PRINCIPLES OF MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS - I Volume I - Nodrm PDF

A TEXT BOOK OF
PRINCIPLES OF
MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS - I
Volume I
Enlarged and Revised Fourth Edition
For Degree Courses in Chemical Engineering
Covering the Revised Syllabus of :

Pune, Mumbai, Shivaji, North Maharashtra, North Gujarat Dr. Babasaheb Ambedekar
Technological University, (BATU) Lonere (Dist-Raigad), Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, (JNTU) Hydrabad, and University of Banglore.
Also for Degree Courses in Polymer, Petroleum and Petrochemical Engineering,
University of Pune
And also for

Degree courses in Biotechnology
By
DR. KIRAN D. PATIL

M.E. (Chemical Engg.), Ph.D (Chemical Engg.)
Professor in Chemical Engineering,

Department of Petrochemical and Petroleum Engineering,
Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Pune - 411 038 (MS)
N1013
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations - I (Vol. I) ISBN 978-81-90693-56-1
Fourth Edition : September 2008
Reprint : September 2009, October 2010, January 2012, September 2015, August 2016, September 2017
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The subject of ‘Mass Transfer’ forms an essential part of the syllabi of undergraduate
courses in Chemical Engineering and other diversified courses such as Polymer
Engineering, Petroleum Engineering and Petrochemical Engineering. A textbook on ‘
Mass Transfer’ is therefore always welcome, if it is comprehensive and yet easy to
understand.
Fundamental concepts in mass transfer and their mathematical relationships are
difficult to understand for an average student. However without the understanding of
these basic concepts, it is difficult to appreciate their applications in chemical engineering
unit operations, processes, including their design and maintenance.
Only a few books on “Mass Transfer” are available in the Indian market. Also these
available books are costly and their orientation and presentation may not always suit the
needs of Indian students community. The author of present book, Mr. Kiran Patil has
nicely explained each concept in most logical and systematic manner. The mathematical
derivations of several equations have been presented most rigorously and without any
ambiguity. This may particularly be seen in chapters 2, 3 and chapter 5, wherein the
topics on Diffusion mass transfer, Mass transfer coefficient and Gas absorption have been
explained in detail. I appreciate the efforts of author to include a large number of
problems with solutions and open-ended exercises with hints.
The author has taken care to incorporate every concept in logical sequence and
developed it step by step to its final form. This will facilitate self-learning by the reader
and satisfy the long felt need of the students for such a standard textbook.
Mr. Kiran Patil is a senior faculty member of Chemical Engineering Division of the
Petrochemical Engineering Department of MAEER’s MIT, Pune (M.S.), India .His
industrial and teaching experience and ability to effectively communicate with the
student is amply revealed in every chapter of the book. I congratulate him for his untiring
efforts and dedications in preparing this textbook. I congratulate Mr. Patil for his untiring
efforts and dedications dedication in preparing this textbook.
I hope and feel confident that this book will prove to be quite helpful to the
engineering students community at large in long run and it will also be quite useful as a
noteworthy standard textbook on the subject of “ Mass Transfer-I” for chemical
engineering courses in the various Universities of India.
(Prof. Dr. Vishwanath D. Karad)

Executive President and Director General,
MAEER’S Maharashtra Institute of Technology,
Pune-411 038, Maharashtra, India
I am happy to present the Fourth edition of the book, “ Principles and
Fundamentals of Mass Transfer Operations - I” (VOLUME I) for students of degree
courses of Chemical, Petrochemical, Petroleum, and Polymer Engineering and degree
courses in Biotechnology of major Universities of India. My purpose in presenting the
fourth edition of this book continues to be that of the previous edition: “ to provide a
vehicle for teaching, either through a formal course or through self study, the techniques
of, principles of equipment design for, the mass transfer operations of chemical
engineering”. The enthusiastic response to the third edition of this book has encouraged
me to revise this edition, which contains many new features. In this edition simple ideas
are treated first, and are then extended to the more complex.
Regarding this new edition: first of all I should say that in spirit it follows the earlier
ones, and I try to keep things simple. In fact, I have reorganized materials as per the
requirement of topic. I have taken this opportunity to improve and modernize many of the
explanations, to modernize the design data, and to lighten the writing as best I could. I
feel that problem-solving –the process of applying concepts to new situations –is
essential to learning. Consequently this edition includes over 250 solved problems and
over 200 homework problems with answers to help the student learn and understand the
concepts being taught.
The Fourth edition of book is thoroughly revised and split into two volumes :
1. Principles and Fundamentals of Mass Transfer Operations-I (Volume I)

