”
murder, was nominated for a 2010 Los Angeles Times Book Award. Elizabeth has
published various articles, reviews, and creative work in ACM, Bird Dog, Epoch,
Language and Learning Across the Disciplines, Pedagogy, Mandorla, Mipoesias,
Mirage/Periodical, Mississippi Review, Social Epistemology, and in Brian Pera
and Masha Tupitsyn’s Life as We Show It: Writing on Film (2009). She is currently
working on “OST,” a collection of poems about sound technology and cult cinema.

Stefan Horlacher is Chair of English Literature at Dresden University of

Technology. He holds degrees from Mannheim University and from the University
of Paris IV (Sorbonne), and was visiting scholar at Cornell University, at Kent State
University, and at the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. He
has published widely on English literature as well as on masculinity studies and
gender studies, media studies, psychoanalysis, and theories of the comic. His latest
monograph, Conceptions of Masculinity in the Works of Thomas Hardy and D.H.
Lawrence (Narr, 2006, in German), won the Postdoctoral Award of the German
Association of Professors of English. He is co-editor of the International Journal of
Sociology and Anthropology, of a book series on gender, literature, and culture with
Leipzig University Press, and corresponding editor of Men & Masculinities. He
has, among other books, edited Constructions of Masculinity in British Literature
from the Middle Ages to the Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), Constructions
of Gender from an Interdisciplinary and Diachronic Perspective (Königshausen
& Neumann 2010, in German), and co-edited Transgression and Taboo in British
Literature from the Renaissance to the Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010) as
well as Gender and Laughter: Comic Affirmation and Subversion in Traditional
and Modern Media (Rodopi, 2009).
 Notes on Editors and Contributors ix

Angelika Köhler has been teaching American Literature at Dresden University

of Technology since 1993. She wrote her dissertation on the poetry of Robert
Lowell and is the author of Ambivalent Desires: The New Woman Between Social
Modernization and Modern Writing. Her recent academic work focuses on turn-
of-the-century American literature and postcolonial writing.

Erik Pietschmann completed his studies in English and History in 2009 at

Eberhard Karls University in Tübingen. Here he worked as an assistant to Prof. Dr.
Horst Tonn in the Department of American Studies. He is currently working on his
doctoral thesis entitled “Masculinity under Pressure: An Analysis of Male First-
Person Narratives” which aims at a presentation of how masculinity is dealt with
and appears in narratives from Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe to Bret Easton
Ellis’s American Psycho. His research interests are gender and masculinity studies
as well as narratology and poststructuralist and deconstructive theory.

Christoph Ribbat is Professor of American Studies at the University of Paderborn.

He joined the department after holding teaching positions at the University of
Basel, the University of Bonn, and the University of Bochum. He has published
numerous articles and books on photography and cultural history, the most recent
being a history of neon lights titled Flackernde Moderne: Die Geschichte des
Neonlichts (2011) and “‘On the Life of My Child, I Waved’: David Bowie as
Snapshot,” in A Star Is Born: Photography and Rock since Elvis (2010). He
has also served as editor of various publications such as Twenty-First Century
Fiction: Essays, Readings, Conversations (2005). His research interests include
contemporary literature, American photography, cultural history, nonfiction, and
literary journalism.

Kathleen Starck is Professor of Cultural Studies at the University of Koblenz-

Landau, Campus Landau. Her research interests include Cold War cultures,
gender/masculinity studies, postcolonial studies, contemporary drama, as well
as post-socialism. She received her PhD at Bremen University for her thesis on
contemporary British women’s drama. She has served as guest lecturer at various
European universities, including Lodz University, Poland, and Nottingham Trent
University, UK. Besides having published numerous articles, she has recently
edited the collection of essays When the World Turned Upside-Down: Cultural
Representations of Post-1989 Eastern Europe and the collection of essays Between
Fear and Freedom: Cultural Representations of the Cold War.

Dirk Wiemann is Professor of English Literature at the University of Potsdam.

He held teaching positions at CIEFL Hyderabad (1998–2000), at the University
of Delhi (2000–2001), at the University of Magdeburg (2001–2006), and at the
University of Tübingen (2006–2008). His research interests include postcolonial
studies, seventeenth-century English radicalism, transnational cinema, secularism
and post-secularism, and theories of modernity. His recent publications include
Genres of Modernity: Contemporary Indian Novels in English (Rodopi 2008); the
x Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

co-edited volumes Global Fragments: (Dis-)Orientation in the New World Order

(Rodopi 2007); and Discourses of Violence – Violence of Discourses (Lang 2006).
He has also published numerous articles on British and Indian cinema, on John
Milton and Thomas Hobbes, on republican theater in the period of Cromwell, on
the cultural afterlives of the English Civil War, and on Indian writing in English.
 Chapter 1
Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies:
On the Interdependence of National Identity
and the Construction of Masculinity
Stefan Horlacher

