Masters and Johnson

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The Masters and Johnson research team, composed of William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson,

pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual
disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 until the 1990s. [1][2]

The work of Masters and Johnson began in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington
University in St. Louis and was continued at the independent not-for-profit research institution they founded
in St. Louis in 1964, originally called the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation and renamed the Masters
& Johnson Institute in 1978.

In the initial phase of Masters and Johnson's studies, from 1957 until 1965, they recorded some of the first
laboratory data on the anatomy and physiology of human sexual response based on direct observation of 382
women and 312 men in what they conservatively estimated to be "10,000 complete cycles of sexual response."
Their findings, particularly on the nature of female sexual arousal (for example, describing the mechanisms
of vaginal lubrication and debunking the earlier widely held notion that vaginal lubrication originated from
the cervix) and orgasm (showing that the physiology of orgasmic response was identical whether stimulation
was clitoral or vaginal, and proving that some women were capable of being multiorgasmic), dispelled many
long-standing misconceptions.[2][3]

They jointly wrote two classic texts in the field, Human Sexual Response and Human Sexual Inadequacy,
published in 1966 and 1970, respectively. Both of these books were best-sellers and were translated into more
than thirty languages. The team have been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.[4] Additionally, they are
the focus of a television project called Masters of Sex[5] for Showtime based on the2009 biography by author
Thomas Maier.[5]

Contents

  [hide] 

 1 Research work

 2 Four stage model of the sexual response

 3 Sexual response in the aging person

 4 Laboratory comparison of homosexual male versus homosexual female sex

 5 Sexual dysfunction

 6 Treatment of homosexual behavior

 7 Criticisms

 8 Dramatic production
 9 Publications

 10 References

 11 External links

Research work[edit]

Masters and Johnson met in 1957 when William Masters hired Virginia Johnson as a research assistant to
undertake a comprehensive study of human sexuality. (Masters divorced his first wife to marry Johnson in
1971.[6] They divorced in 1992.) Previously, the study of human sexuality (sexology) had been a largely
neglected area of study due to the restrictive social conventions of the time, with prostitution as a notable
exception.

Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues at Indiana University had previously published two volumes on sexual
behavior in the human male and female, in 1948 and 1953, respectively, (known as the Kinsey Reports), both
of which had been revolutionary and controversial in their time. Kinsey's work however, had mainly investigated
the frequency with which certain behaviors occurred in the population and was based on personal interviews,
not on laboratory observation. In contrast, Masters and Johnson set about to study the structure, psychology,
and physiology of sexual behavior, through observing and measuringmasturbation and sexual intercourse in
the laboratory.

Initially, participants used in their experiments were prostitutes. Masters and Johnson explained that they were
a socially isolated group of people, they were knowledgeable about sex, and that they were willing to cooperate
with the study. Of the 145 prostitutes that participated, only a select few were further evaluated for their genital
anatomy and their physiological responses. In later studies, however, Masters and Johnson recruited 382
women and 312 men from the community. The vast majority of participants were white, they had higher
education levels, and most participants were married couples. [7]

As well as recording some of the first physiological data from the human body and sex organs during sexual
excitation, they also framed their findings and conclusions in language that espoused sex as a healthy and
natural activity that could be enjoyed as a source of pleasure and intimacy.

The era in which their research was conducted permitted the use of methods that have not been attempted
before or since: "[M]en and women were designated as 'assigned partners' and arbitrarily paired with each
other to create 'assigned couples'."[8]

Four stage model of the sexual response[edit]

Main article:  Human sexual response cycle

One of the most enduring and important aspects of their work has been the four stage model of sexual
response, which they described as the human sexual response cycle [2][3] and defined as:
 Excitement phase (initial arousal)

 Plateau phase (at full arousal, but not yet at orgasm)

 Orgasm

 Resolution phase (after orgasm)

Their model shows no difference between Sigmund Freud's purported categories of "vaginal orgasm" and
"clitoral orgasm": the physiologic response was identical, even if the stimulation was in a different place. [2][3]

Masters and Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during
which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women: this makes women
capable of multiple orgasm.[2][3] They also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic
contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and then gradually slowing in
both speed and intensity.