2. Principles and Fundamentals of Mass Transfer Operations-II (Including
Separation Processes) (Volume-II)
Volume – I consists of following chapters :
1) Overview of Chemical Engineering, Profession, Separation Processes and Mass

Transfer Operations
2) Diffusion Mass Transfer
3) Interphase Mass Transfer
4) Convective Mass Transfer
5) Absorption and Stripping Operations
6) Equipment for Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Operations
7) Humidification and Dehumidification Operations
8) Drying Operations
Volume –II consists of following chapters:
1) Crystallization
2) Equilibrium Stage Operations
3) Distillation
4) Extraction and Leaching Operations
5) Adsorption and Ion Exchange
6) Membrane Separation Processes
7) Mass Transfer with Chemical Reactions
I am grateful to Prof. (Dr.) V.D. Karad, Executive President and Director General,
MAEER’s, Maharashtra Institute of Technology (MIT), Pune for his constant
encouragement and moral support during the preparation of this book. My overwhelming
debt is to my colleagues and students in the department. Malik types most of the book,
and Angha provided valuable editorial help. I express my appreciation my publisher,
Shri Dinesh Furia and Shri. Jignesh Furia for positive attitude for bringing out the Fourth
edition of this book with great care and in a very attractive manner.
Finally may I again thank our readers who, in the past, have made such helpful
suggestions and have drawn to our attention errors, many of which would never have
been spotted by the author. Would they please continue their good work!
I am confident that this book will be definitely useful to the teachers and students of
Chemical Engineering of major Universities in India.
Pune Kiran D. Patil

5th September 2008 E-mail: kiranpatil@mitpune.com
Teachers Day
I am happy to present the third edition of the book, “Principles of Mass Transfer Operations”
for students of degree courses of Chemical, Petrochemical, Petroleum, and Polymer Engineering
of major Universities of India. The enthusiastic response to the second edition of this book
encouraged me to write this edition, which contains many new features: addition of new chapters
(chapter 11, 12, 13 and 14) on Distillation, Extraction and leaching operations, Adsorption and
ion exchange and membrane Separation Processes. The new material has been included in
keeping with current demands of students.
While Mass Transfer Operations is a required course in every undergraduate chemical
engineering program in the world, there does not exist a comprehensive text on the subject that is
specifically tailored to the undergraduate reader. Principles of Mass Transfer Operations responds
to this need, providing a thorough, accessible text that presents the latest advances in the science
as well as sets of targeted questions that challenge students’ knowledge.
This book is designed to equip the reader with sufficient knowledge on mass transfer
operations and face the challenges ahead. The focus throughout author’s peerless study is on
making the student consider computation from the start of a mass transfer dilemma. Twenty-five
to thirty problems at the end of each chapter ensure that readers will remain actively engaged with
the material. The objective of this comprehensive and up-to-date textbook is to teach chemical
engineering students the principles involved in analyzing a process and apply the desired mass
transfer operation to separate the components involved. Chapters encompass :
• Fundamentals of mass transfer
• Interphase mass transfer
• Convective mass transfer
• Absorption And Stripping
• Equipment For Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Operations
• Humidification And Dehumidification Operations
• Drying Operations
• Crystallization
• Mass Transfer With Chemical Reactions
• Distillation
• Extraction And Leaching Operations
• Adsorption and Ion Exchange
• Membrane Separation Processes
I express my appreciation and gratefulness to my publisher, Shri Dinesh Furia and Shri.
Jignesh Furia and his entire team of Nirali Prakashan, Pune for most co-operative and painstaking
attitude with untiring efforts for bringing out the third edition of this book with great care and in a
very attractive manner.
Suggestions for improvement in the style and content of the textbook, correction of errors if
any will be greatly appreciated from the readers and will be incorporated in future editions.
Pune Mr. Kiran D. Patil