In a widely discussed article on the concept of masculinity published in 2005, two

prominent scholars, Raewyn Connell and James W. Messerschmidt, called for a
more sustained geographical consideration of masculinities; that is, for an analysis
that can account for the ways in which masculinities are defined simultaneously
in local, national, and global terms. Thus, masculinities should be studied at a
number of different analytical levels, ranging from the most narrowly location-
oriented and culturally specific to the most global. If Connell and Messerschmidt’s
article is an important call for scholarly movement in a direction that both builds
on recent work in the field of masculinity studies and moves past it, towards a
larger, comparative analysis, this is exactly the direction which the research
project “Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies: A Transatlantic Analysis of
the Literary Production of National Masculinities in Great Britain and the United
States,” of which this volume is one of the first results, has taken right from the
start.1
Obviously, the articles offered in this collection can only be the very first step
towards the overall goal of creating a larger analytical framework within which
it is possible to understand the wider contexts not only for the intense cultural
differentiation of masculinities but also for their commonalities. If masculinity
is by no means a singular phenomenon, this does not mean that there are no
features that at least some of these highly varied masculinities share. But even
in the United States, Great Britain, and Australia, where research in this area is
most advanced, any sustained dialectical sense that differences and commonalities
exist simultaneously, intersecting the multiple proliferating masculinities, remains
absent. Since Connell has remarked that “the most popular books” that engage
these questions “are packed with muddled thinking which either ignores or distorts
the results of the growing research on the issues” (1995, ix), one should emphasize

1
This four-year research project (2009–2013) was funded by the Alexander von
Humboldt-Foundation, Kent State University and Dresden University of Technology. Parts
of this introduction are co-authored with Kevin Floyd, whom I would like to thank. I would
also like to thank Mirjam Frotscher, MA, for her precious help in editing the manuscript and
creating the index.
2 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

that any masculinity studies approach that automatically prioritizes differences

while ignoring shared features that transverse differences—as has been the norm
for well over a decade now—is as one-sided as the long-outdated monolithic
notion of masculinity.
Therefore, it is necessary to take seriously the general emphasis on similarities
or (generic) correspondences in early masculinity studies, while also accounting
for multicultural or hybrid masculinities, precisely in order to move beyond—to
build upon rather than simply diverge from—the relentlessly particularizing focus
of so much recent research in this area. These culturally differentiated masculinities
should not be understood as simply incommensurate with each other, but as
operating in relation to each other, so that difference and commonality should
be thought of together and a method developed that can account for both. Across
the wide plurality of differentiated masculinities, there are important common
denominators which should be taken into account, such as, to name but a few,
masculinity’s status as an identity that takes a narrative or textual form, as a specific
subject position in relation to the symbolic order, as a psychic or mental structure,
and as a form or structure of experience and possibility (Ermöglichungsstruktur)
that is culturally conditioned, distinctly embodied but not essentialist (cf. Merleau-
Ponty 94).2
The aim of the articles presented in this volume is to offer at least a first step
towards a critical transatlantic analysis of the literary and cultural production
of national masculinities in the United States and Great Britain, comparing the
ways in which (not only) hegemonic masculinities have to be understood in
relation to their varied national and transnational Others between World War II
and the late 1980s under Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. While most of
the research already done in the field of masculinity studies has tended to focus
either indiscriminately on masculinities in general, on masculinities in a national
context, or on masculinities in the context of the works of canonized authors,3 the
articles gathered here attempt to examine the ways in which, in Great Britain and
the United States, the cultural and especially literary production of masculinities
is mediated, among other things, by the national, in other words, how masculine
identity and national identity mutually inform each other. The choice of these
poles of comparison is determined by the fact that in Great Britain and the United
States the proliferation of differentiated masculinities has become increasingly
evident during the post-World War II period for specifically national and trans-

2
See Merleau-Ponty, who “identifies the body as being subject to a constant
dynamics because of continual processes of interchange with its environment. As a nexus of
a broad spectrum of sentient dynamics, the body cannot possibly be the site of essentialist
determinacy” (Meinig 294).
3
For examples, see the monographs on authors such as John Fowles (Woodcock),
Henry James (Cannon; Person 2003), William Shakespeare (Wells; Smith; MacFaul 2007;
Howell 2008), Conrad (Roberts), Ernest Hemingway (Strychacz), Thomas Hardy and D.H.
Lawrence (Horlacher 2006a), or Samuel Beckett (Jeffers).
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 3