Sexual response in the aging person[edit]

Masters and Johnson were the first to conduct research on the sexual responsiveness of older adults, finding
that given a state of reasonably good health and the availability of an interested and interesting partner, there
was no absolute age at which sexual abilities disappeared. While they noted that there were specific changes
to the patterns of male and female sexual responses with aging – for example, it takes older men longer to
become aroused and they typically require more direct genital stimulation, and the speed and amount of
vaginal lubrication tends to diminish with age as well – they noted that many older men and women are
perfectly capable of excitement and orgasm well into their seventies and beyond, a finding that has been
confirmed in population-based epidemiological research on sexual functionin the elderly.[9]

Laboratory comparison of homosexual male versus homosexual female

sex[edit]
Masters and Johnson randomly assigned gay men into couples and lesbians into couples and then observed
them having sex in the laboratory, at the Masters and Johnson Institute. They provided their observations
in Homosexuality in Perspective:

Assigned male homosexual study subjects A, B, and C..., interacting in the laboratory with previously unknown
male partners, did discuss procedural matters with these partners, but quite briefly. Usually, the discussion
consisted of just a question or a suggestion, but often it was limited to nonverbal communicative expressions
such as eye contact or hand movement, any of which usually proved sufficient to establish the protocol of
partner interaction. No coaching or suggestions were made by the research team.
—p. 55

According to Masters and Johnson, this pattern differed in the lesbian couples:
While initial stimulative activity tended to be on a mutual basis, in short order control of the specific sexual
experience usually was assumed by one partner. The assumption of control was established without verbal
communication and frequently with no obvious nonverbal direction, although on one occasion discussion as to
procedural strategy continued even as the couple was interacting physically.
—p. 55

Sexual dysfunction[edit]

Their research into the anatomy and physiology of sexual response was a springboard to developing a clinical
approach to the treatment of sexual problems in a revolutionary manner. Prior to 1970, when they described
their treatment program to the world for the first time, sexual dysfunctions such as premature
ejaculation, impotence, vaginismus, and female frigidity had been generally treated by long-term (multi-year)
psychotherapy or psychoanalysis with very low rates of success. Masters and Johnson revolutionized things by
devising a form of rapid treatment (2 week) psychotherapy always involving a couple, rather than just an
individual, working with a male-female therapist team that resulted in a success rate of more than 80%. This
was strictly a talking therapy – couples in their sex therapy program were never observed in sexual activity.

Treatment of homosexual behavior[edit]

See also:  Conversion therapy

From 1968 to 1977, the Masters and Johnson Institute ran a program to convert homosexuals to
heterosexuality. This program reported a 71.6% success rate over a six-year treatment period. [10][11] At the time
of their earlier work, homosexuality was classified as a psychological disorder by the American Psychiatric
Association,[12] a classification which was repealed in 1973.

In April 2009, Thomas Maier reported, in his biography Masters of Sex (Basic Books) and in Scientific
American, "that Virginia Johnson had serious reservations about the program, and she suspected that, at
worst, the results of the study may have been fabricated by William Masters". [5][13]

Criticisms[edit]

Some sex researchers, Shere Hite in particular, have focused on understanding how individuals regard sexual
experience and the meaning it holds for them. Hite has criticized Masters and Johnson's work for uncritically
incorporating cultural attitudes on sexual behavior into their research; for example, her work concluded that the
70% of women who do not have orgasms through intercourse are able to achieve orgasm easily by
masturbation.[14][15][16] She, as well as Elisabeth Lloyd, have criticized Masters and Johnson's argument that
enough clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm should be provided by thrusting during intercourse, and the
inference that the failure of this is a sign of female "sexual dysfunction". [16] While not denying that both Kinsey,
and Masters and Johnson have made major contributions to sex research, she believes that people must
understand the cultural and personal construction of sexual experience to make the research relevant to sexual
behavior outside the laboratory. Hite's work, however, has been challenged for methodological defects. [17]

Moreover, Masters and Johnson's research methodology has been criticized. First, Paul Robinson argues that
because many of their participants were prostitutes, it is highly likely that these individuals have had more
sexual experience and are also more comfortable with sex and sexuality in general. [18] He says that one must
approach these results with caution, because the participants do not represent the general population. Other
researchers have argued that Masters and Johnson eliminated same-sex attracted participants when studying
the human sexual response cycle, which also limits the generalizability of their results. [19] Furthermore, Masters
and Johnson have been criticized for studying sexual behaviors in the laboratory. While they attempted to
make participants as comfortable as possible in the lab by giving them a "practice session" before their
behavior was recorded, critics have argued that two people engaging in sexual activity in a lab is a different
experience compared to being in the privacy of one's home.[20][19]

Dramatic production[edit]

The American cable network Showtime debuted Masters of Sex, a dramatic television series based on the
2009 biography of the same name, on September 29, 2013. The series stars Michael Sheen as Masters
and Lizzy Caplan as Johnson.