30th March 2006 E-mail: kdpatil@mitpune.com
Gudi Padva
preface to the second edition
I am happy to present the second edition of the book, “A Text book of Mass
Transfer - I” for students of degree courses in Chemical, Petroleum, Petrochemical and
Polymer Engineering of major Universities of India. The enthusiastic response to the first
edition of this book and its several reprints encouraged me to write this edition, which
contains many new features. The significant additions to chapter 2,3, 5 and 9 in greater
detail. A new chapter on Mass transfer with chemical reaction is added.
The book is written in simple and easy to follow language to understand the basic
principles, fundamental concepts of mass transfer operations for students of chemical
engineering. The course contents have been planned in such a way that the general
requirements of engineering students are fulfilled. The new material has been included in
keeping with current requirements of students.
Over 350 problems (250 solved and 100 unsolved) in this revised edition have been
carefully chosen to illustrate the fundamental concepts to help the students to bridge the
gap between theory and application of mass transfer. More than 150 quiz questions, 250
study questions from various University question papers and summary notes are given for
quick revision of the subject. Additional materials, charts, and data tables have been
added, which are equally useful to practicing engineers.
I am thankful to my colleagues, friends and my students for creating the atmosphere
of academic excellence, which encouraged me to write this book.
I am grateful to those observant readers who drew my attention to errors in the first
edition. I express my appreciation and gratefulness to my publisher, Mr. Jignesh Furia
and his team of Nirali Prakashan for most co-operative and painstaking attitude with
untiring efforts for bringing out the second edition of this book with great care and in a
very attractive manner.
Suggestions for improvement from the readers in the style and content of the
textbook, correction of errors if any will be greatly appreciated and will be incorporated
in future editions.
Chemical Engineering of major Universities in India.