national reasons, for example global patterns of migration and the emergence of
‘new’ subaltern subjects demanding social, cultural, and political recognition.
By understanding the larger context for the emergence of more plural, culturally
differentiated and ultimately transnational masculinities, and by highlighting the
mediating factor of national difference within this broader horizon, we intend
to overcome the deficits of traditional masculinity studies and to conceptualize
and emphasize difference and commonality simultaneously. This emphasis is
particularly important where masculinity is viewed as having a largely discursive,
textual or narrative relational identity and as consisting of a complex and dynamic
subject position that has a specific relation to patriarchal power structures and to
the symbolic order (cf. Horlacher 2006a, 25–126, and 2010, 195–238).
This volume examines not only how different forms of national identity in
Great Britain and the United States have influenced the construction of masculinity
in these countries, but also how (often alternative) constructions of masculinity
have influenced the very construction of national identity itself, potentially leading
to a renegotiation of what it means to be English, British or American. While
emphasizing the centrality of racial and ethnic differences to this project, it is
also necessary to ask how colonial and postcolonial histories inform the literary
production of masculinity in the form of national identity, a form of identity that
underwent parallel, though not identical, crises in Great Britain and the United
States in the decades following World War II. How, one should ask, do new, post-
World War II forms of national and masculine identities in Great Britain and
the United States reconstruct imagined national pasts (cf. Assmann; Anderson;
Hobsbawm) in ways which retain force in the distinctive environment in which
global hegemony appears to have passed from Great Britain to the United States?
Central to this research project is (a) the material inseparability of two
categories which must, at the same time, be analytically separated—that is,
masculine identity and national identity—as well as (b) the premise that textual
narrative (in its widest sense) has to be understood as pivotal to the very formation
of identity itself and that any production of narrative identity is always also
a performance of that identity. It seems that in a situation in which frames of
reference constantly change, a coherent concept of self can, over time, only be
accomplished through discourse and, specifically, with the help of narrative forms
(cf. Kimminich xv–xvi; Schmidt 378–97). Moreover, identity should be regarded
as fluid (cf. Kristeva; Ermarth; Braidotti) and as adapting to diachronic changes by
constantly reinterpreting past events in view of the future.
If John R. Gillis argues that “[i]dentities and memories are not things we think
about, but things we think with” (5), it is important to realize that both are subject
to unconscious narrative frames which do not answer to truth but primarily control
the coherence of stories (cf. Rusch 374; Schmidt 388), making sure that these
function as assurances of con­sistent concepts of self. From this it follows that the
formation of identity should be understood as “the results of negotiations which
are intended to create some kind of coherence despite inherent fragmentari­ness,
discontinuity and difference” (Korte and Müller 15; see also Anderson 11f.).
4 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

On a collective and more abstract level, these allegedly homogeneous identities

function as a continual historic remembrance and repetition of seemingly timeless
traditions and myths in order to create a bulwark against relentless historical
changes (cf. Kimminich xvf.; Glomb 21). This is especially so in the case of national
identity, given that one of the central tenets unifying the otherwise highly diverse
scholarship on this topic (cf. Gellner; Hobsbawm; Nairn; Lloyd; Berlant) is that
the emergence of novels, and print media more generally, has been central to the
formation of modern national identity. If, for Benedict Anderson, the emergence
of the print newspaper and novel genres, which share a distinctly narrative form, is
central to the emergence of national identification as “an imagined community,” for
Etienne Balibar, more recently, nationalism is the product of a certain normalized,
distinctly textual articulation of ethnic identity, a form of linguistic standardization
imposed through schooling, for example.
An understanding of the concept of nation as a narrative form which
transforms “fatality into continuity” and “contingency into meaning” (Anderson
11) makes it possible to emphasize the structural affinities between national and
gendered identity on the one hand (cf. Horlacher 2006b, 48ff.), and literature and
imagination on the other (cf. Taylor 213; Freiburg 225). As masculinity has also
been widely under­stood in the scholarly literature as a set of cultural and textual
practices that normalize the body and psyche as masculine, one of the aims of
this volume is to inquire how literary texts produce and perform gender identity
as much as they produce national identity. One could therefore ask whether the
production by literary texts of national and masculine identity together is not one
of the defining characteristics of the post-war literary landscape in Great Britain
and the United States. After all, national identity is formed within the novel (as
a genre par excellence of individual, subjective interiority) with reference to
individual protagonists who negotiate national identification as always potentially
in conflict with their own distinctive, individual experience (cf. Brennan).
Moreover, the identification with—or, in Lacanian terms, misrecognition of—
nationally accepted forms of masculinity (such as empire builders, self-made men
or frontiersmen) allows individuals to flee their individuality, i.e. the burden of
taking responsibility by constructing their own identity.
Even if the problematization of national identity premised on masculine
agency through the consecutive emergence of class, gender, and ethnic discourses
provides the broad pattern in the post-war period in both Great Britain and the
United States, literary discourses still remain a privileged site for registering
patriarchy’s “loss of legitimacy” and how “different groups of men are now
negotiating this loss in very different ways” (Connell 2002, 257). Critics such as
Mark Stein have even argued that Black British texts, for example, have a special
performative function, i.e. that they not only portray the ‘coming of age’ (in the
sense of the bildungs­roman) of their second- or third-generation immigrant male
protagonists, but also influence and shape the very culture and country they are
part of. Novels such as Hanif Kureishi’s The Buddha of Suburbia (1990) or Diran
Adebayo’s Some Kind of Black (1996) do not merely reflect, but actively intervene
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 5