Publications[edit]

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Toronto; New York: Bantam
Books. ISBN 0-553-20429-7. 1981 edition ISBN 978-0553204292.

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1970). Human Sexual Inadequacy. Toronto; New York: Bantam
Books. ISBN 0-553-20699-0.

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1974). The Pleasure Bond. Toronto; New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-
553-20915-9.

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1979). Homosexuality in Perspective. Toronto; New York: Bantam
Books. ISBN 0-553-20809-8.

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E.; Kolodny, R.C (1988). Masters and Johnson on Sex and Human Loving.
Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0316501606.

 Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E.; Kolodny, R.C (1994). Heterosexuality. New York; London:
HarperCollins. ISBN 0-7225-3027-7.
References[edit]

1. Jump up^ "Masters and Johnson". The Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 18 May

2006. Retrieved September 22, 2011.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Federation of Feminist Women's Health Centers (FFWHC) (1991). A New View of

a Woman’s Body. Feminist Heath Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-9629945-0-0.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d John Archer, Barbara Lloyd (2002). Sex and Gender. Cambridge University Press.

pp. 85–88. ISBN 0521635330. Retrieved August 25, 2012.

4. Jump up^ St. Louis Walk of Fame. "St. Louis Walk of Fame Inductees". stlouiswalkoffame.org.

Retrieved 25 April 2013.

5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Maier, Thomas (2009). Masters of sex : the life and times of William Masters and

Virginia Johnson, the couple who taught America how to love. New York: Basic

Books. ISBN 9780465003075.

6. Jump up^ Nemy, Enid. "AN AFTERNOON WITH: Masters and Johnson; Divorced, Yes, But Not

Split", The New York Times, 1994-03-24. Retrieved on 2008-12-03.

7. Jump up^ Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Toronto; New York:

Bantam Books.ISBN 0-553-20429-7.

8. Jump up^ Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1979). Homosexuality in perspective. Boston: Little,

Brown and Company, p. 11.

9. Jump up^ Helgason, Asgeir; Jan Adolfsson, Paul Dickman, Stefan Arver, Mats Fredrikson,

Marianne Göthberg and Gunnar Steineck (1996). "Sexual Desire, Erection, Orgasm and Ejaculatory

Functions and Their Importance to Elderly Swedish Men: A Population-based Study". Age and

Ageing (Oxford University Press) 25 (4): 285–291. doi:10.1093/ageing/25.4.285. PMID 8831873.

10. Jump up^ Masters, W.H.; Johnson, V.E. (1979). Homosexuality in Perspective. Toronto; New

York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-20809-8.

11. Jump up^ Schwartz, MF; Masters, WH (1 February 1984). "The Masters and Johnson treatment

program for dissatisfied homosexual men". American Journal of Psychiatry 141 (2): 173–

181.PMID 6691475. [dead link]

12. Jump up^ See Homosexuality and psychology#Declassification

13. Jump up^ Maier, Thomas (2009-04-27). "Can Psychiatrists Really "Cure" Homosexuality?:

Scientific American". Sciam.com. Retrieved 2012-10-03.

14. Jump up^ Hite, Shere (2004). The Hite Report: A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality. New

York, NY:Seven Stories Press. pp. 512 pages. ISBN 1-58322-569-2. Retrieved March 2, 2012.

15. Jump up^ Shere Hite: "I was making the point that clitoral stimulation wasn't happening during

coitus. That's why women 'have difficulty having orgasms' - they don't have difficulty when they stimulate

themselves.

Tracey Cox: "It's disappointing that one of Hite's main messages - that 70 per cent of women don't have

orgasms through penetration - is not completely accepted today. Plenty of women don't feel comfortable

admitting it, even to themselves, for fear their partners will love them less. But women are far more
 experimental now." "Shere Hite: On female sexuality in the 21st century". The Independent. April 30, 2006.

Retrieved April 10, 2011.

16. ^ Jump up to:a b Elisabeth Anne Lloyd (2005). The case of the female orgasm: bias in the science of

evolution. Harvard University Press. pp. 21–53. ISBN 0-674-01706-4. Retrieved January 5, 2012.