18th September 2004 E-mail: kiranpatil@mitpune.com
Ganesh Chaturthi
In view of revised syllabus of Chemical Engineering in all the universities in
Maharashtra, Gujarat and other states, there is an urgent need to have standard textbooks
for various chemical engineering subjects. When I set to write this book, only a very
limited number of books on mass transfer were available in the Indian market. Also based
on the market survey of available books in Chemical Engineering, it is observed that the
books are written by foreign authors (with a few exceptions), and are often very costly.
These are generally written for diploma students. Therefore it is not possible for
undergraduate students to understand the basic theory and principles of various chemical
engineering subjects to the depth they should. As a result their preparation is not up to the
mark. This I have observed, often, in oral examinations. Thus there is a need of good
quality undergraduate textbooks in Chemical Engineering subjects which: (i) cover topics
in the syllabus up to appropriate details, (ii) discuss adequate problems, (iii) useful to all
chemical engineering students in Maharashtra, and (iv) are inexpensive. I hope that the
students studying chemical engineering will find the book useful for self-study.
This book presents an elementary treatment of the principles of Mass transfer.
A background in ordinary differential equations is helpful for proper understanding of the
material. Presentation of the subject follows classical lines of separate discussions for
principles of mass transfer operations, Diffusion mass transfer, Mass transfer coefficients,
Interphase mass transfer, Gas Absorption, Humidification and dehumidification
operations, Equipment for gas-liquid operations, Drying operations and Crystallization.
Throughout the book emphasis has been placed on visualization of physical processes
while, at the same time, relying on meaningful experimental data in those circumstances
that do not permit a simple analytical solution. Theory alone won’t do, particularly from
the point of view of examination in Indian universities and Engineering colleges. Hence
emphasis is given on numerical examples in this book. A liberal number of numerical
examples are given which include Diffusion mass transfer, Mass transfer coefficient, Gas
absorption. A detailed introduction to diffusion and mass transfer is presented in order to
acquaint the reader with these processes and to establish more firmly the important
analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer. Problems are included at the end
of each chapter. Some of these problems are of a routine nature to familiarize the student
with the numerical manipulations and orders of magnitude of various parameters that
occur in the subject of mass transfer. Other problems extend the subject matter by
requiring students to apply the basic principles to new situations and develop their own
equations. There is also a section at the end of each problem set designated as Practice
exercise. The problems in these sections typically are open-ended and do not result in a
unique answer. In some cases they are rather extended in length and require judgment
decisions during the solution process. Over 100 such problems are included in the text.
The subject of mass transfer is not static. New developments occur quite regularly,
and better analytical solutions and empirical data are continuously made available to the
professional in the field. Because of the huge amount of information that is available in
the research literature, the beginning student could easily be overwhelmed if too many of
the nuances of the subject were displayed and expanded.
The book is designed to serve as an elementary text, so the author has assumed a role
of interpreter of the literature with those findings and equations being presented which
can be of immediate utility to the reader. It is hoped that the student's attention is called
to more extensive works in a sufficient number of instances to emphasize the depth that is
available on most of the subjects of mass transfer. A serious student will do well to go
through the end-of-chapter reference
I am grateful to Prof. (Dr.) V.D. Karad, Director, Maharashtra Institute of Technology
(MIT), Pune for his constant encouragement and moral support during the preparation of
this book. I am very grateful to Dr. B.D. Kulkarni, Head, Chemical Engineering Division,
National Chemical Laboratory, Pune for writing kind words regarding my book. I am
very thankful to Prof. (Dr.) L.K. Kshirsagar for his guidance and suggestions during the
preparation of this book. Thanks are due to Prof. Datta. B. Dandge for constructive
criticism of the text.
I am very thankful to my publisher M/s Nirali Publishers, Pune and especially to
Mr. D.K. Furia for giving the present form to the book in minimum possible time. I am
also thankful to most efficient and professional staff of M/s Nirali Publishers, Pune.
I am immensely grateful to the members of my family who were encouraging,
tolerant, totally supportive and generous. I am overwhelmingly happy to acknowledge,
how much I owe them and how inadequate this sounds from the heart. I would express
my sincere gratitude to my parents, who have always been a major source of
encouragement in all my academic pursuits. Finally, my wife Varsha gives me a
wonderful rich life.
Finally to say, though I have made possible attempts to make this book flawless, yet
some errors may surprisingly creep into. Suggestions from the readers regarding
improvement of the utility of this book will be gratefully acknowledged and acted upon.
Chemical Engineering. My efforts will be successful only to that extent to which it
receives patronage from the wider section of the students and teachers of Chemical
Engineering.