in the transformation of a contemporary British culture increasingly under the

influence of ‘outsiders within’. This performative function of literature allows for
a variety of new male subject positions which become available through their
very conception while the novels themselves serve as “machine[s] of cultural …
re-production” leading via “a crucial literary stocktaking from new perspectives”
to “the redefinition of ‘Britishness’ and the modification of the image of Britain by
way of the novel” (Stein 94).
Therefore, this volume proposes to examine the ways in which national
masculinity is produced through narrative in at least two different but closely
related senses. First, in order to develop, both gendered and national identity
assume an imagined, retrospectively posited narrative form: a founding myth
(cf. Assmann; Hobsbawm) in the sense of a coherent cultural and/or ethnic past,
powerful enough to unify otherwise different, even divergent, social subjects
under the umbrella of national identity (see Julian Barnes’s novel England,
England). Second, both of these forms of identity are themselves the distinctly
modern product of the emergence of entirely new narrative forms, the novel form
in particular, but also other art and media forms.4
Thus the production of national identity takes a per­sistently narrative form, while
also being itself the historically specific product of distinct kinds of narrative texts;
important examples would include texts that take unified national or masculine
narratives for granted, such as the powerful US narrative of the open frontier, of
the so-called settlement of the West. This retrospectively posited story of national
unity, which ideologically reunifies divergent and dispersed social subjects within
an “imagined community” of national manhood, must constantly be reproduced
within entirely new historical and media contexts.5 However, if narrative texts
actively contribute to the ongoing cultural norm of a coherent, stable sense of
national masculinity, it is also the privilege of literature to closely question and
deconstruct these very concepts in order to testify to their fluidity and mutability.

4
In order to demonstrate the generalizability of the results we expect to achieve, it is
important to consider the status and functioning of literature as a repository of culturally and
socially relevant knowledge and hence as a privileged medium of analysis. Thus literature
is understood as a phenomenon that (a) actively shapes extra-textual reality, (b) constitutes
a central part of that “larger symbolic order by which a culture imagines its relation to
the conditions of its existence” (Matus 5; see also Vosskamp 73), (c) “exposes as well as
delineates ideologies, opening the web of power relations for inspection,” (d) constitutes a
space “in which shared anxieties and tensions are articulated and symbolically addressed”
(Matus 7), (e) holds a savoir littéraire which transcends any purely socio­logical, political,
or historical analysis (cf. Horlacher 2004; 2008), and (f) represents a privileged space of
simulation where the work it performs on a broader cultural imaginary can be analyzed (cf.
Fluck 7–29; Horlacher 2006b and 2008).
5
One example of the reproduction of the US frontier narrative as a distinctly
masculine one would be the post-war US plays of Sam Shepard. The reconsiderations
of traditional US narratives of masculine heroism in the fiction of Jack Kerouac or Don
DeLillo are additional, if less immediately obvious examples.
6 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

To give just one example of the transitoriness of these concepts: if already in the
first place there was “no smooth acceptance of the Empire as an integral part of
English national identity,” and if “the fiction of the true-born Englishman had
to be exchanged for the fiction of the British imperialist” (Nünning 220), the
breaking up of the Empire, decolonization, the ‘voyage in’ and devolution have
led to the re-emergence of old as well as to the creation of new and different types
or concepts of national manhood. These range from the yuppies of the Thatcher
era and the post-feminist concept of the “New Man” (cf. Schoene-Harwood 157)
via New Lad culture and Lad Lit as the “masterly examination of male identity in
contemporary Britain” (Showalter 60), all the way to Black British writing.
Although research on the literary and cultural production of masculinity in
Great Britain and the United States has been relatively rich, so far hardly any
comparative analysis has been undertaken for these two countries whose recent
histories simultaneously converge and diverge so suggestively. These diverse,
plural masculinities still need to be contextualized in relation to broader, national,
and indeed global trends. As a matter of fact, in focusing in a comparative fashion
on this clearly demarcated place and time, the aim of this volume, in addition to
its underlying research project in general, is to move beyond what might be called
the ‘underdevelopment of comparative masculinity studies’. As the emphasis
of masculinity studies has moved from its initial, universalizing claims toward
its more recent, particularizing ones (for this dialectic see Horlacher 2011), the
problems imposed by the lack of precisely this kind of comparative analysis have
only become more evident. In the context of increasing globalization, the very
difference between dominant and subaltern—on a global scale as well as within
specific nations—is frequently mediated by national differences. Examples include
not only the strained relations between racially and ethnically dominant groups
on the one hand and immigrant groups on the other, but also the ways in which
‘subaltern’ masculinities are often deeply informed by the national liberation
struggles which were opened up by successive waves of decolonization after
World War II.6 Therefore, a comparative framework would facilitate the scholarly
understanding of the ways in which subaltern masculinities, precisely in opposing
dominant white masculinities, for example, are bound together with and emerge
in response to what they oppose. Such a framework would also enable a critical
analysis of how this ‘boundedness’ or interconnectedness operates similarly and
differently in two nations whose power vis-à-vis the rest of the globe diverged
radically after World War II, even as these same two nations were in close military
and economic alliance.
Dedicated to in-depth analyses of national masculinities in British and American
literature and culture, this volume seeks to understand the larger context for the
emergence of more plural, culturally differentiated and ultimately transnational