17. Jump up^ Selected Articles by David Streitfeld

18. Jump up^ Robinson, P. (1976). The Modernization of Sex: Havelock Ellis, Alfred Kinsey, William

Masters and Virginia Johnson. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.

19. ^ Jump up to:a b Hyde, J. S., DeLamater, J. D., & Byers, E. S. (2012). Understanding Human Sexuality,

5th ed. McGraw-Hill Ryerson.

20. Jump up^ Masters, W. H. & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Toronto; New York:

Bantam Books.
(See also: What We Learned from the First Season Finale of ‘Masters of Sex’ and What To Expect In Season
Two)

In its second week on Showtime, the new drama, Master of Sex improved on its first
week ratings, jumping around 100,000 viewers, which suggest not only that viewers of
the pilot were pleased, but that word of mouth is slowly starting to spread
(Masters debuted against the series finale of Breaking Bad with 1 million viewers, which
is close to the number of viewers who tuned in to the first episode of Breaking Bad). It’s
a fantastic show — sexually charged, brilliantly acted, fascinating, and playful — and I’m
pushing it on everyone I know.

What I love about Masters of Sex is that, like Boardwalk Empire, it masterfully weaves

fiction with reality. It doesn’t have the colorful gangsters of the HBO series, but it is
based extensively on countless hours of interviews with Virginia Johnson, whose
fictional counterpart is played by Lizzy Caplan. There’s obviously been some liberties
taken, but from what I’ve read on Wikipedia, and in several articles and
interviews, Masters of Sex seems to capture the spirit of Masters and Johnson’s
relationship, as well as the details involved in their sex studies.
I encourage you to watch the show (and come back for our weekly recaps). To goose your
interest, I have included ten quick real-life facts about Masters and Johnson, some of
which we have already seen play out in the first two episodes, while others we can expect
to see in the future of the series. There are spoilers both for episodes that have aired,
and for future episodes, so if you don’t like being spoiled by history, skip the rest of this
post and seek out the series wherever you can find it.

1. Despite the initially creepy nature of their relationship in Masters of Sex, 15 years
after the study began, Masters would leave his wife and marry Virginia Johnson, though
they would divorce 20 years later in 1992, which also ended their academic relationship.
Their sexual relationship began as part of their scientific research.

Here’s a picture of the real Bill Masters and Virginia Johnson.

2. Over the course of the study, Masters and Johnson observed 10,000 complete cycles
of sexual response, which has got to become numbing after a certain period. That has to
be the equivalent of around 1,000 hours of Internet porn, which I suspect would be
enough to turn anyone off of sex.
3. The two revolutionary books that came out of the studies, Human Sexual
Response andHuman Sexual Inadequacy, were best-sellers, translated in over 30 languages.
4. As reflected in the show, the study did, indeed, begin with prostitutes. One hundred
and 45 prostitutes participated in the study before Masters and Johnson moved
studying members of the community.

5. Included among the findings in Masters and Johnson’s study was scientific proof that
men need a break after ejaculation before they can orgasm again, while women need no
such break and could have multiple orgasms. They also found that the rhythmic
contractions of orgasms in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and
then gradually slowing in both speed and intensity.

6. They also found that, though it takes longer to become aroused, older people age 70
and beyond were perfectly capable of intense orgasms and a healthy sexual life.

7. They also found that gay men — with little discussion — quickly managed to figure out
who was top and who was bottom. Likewise, with no verbal communication, one partner
in lesbian couples quickly assumed sexual control.

8. Between 1968 and 1977, Masters and Johnson treated homosexuality, which was
considered abnormal at the time. They actually reported a 71 percent success rate in
converting homosexuals into heterosexuals over a six year period, which — to me — calls
into question their findings in other areas of sexual response. Virginia Johnson had
major reservations with that study and, in fact, later revealed that she suspected Bill
Masters may have fabricated some of the results.

9. Masters and Johnson were also pioneers in the field of sexual dysfunction, developing
a form of rapid treatment psychotherapy with an 80 percent success rate. Before that
time, treatment had a very low success rate.

10. Masters died in 2001 due to complications from Parkinson’s Disease, while Virginia
Johnson died in July of this year, due to complications from several illnesses. He was 85
at the time of his death, while she was 88.
(See also: What We Learned from the First Season Finale of ‘Masters of Sex’ and What To Expect In Season
Two)
(Sources: Wikipedia, The Guardian, The Telegraph and Variety).