15th September 2002 E-mail: kiranpatill@mitpune.com
1. Overview of Chemical Engineering Profession, Separation
Processes and Mass Transfer Operations 1.1 − 1.30
1.1 Overview of Chemical Engineering Profession 1.2
1.1.1 Historical Background 1.2
1.1.2 Definition of Chemical Engineering 1.4
1.1.3 Disciplinary Definition 1.4
1.1.4 Occupational Definition 1.4
1.1.5 Domain of Chemical Engineering 1.4
1.1.6 Where do Chemical Engineering Work ? 1.5
1.1.7 The Chemical Engineering Industry 1.6
1.1.8 Job Titles 1.7
1.1.9 Other Career Opportunities 1.8
1.1.10 Job Descriptions 1.8
1.2 Overview of Chemical Engineering Separation Processes 1.10
1.2.1 Background 1.10
1.2.2 Unit Operations 1.11
1.2.3 Examples of early separation techniques 1.11
1.2.4 Critical separations in human body 1.12
1.2.5 Mechanism of Separation 1.12
1.3 Selection of Separation Processes 1.13
1.3.1 Basic Principle 1.13
1.3.2 General Rules 1.13
1.3.3 Other Considerations 1.13
1.4 Selection of Feasible Separation Process 1.14
1.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Distillation and other Vapour-Liquid Separation Techniques 1.15
1.6 Factors which favour Separation Processes for Liquid Mixtures 1.16
1.7 Procedure for Separation Process Selection 1.16
1.8 Classification of Separation Processes 1.16
1.9 Classes of Separation Operations 1.17
1.10 Mass Transfer of Cooking-Chemical Engineering through Cooking 1.19
1.11 General Overview 1.19
1.11.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer Operations 1.20
1.12 What are the benefits of Mass Transfer Knowledge ? 1.23
1.12.1 Where and why Mass Transfer is important ? 1.23
1.12.2 Benefits that an Engineer can achieve by learning Mass Transfer 1.23
1.13 General Principles of Mass Transfer 1.23
1.13.1 Importance of Mass Transfer Operations 1.24
1.14 Classification of Mass Transfer Operations 1.24
1.14.1 Similarities between the Operations 1.25
1.14.2 Differences between the Operations 1.25
1.15 Separation Processes 1.26
1.16 Choice of Separation Method 1.28
1.17 Methods of Conducting the Mass Transfer Operations 1.28
1.17.1 Solute Recovery and Fractionation 1.28
1.17.2 Unsteady-State Operation 1.29
1.17.3 Steady-State Operation 1.29
1.17.4 Stagewise Operation 1.29
1.17.5 Continuous-Contact Operation 1.29
1.18 Design Principles 1.29
References 1.30
2. Fundamentals of Diffusion Mass Transfer 2.1 − 2.152
2.1 Introduction 2.2
2.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases 2.2
2.3 Molecular Diffusion 2.4
2.4 Moleuclar Diffusion Vs Eddy Diffuion 2.5
2.5 Molar Flux 2.6
2.6 Molecular Diffusion in Fluids and Diffusion Coefficient or Diffusivity 2.6
2.7 Diffusion in Binary Solution 2.7
2.8 Steady-state Diffusion in Fluids at Rest and Laminar Flow 2.8
2.9 Principles of Mass Transfer 2.9
2.10 Properties of Mixtures 2.10
2.10.1 Concentration of Species 2.10
2.10.2 Mass Averaged Velocity 2.11
2.11 Diffusion Flux 2.11
2.11.1 Fick's Law 2.12
2.11.2 Relation among Molar Fluxes 2.12
2.12 Diffusivity : 2.13
2.12.1 Diffusivity in Gases 2.13
2.12.2 Diffusivity in Liquids 2.14
2.12.3 Diffusivity in Solids 2.15
2.13 Steady state Diffusion 2.16
2.13.1 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 2.17
2.13.2 Pseudo – Steady – State diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 2.19
2.13.3 Equimolar Counter Diffusion 2.20
2.13.4 Diffusion into an Infinite Stagnant Medium 2.21
2.13.5 Diffusion in Liquids 2.24
2.13.6 Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reaction 2.25
2.13.7 Diffusion in Solids 2.27
2.14 Transient Diffusion 2.33
2.15 Differential Equations of Mass Transfer 2.34
Solved Problems 2.41
Exercise for Practice 2.140
Nomenclature 2.150
References 2.152
3. Mass Transfer Coefficients 3.1 − 3.88
3.2 Types of Mass Transfer Coefficients 3.2
3.2.1 Definition of Mass Transfer Coefficient 3.2
3.2.2 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Equimolar Counter Diffusion 3.3
3.2.3 Mass transfer Coefficient for A diffusing through stagnant, non-diffusing B 3.3
3.3 Local Mass Transfer Coefficient 3.4
3.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient in Turbulent Flow 3.5
3.5 Eddy/Turbulent Diffusion 3.5
3.6 Theories of Mass Transfer 3.6
3.7 Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer 3.10
3.8 Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient 3.11
3.9 Significant Parameters in Convective Mass Transfer 3.11
3.10 Application of Dimensionless Analysis to Mass Transfer 3.12
3.10.1 Transfer into a stream flowing under forced convection 3.13
3.10.2 Transfer into a phase whose motion is due to natural convection 3.15
3.11 Analogies Among Mass, Heat and Momentum Transfer 3.16
3.11.1 Reynolds Analogy 3.17
3.11.2 Chilton – Colburn Analogy 3.17
3.11.3 Taylor – Prandtl Analogy 3.18
3.12 Convective Mass Transfer Correlations 3.18
3.12.1 For Flow Around Flat Plat 3.18