6
Comparative analysis can thus facilitate a more rigorous understanding of the
similar but far from identical repercussions of decolonization and a perceived loss/gain of
influence in Great Britain and the United States on the cultural landscape of each country.
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 7

masculinities. If work on masculinity in literary studies still frequently tends to

focus on the literary representation of masculinity, one of the aims of this volume
is to analyze from a comparative perspective how narrative texts and plays, but
also films and photographs, produce certain kinds of nationally-specific masculine
identifications, how this changes over time, and how literature and other forms of
cultural (re-)presentation eventually deconstruct their own myths of masculinity.
This already becomes obvious in Kathleen Starck’s opening chapter7 where
she presents her ongoing research into the Cold Warrior in British and American
early Cold War films. Choosing from a selection of propagandist movies of that
era (such as the John Wayne vehicle Big Jim McLain) as well as elaborate satires
and subversive thrillers (John Frankenheimer’s original Manchurian Candidate),
Starck demonstrates how the ‘war of ideologies’ left no area of society untouched
by the struggle for superiority. The degree of hypermasculinity exhibited in many
British and American films of the 1950s and 1960s, she argues, is motivated by the
witch-hunt against communism, the Cold Warrior being modeled as an aggressive,
tough weapon against the Soviet enemy. The foe may come from the outside (as in
classical British films like High Treason or The Prisoner), or he may take the shape
of the fifth column (as in the US examples), but in either case he is associated with
weakness, homosexual subtexts, and effeminate behavior. The gendered nature of
this ideological theme is taken to an extreme in Stanley Kubrick’s classic satire Dr.
Strangelove, where lunatic, cigar-smoking general Jack D. Ripper causes atomic
mayhem in his disastrous attempts to defend the hypermasculine American body
against a suspected communist infiltration. However, what Starck stresses most
of all is the fact that the filmic Cold Warrior is a highly versatile signifier that
has, among other things, not only been employed “to denote the ruthlessness and
evilness of external communist enemies as different as Eastern Europeans and
indigenous postcolonial communists,” to stand “for dangerous internal communist
enemies and even women,” or to reveal symptoms of psychopathology, but also
“as a vehicle for critique beyond the communist-capitalist axis.”
In their joint article, Christopher Breu and Elizabeth Hatmaker present Patricia
Highsmith’s infamous anti-hero “The Flexible Mr. Ripley” as an important mutation
in the representation of noir masculinity. Constantly remaining resistant to the
‘other-directed’ ethos of Fordism and bourgeois consumer conformity, Ripley’s
individualist (and violent) behavior emerges as almost fully pathological in its
refusal to adapt to the increasingly other-directed imperatives of corporate life.
Thus, Highsmith’s novels are largely in line with other post-war noir writers like
Cornell Woolrich, whose protagonists act out their resistance through the obsessive
destruction of individual (or privatized) others and/or themselves. Ripley’s
malleable masculinity, in particular, enables him to elude the conventional fate both
of the noir anti-hero and of the culprit in most detective fiction; Ripley becomes a
transnational success story, constantly remaining in the liminal zone, never taking

7
Parts of the following survey are indebted to a conference report written with
Wieland Schwanebeck (cf. Horlacher and Schwanebeck 2010).
8 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

sides, parodying the figure of an American tourist in Italy, whose interest in travel
and superficial relationships renders him a perverse reconfiguration of the ‘other-
directed’ company man so celebrated by high Fordism—in mirroring the needs
of others, he also literally annihilates them and takes their personalities for his
own. This flexible masculine figure moves in a transnational landscape atypical
for the genre, suggesting that Ripley represents a form of masculinity adapted to
the international theater of the post-war era of the Pax Americana (Wallerstein),
rather ironic given the way Ripley comes back to cause mayhem without ever
being convicted in four more novels by Highsmith.
Drawing parallels between two of the most influential post-war novels on
‘masculinities in crisis’ on both sides of the Atlantic—John Braine’s Room at the
Top and Richard Yates’s Revolutionary Road—Claudia Falk focuses on the 1950s
as a period of affluence and improved living conditions, where the notion of male
anxiety can be detected beneath the shining surface of suburban households (in the
United States) and in feelings of inferiority within the social hierarchy (in Great
Britain). In both popular and academic writing of the 1950s, domestic harmony
and equality between the sexes were celebrated, yet at the same time, the contrast
between men’s wartime experiences and civilian life introduced feelings of crisis
in masculine self-perception. Triggered by popular culture, different types of
masculinity surfaced, such as the Angry Young Man who had little in common with
the prevailing male ideal of the breadwinner. Both Joe Lampton, the protagonist
in Room at the Top, and Frank Wheeler, a rather troubled version of the ‘man in
the gray flannel suit’ in Revolutionary Road, are examined with regard to their
suffering from the tensions between conformity and nonconformity, the former
character driven by his desires to overcome class restrictions and pursuing women
like prize trophies, the latter bored and unsatisfied after having settled down with
his wife and children. At a loss for alternatives, their insecurity leads to a fallback
on traditional gender roles, consumerism offering the means for establishing a
stable, yet contradictory concept of (domestic) masculinity.
Christoph Ribbat’s contribution centers on “The Colors of Masculinity” in
American and British photography. After taking a brief look at the direct impact
of second-wave feminism on photography (Laurie Anderson’s “Fully Automated
Nikon”), Ribbat introduces a diverse array of color photography of the 1970s
and 1980s. Notable American photographers (such as Diane Arbus and William
Eggleston) are compared to their British counterparts (such as Paul Graham or
Martin Parr) in the way their work evolved from an exclusive ‘boys’ club’ of
white heterosexual perspectives with rather naive notions of the authentic body, in
order to adapt to the changing sociopolitical climate of the early Thatcher years.
Effectively, this change of perspectives means that men in photographs were
suddenly far from delivering a successful performance of hegemonic masculinity:
the void is evident.
In “Accounting for a Crisis,” Erik Pietschmann keeps up a comparative angle
by focusing on the language of crisis in male first-person narratives with regard to
how they model identity constructions within a gendered framework. The narrators
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 9