3.12.2 For Flow Around Single Sphere 3.19
3.12.3 For Flow Around Single Cylinder 3.19
3.12.4 For Flow Through Pipes 3.19
3.12.5 Mass Transfer to Suspension of Small Particles 3.20
3.12.6 Mass Transfer in Packed Beds 3.20
3.12.7 Mass Transfer in Boundary Layer 3.21
3.13 Mass Transfer between Phases 3.21
3.14 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer 3.22
3.14.1 Condensation of Vapour on Cold Surface 3.23
3.14.2 Wet Bulb Thermometer 3.24
Nomenclature 3.86
References 3.88
4. Interphase Mass Transfer 4.1 − 4.48
4.2 Concept of Equilibrium 4.2
4.3 Diffusion between phases 4.3
4.4 Film concept in mass transfer 4.3
4.4.1 Two-film theory of mass transfer 4.4
4.4.2 Two-film theory and equilibrium solubility curve 4.5
4.4.3 Analysis of mass transfer process using two-film theory 4.6
4.5 Local two-phase mass transfer 4.7
4.6 Two resistance concept 4.8
4.7 Resistance to mass transfer 4.9
4.8 Overall mass transfer coefficient 4.10
4.9 Material balances for :
(a) Steady-state concurrent operations 4.11
(b) Steady-state counercurrent operations 4.11
(c) Cascades 4.11
4.10 Stages and stagewise operations 4.16
4.11 Kremser Equation 4.17
Exercises for Practice 4.44
Nomenclature 4.46
References 4.48
5. Gas Absorption 5.1 − 5.98
5.1 Background 5.1
5.2 Physical Vs. Chemical Absorption 5.5
5.3 Method of Operation 5.5
5.4 Henry's Law for Gas Absorption 5.9
5.5 Minimum Liquid/Gas Ratio for Absorption 5.9
5.6 Choice of Solvent for Gas Absorption 5.11
5.7 HETP (Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate) 5.12
5.8 Packing Height : The Method of Transfer Units 5.12
5.9 Number of Theoretical Trays 5.16
5.10 The Kremser-Brown-Souders (KBS) Equation 5.17
5.12 Equipment for Absorption/Stripping 5.18
5.13 Equilibrium Curve 5.20
5.14 Interfacial Mass Transfer : Review 5.23
5.15 Definition of Transfer Coefficients 5.24
5.16 Height of Packed Tower 5.28
5.17 Transfer Unit 5.31
5.18 Evaluation of NTU's Integral 5.33
5.19 Concept of HETP 5.36
5.20 Analogy with Double Pipe Heat Exchanger 5.36
5.21 Relationship among Hox, Hoy, Hx, Hy 5.37
5.22 Pressure Drop in Packed Beds 5.38
5.23 Tower Diameter 5.41
5.24 Absorption with Chemical Reaction 5.42
5.25 General Procedure for Design of Packed Absorption Columns 5.43
5.26 Design Considerations 5.44
5.27 Typical Absorber Design Problem 5.45
Nomenclature 5.96
References 5.98
6. Humidification and Dehumidification Operations 6.1 − 6.46
6.2 General Principles of Humidification and Dehumidification 6.2
6.3 Vapour Gas Mixture 6.2
6.4 Definitions of Humidity Terms 6.3
6.5 Adiabatic Saturation Process 6.5
6.6 Theory of Wet Bulb Temperature 6.6
6.7 Humidity Chart 6.7
6.8 The Lewis Relation 6.7
6.9 Gas Liquid Contact Operations 6.7
6.10 Adiabatic Operations 6.10
6.11 Humidification and Dehumidification Equipments 6.15
6.11.1 Cooling Tower Overview 6.15
6.11.2 Operating Principle of Cooling Towers 6.15
6.11.3 Cooling Tower Selection 6.16
6.11.4 Hot Water Distribution Systems 6.17
6.11.5 Air Flow Distribution Systems 6.17
6.12 Cooling towers : Design and Operational Considerations 6.19
6.12.1 Types of Cooling Towers 6.19
6.12.2 Cooling Tower Theory 6.20
6.12.3 Design Considerations 6.24
6.13 Height of Cooling Tower 6.25
Solved Problem 6.27
Nomenclature 6.44
References 6.46
7. Equipment for Gas-Liquid Operations 7.1 − 7.34
7.2 Sparged Vessels (Bubble Columns) 7.2
7.3 Mechanically Agitated Vessels 7.5
7.3.1 Mechanical Agitation of Single-Phase Liquids 7.5
7.3.2 Vortex Formation and Prevention 7.7
7.3.3 Similarity considerations in Agitated Vessels 7.7
7.4 Tray Towers 7.8
7.4.1 General Characteristics 7.9
7.4.2 Bubble Cap Trays 7.11
7.4.3 Proprietary Trays : Linde Trays, Valve Trays and Counterflow Trays 7.12
7.4.4 Tray Efficiency 7.13
7.4.5 Design Considerations 7.14
7.5 Packed Towers 7.15
7.5.1 Introduction 7.15
7.5.2 Construction Details 7.15
7.5.3 Gas and Liquid Phase Coefficients 7.20
7.5.4 Design Criteria for Packed Towers 7.21
7.5.5 Comparision between Tray Towers and Packed Columns 7.23
7.6 Ventrui Scrubbers 7.23
7.7 Wetted Wall Tower 7.24
7.8 Spray Tower 7.25
Nomenclature 7.31
References 7.34
8. Drying Operations 8.1 − 8.56
8.2 Expression of Moisture Content 8.2
8.3 Equilibrium in Drying 8.3
8.4 Types of Moisture 8.3
8.5 Mechanism of Batch Drying 8.3
8.6 Drying Tests 8.4
8.7 Rate of Drying Curve 8.4
8.8 Time required for Drying 8.5
8.9 Drying Time for Droplets 8.8
8.9.1 Constant Rate Period 8.8
8.9.2 Falling Rate Period 8.9
8.9.3 Droplet Trajectory 8.10
8.10 Heat Transfer in Dryers 8.10
8.11 Mechanism of Moisture Movement within the Solid 8.12
8.12 Equipments for Drying 8.13
8.13 Selection, Sizing and Costs 8.18
8.14 Efficient Energy Utilization in Drying 8.18
Exercise For Practice 8.54
Nomenclature 8.56
References 8.56
Appendix A : SI Systems, Fundamental Constants and