of Martin Amis’s Money and Evan S. Connell’s Diary of a Rapist present their
gendered selves as severely affected by their inability to correspond to normative
ideals—in the case of Earl Summerfield, the narrator in Connell’s book, this
becomes manifest in the gap between the ‘American Dream’ and the experience of
a corrupt world that erodes his male identity. Within their heterodiegetic accounts,
both characters attempt to reassert their gendered selves by employing strategies of
the ‘engaging narrator’ (cf. Warhol), addressing their readers directly and drawing
them into their twisted minds. By making use of the narratological tools supplied
by Gérard Genette and Mikhail Bakhtin, Pietschmann’s article traces tensions and
fears of failure at the heart of the novels, demonstrating how the crisis inevitably
takes its toll on the narrative itself.
The crisis of the domestic experience is the basis for Lisa Felstead’s examination
of male anxiety and consumerism as a specific ‘reality’ of white middle-class
America. Drawing upon iconic American literature of the period, Felstead subjects
James Dickey’s novel Deliverance (later to be made into the controversial film
of the same title by director John Boorman) to a close reading with regard to
its subtext of a ‘feminized’ nature serving as a realm that reaffirms masculinity.
Dickey’s protagonists—four friends living in the city who seek their lost manhood
on a wilderness trip, in spite of homoerotic tensions within their group—fail to
alleviate the problematic relationship between masculinity and the consumerized
culture of post-war American society. Instead, the male subject is presented in this
Cold War period as an anxious figure, constantly seeking a masculine identity that
is purged of feminine influence. The motifs and themes of these perverted fables
of the ‘American Dream’ are not only present in many other novels and films of
the same period (like Midnight Cowboy), but also in narratives at the end of the
Cold War period, such as Bret Easton Ellis’s American Psycho (1991), and Chuck
Palahniuk’s Fight Club (1996).
In his “‘Cubism’ as Intersectionalism: John Berger’s Figures of Masculinity,”
Dirk Wiemann proposes an intermedial reading of the fiction of Booker prize-
winning British author John Berger, whose metafictional bildungsroman G.
(1972) corresponds closely to Berger’s own theoretical reflections on Cubism.
Reworking the Don Giovanni motif, G. offers a multi-faceted portrayal of a type
of hyperseductive heteromasculinity that is both dependent on and subversive
of the patriarchal social arrangements into which it is embedded. In addition,
the protagonist appears to represent a Deleuzian tension of the ‘molar’ and the
‘molecular’ which finds its textual equivalence in the frisson of a generically
conventional macrostructure pitted against a thorough­going auto-fragmentation.
Thus, cubist fragmentation is implemented as a narrative strategy: most of the
pages consist of short, isolated stanzas of prose. Consequently, Berger’s protagonist
is forced to “see fields where others see chapters.” Against this background,
masculinity emerges as another sex that is not one—heteronormative models of
masculinity effectively putting themselves out of order in the process.
Christa Grewe-Volpp’s contribution addresses the articulation of male anxieties
in seminal American plays. Looking at texts by Arthur Miller, David Mamet, and
10 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

Sam Shepard as representative of the dark undercurrents of the contemporary

white middle-class family (a consistent topic in American drama since the 1940s),
Grewe-Volpp reads the domestic scenarios in Death of a Salesman, True West,
and American Buffalo as symptomatic of the ills of American society at large.
Set against the backdrop of the unfulfillable ‘American Dream’ and the frontier
myth, a play such as Death of a Salesman emphasizes an idealized image of a
rugged, often violent masculinity, closely connected to a boy’s Oedipal rejection
of the maternal and his entrance into the patriarchal order. Thus, Willy Loman tries
to flee from the realm of the feminine and idealizes both his father and brother
in order to assert a masculinity freed from the restrictions of a domestic, female
world. However, as Grewe-Volpp demonstrates, the fear of the maternal leads all
of the characters in these plays to self-destruction—the unusually mild ending
of Mamet’s American Buffalo being a notable exception—and the position of
marginalized women in these texts, outside the myth of a masculinized frontier,
can be interpreted as the only hope for a more mature American male identity.
The following two contributions by Angelika Köhler and Mirjam Frotscher
examine relations between masculinity and ethnicity. Angelika Köhler embeds
Frank Chin’s play The Chickencoop Chinaman within the framework of her
approach to male identity constructions and ethnic dilemmas addressed in three
literary works of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The texts presented by Köhler
share the notion that masculinity is a performative construct, whilst mediating the
complex subject matter through highly different literary techniques. Of these three
the best-known is certainly Philip Roth’s controversial Portnoy’s Complaint, where
the protagonist’s desperate lament echoes fundamental uncertainties regarding
masculinity. Köhler argues that Portnoy blames his excessive sexuality exclusively
on his repressive upbringing as a ‘nice Jewish boy’, neither coming to terms with his
overprotective mother nor with his failure to suppress his Jewish values and forms
of cultural positioning.8 Köhler’s analysis is completed by her interpretation of
Ishmael Reed’s antebellum slave narrative, Flight to Canada, which problematizes
the dependency of black manhood on white concepts by constructing a meta-
narrative of African American self-liberation that includes a rewriting of Uncle
Tom stereotypes and the incorporation of the Native American trickster myth.
Mirjam Frotscher argues in her chapter on reclaiming Chinese American
masculinities since the 1970s that while Orientalist and sexist stereotypes
regarding the perceived ‘Otherness’ of Asian Americans, and their pejorative
portrayals in popular literature (like the Charlie Chan books), had gone almost
uncontested in the preceding decades, the 1970s saw a shift in the visibility of Asian
Americans, with young writers starting to discuss the divisive power of blatant
misconceptions. Frotscher not only addresses the controversy between Frank
Chin and Maxine Hong Kingston regarding the problematic role of Orientalist
sentiments and feminized writing styles, but—in addition to Chin’s play The

8
This reasoning does, of course, not imply that the suppression of “Jewish values
and forms of cultural positioning”—at which Portnoy fails—is considered to be positive.
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 11

Chickencoop Chinaman and Hong Kingston’s novel China Men—also offers an

analysis of David Henry Hwang’s deconstructive reworking of M. Butterfly which
features a unique take on mimicry and its crucial part in subverting the stereotype
of the effeminate Oriental: a myth which was instrumental in strengthening the
image of a virile American national identity that excluded the racialized Other as
a gendered Other at the same time.

Works Cited

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread

of Nationalism. New York: Verso, 1991.
Assmann, Jan. Das kulturelle Gedächtnis: Schrift, Erinnerung und politische
Identität in frühen Hochkulturen. München: Beck, 1992.
Balibar, Etienne. “The Nation Form: History and Ideology.” Race, Nation, Class:
Ambiguous Identities. Eds Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein. New
York: Verso, 1991. 86–106.
Barnes, Julian. England, England. London: Jonathan Cape, 1998.
Berlant, Lauren. The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex
and Citizenship. Durham: Duke UP, 1997.
Braidotti, Rosi. Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in
Contemporary Feminist Theory. New York: Columbia UP, 1994.
Brennan, Timothy. “The National Longing for Form.” Nation and Narration. Ed.
Homi Bhabha. New York: Routledge, 1990. 44–70.
Cannon, Kelly. Henry James and Masculinity: The Man at the Margins. New
York: St. Martin’s, 1994.
Connell, R.W. Masculinities. Berkeley: U of California P, 1995.
———. “The History of Masculinity.” The Masculinity Studies Reader. Eds
Rachel Adams and David Savran. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. 245–61.
Connell, R.W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity:
Rethinking the Concept.” Gender and Society 19.6 (2005): 829–59.
Ermarth, Elizabeth Deeds. “Beyond ‘The Subject’: Individuality in the Discursive
Condition.” New Literary History 31.3 (2000): 405–19.
Fluck, Winfried. Das kulturelle Imaginäre: Eine Funktionsgeschichte des
amerikanischen Romans 1790–1900. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1997.
Freiburg, Rudolf. “Imagination in Contemporary British Fiction.” Unity in
Diversity Revisited: British Literature and Culture in the 1990s. Eds Barbara
Korte and Peter Müller. Tübingen: Narr, 1998. 225–47.
Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1983.
Gillis, John R. “Memory and Identity: The History of a Relationship.”
Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity. Ed. John R. Gillis.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 1994. 3–24.
Glomb, Stefan. Erinnerung und Identität im britischen Gegenwartsdrama.
Tübingen: Narr, 1997.
12 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