Conversion Units A.1 − A.7
Appendix B : A Few Useful Observations B.1 − B.2
Appendix C : Humidification and Water Cooling in a Packed Column C.1 − C.5
Appendix D : Dimensionless Groups and Correlations in Heat
and Mass Transfer D.1 − D.4
Appendix E : Physical Properties E.1 − E.12
Appendix F : Determining Mass Transfer Coefficients F.1 − F.3
Appendix G : Algebraic Solution of Equilibrium Stage Problems :
The Kremser Equation G.1 − G.5
Study Questions S.1 − S.10

1
CHAPTER
OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

PROFESSION, SEPARATION PROCESSES
AND
MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS
1.1 Overview of Chemical Engineering Profession
1.1.1 Historical Background
1.1.2 Definition of Chemical Engineering
1.1.3 Disciplinary Definition
1.1.4 Occupational Definition
1.1.5 Domain of Chemical Engineering
1.1.6 Where do Chemical Engineering Work ?
1.1.7 The Chemical Engineering Industry
1.1.8 Job Titles
1.1.9 Other Career Opportunities
1.1.10 Job Descriptions
1.2 Overview of Chemical Engineering Separation Processes
1.2.1 Background
1.2.2 Unit Operations
1.2.3 Examples of early separation techniques
1.2.4 Critical separations in human body
1.2.5 Mechanism of Separation
1.3 Selection of Separation Processes
1.3.1 Basic Principle
1.3.2 General Rules
1.3.3 Other Considerations
(1.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 1.2 Overview of Chemical Engineering Profession, ……
1.4 Selection of Feasible Separation Process