Hobsbawm, Eric. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.
Horlacher, Stefan. “Daniel Martin, America, Faith in Fakes/Travels in
Hyperreality und das Verschwinden der Realität—Überlegungen zum
antizipatorischen Potential von Literatur.” Beyond Extremes: Reflexion und
Repräsentation von Modernisierungsprozessen im zeitgenössischen britischen
Roman. Eds Stefan Glomb and Stefan Horlacher. Tübingen: Narr, 2004. 291–329.
———. Masculinities: Konzeptionen von Männlichkeit im Werk von Thomas
Hardy und D.H. Lawrence. Tübingen: Narr, 2006a.
———. “Literatur und die Überwindung der Dichotomien: Zum Verhältnis von
Lebenswelt, Men’s Studies, Gender Studies und savoir littéraire.” Literarische
Gendertheorie: Eros und Gesellschaft bei Proust und Colette. Eds Ursula
Link-Heer, Ursula Henningfeld, and Fernand Hörner. Bielefeld: Transcript,
2006b. 33–56.
———. “‘and he took it literally’—Literatur als Instrument der Lebenskunst.
Konzeptionen (in)adäquater Lektüre in Thomas Hardys Roman Jude the
Obscure.” Literatur und Lebenskunst: Reflexionen zum ‘guten Leben’ im
britischen Ro­man des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts. Eds Stefan Horlacher et al.
Trier: WVT, 2008. 139–74.
———. “Überlegungen zur theoretischen Konzeption männlicher Identität:
Ein Forschungsüberblick mit exemplarischer Vertiefung.” Konstruktionen
von Geschlechtlichkeit von der Antike bis ins 21. Jahrhundert. Ed. Stefan
Horlacher. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2010. 195–238.
———. “Charting the Field of Masculinity Studies; or, Towards a Literary History
of Masculinities.” Constructions of Masculinity in British Literature from
the Middle Ages to the Present. Ed. Stefan Horlacher. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2011. 3–18.
Horlacher, Stefan, and Wieland Schwanebeck. “International Workshop Report
‘Between the National and the Transnational, 1945–1980: Masculinities in
British and American Literature between World War II and Thatcher/Reagan’
(June 9–11, 2010, Dresden University of Technology).” Culture, Society &
Masculinities 2.2 (2010): 199–205.
Howell, Mary L. Manhood and Masculine Identity in William Shakespeare’s The
Tragedy of Macbeth. Lanham, MD: UP of America, 2008.
Jeffers, Jennifer M. Beckett’s Masculinity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Kimminich, Eva. “Macht und Entmachtung der Zeichen: Einführende
Betrachtungen über Individuum, Gesellschaft und Kultur.” Kulturelle Identität:
Konstruktionen und Krisen. Ed. Eva Kimminich. Frankfurt am Main: Lang,
2003. vii–xlii.
Korte, Barbara, and Klaus Peter Müller. “Unity in Diversity Revisited: Complex
Paradoxes Beyond Post-/Modernism.” Unity in Diversity Revisited: British
Literature and Culture in the 1990s. Eds Barbara Korte and Klaus Peter Müller.
Tübingen: Narr, 1998. 9–33.
 Towards Comparative Masculinity Studies / Horlacher 13

Kristeva, Julia. Die Revolution der poetischen Sprache. 4th ed. Frankfurt am
Main: Suhrkamp, 1992.
Lloyd, David. “Nationalisms Against the State.” The Politics of Culture in the
Shadow of Capital. Eds Lloyd and Lisa Lowe. Durham: Duke UP, 1997. 173–97.
MacFaul, Tom. Male Friendship in Shakespeare and his Contemporaries.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007.
Matus, Jill L. Unstable Bodies: Victorian Representations of Sexuality and
Maternity. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1995.
Meinig, Sigrun. “Connecting Difference and Sameness.” Proceedings:
Anglistentag 2006 Halle/Saale. Eds Sabine Volk-Birke and Julia Lippert.
Trier: WVT, 2007. 289–99.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. 1945. London:
Routledge, 2004.
Nairn, Tom. The Break-Up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism. London: New
Left Books, 1977.
Nünning, Vera. “Where Literature, Culture and the History of Mentalities Meet:
Changes in British National Identity as a Paradigm for a New Kind of Literary/
Cultural History.” REAL–Yearbook of Research in English and American
Literature 17 (2001): 211–38.
Person, Leland S. Henry James and the Suspense of Masculinity. Philadelphia:
U of Pennsylvania P, 2003.
Roberts, Andrew Michael. Conrad and Masculinity. Houndmills: Palgrave, 2000.
Rusch, Gebhard. Erkenntnis, Wissenschaft, Geschichte: Von einem konstruk-
tivistischen Standpunkt. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1987.
Schmidt, Siegfried J. “Gedächtnis, Erzählen, Identität.” Mnemosyne: Formen und
Funktionen der kulturellen Erinnerung. Eds Aleida Assmann and Dietrich
Harth. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1993. 378–97.
Schoene-Harwood, Berthold. Writing Men: Literary Masculinities from Franken-
stein to the New Man. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2000.
Showalter, Elaine. “Ladlit.” On Modern British Fiction. Ed. Zachary Leader.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. 60–76.
Smith, Bruce R. Shakespeare on Masculinity. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000.
Stein, Mark. Black British Literature: Novels of Transformation. Columbus: Ohio
State UP, 2004.
Strychacz, Thomas. Hemingway’s Theaters of Masculinity. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State UP, 2003.
Taylor, John. A Dream of England: Landscape, Photography and the Tourist’s
Imagination. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1994.
Vosskamp, Wilhelm. “Literaturwissenschaft als Kulturwissenschaft.” Konzepte
der Kulturwissenschaften. Eds Ansgar Nünning and Vera Nünning. Stuttgart:
Metzler, 2003. 73–85.
Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Capitalist World-Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge
UP, 1979.
14 Post-World War II Masculinities in British and American Literature and Culture

Warhol, Robyn R. “Toward a Theory of the Engaging Narrator: Earnest Inter-

ventions in Gaskell, Stowe, and Eliot.” PMLA 101.5 (October 1986): 812–13.
Wells, Robin Headlam. Shakespeare and Masculinity. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2004.
Woodcock, Bruce. Male Mythologies: John Fowles and Masculinity. Brighton:
Harvester, 1984.