1.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Distillation and other Vapour-Liquid Separation Techniques
1.6 Factors which favour Separation Processes for Liquid Mixtures
1.7 Procedure for Separation Process Selection
1.8 Classification of Separation Processes
1.9 Classes of Separation Operations
1.10 Mass Transfer of Cooking-Chemical Engineering through Cooking
1.11 General Overview
1.11.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer Operations
1.12 What are the benefits of Mass Transfer Knowledge ?
1.12.1 Where and why Mass Transfer is important ?
1.12.2 Benefits that an Engineer can achieve by learning Mass Transfer
1.13 General Principles of Mass Transfer
1.13.1 Importance of Mass Transfer Operations
1.14 Classification of Mass Transfer Operations
1.14.1 Similarities between the Operations
1.14.2 Differences between the Operations
1.15 Separation Processes
1.16 Choice of Separation Method
1.17 Methods of Conducting the Mass Transfer Operations
1.17.1 Solute Recovery and Fractionation
1.17.2 Unsteady-State Operation
1.17.3 Steady-State Operation
1.17.4 Stagewise Operation
1.17.5 Continuous-Contact Operation
1.18 Design Principles
References
1.1 OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROFESSION

1.1.1 Historical Background
Chemical Engineering
. . . Takes chemistry out of the lab and into the world
Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry, maths, and physics to the design and
operation of large-scale chemical manufacturing processes. They translate processes developed in
the lab into practical applications for the production of products such as plastics, medicines,
detergents, and fuels; design plants to maximize productivity and minimize costs; and evaluate
plant operations for performance and product quality.
Chemical engineers are employed by almost all companies in the chemical process industry.
Their work also extends to processes in nuclear energy, materials science, food production, the
development of new sources of energy, and even medicine. In addition to process and product
development and design, chemical engineers work in areas such as production, research,
environmental studies, market analysis, data processing, sales, and management. They affect or
control at some stage the materials or production of almost every article manufactured on an
industrial scale.
. . . Is the broadest branch of engineering ?
Chemical engineering is broader in scope than the other branches of engineering because it
draws on the three main engineering foundations : maths, physics, and chemistry - whereas the
other branches are based on only the first two. A specific interest in chemistry combined an
aptitude for maths and science attracts individuals to the profession. The curriculum of study for
chemical engineering is similar to that for chemistry but includes course work in engineering-
related areas such as thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, process design, and control and
electronics.
Once processes and equipment are designed, chemical engineers remain on hand at a
production facility to solve problems that occur as the processes continue. When changes occur
that upset a running system, chemical engineers analyze samples from the system, looking at
parameters such as temperatures, pressures, and flow rates to determine where the problem
exists. They also work on expanding projects, evaluating new equipment, and improving existing
equipment and processes. Meeting safety, health, and environmental regulations is also a large
part of a chemical engineer’s work life.
As the Industrial Revolution (18th Century to the present) steamed along certain basic
chemicals quickly became necessary to sustain growth. Sulfuric acid was first among these
"industrial chemicals". For all intents and purposes the chemical engineering profession began in
1888.
An effort in 1880, by George Davis to unite these varied professionals through a "Society of
Chemical Engineers" proved unsuccessful.
However, this muddled state of affairs was changed in 1888, when Professor Lewis Norton of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology introduced "Course X" (ten), thereby uniting chemical
engineers through a formal degree. Other schools, such as the University of Pennsylvania and
Tulane University, quickly followed suit adding their own four-year chemical engineering
programs in 1892 and 1894 respectively.
A Few Dates in the History of Chemical Engineering :
1880 : George Davis proposed a "Society of Chemical Engineers" in England.
1888 : The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) began "Course X" (ten), the first four-
year chemical engineering program in the United States.
1908 : The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) was founded.
1915 : The Unit Operations Concept – That a chemical process could be broken down into a
series of steps that might include : heat transfer, transportation of solids and liquids,
crystallization, distillation, evaporation etc. – was stated by Arthur Little.
1925 : The AIChE began accrediting chemical engineering programs.
1.1.2 Definition of Chemical Engineering
Chemical engineering is one of the broadest fields of engineering. This breadth stems from
the fact that the discipline is founded on mathematics and on all the basic sciences, namely,
chemistry, physics, as well as biology, making it a truely interdisciplinary field of study.
In comparison, the other major engineering disciplines are founded mainly on maths and
physics. Thus, there are two alternate definitions of chemical engineering :
Chemical Engineering
Physics
Maths
Bilology Chemistry
Fig. 1.1 : Foundation of Chemical Engineering Science
1.1.3 Disciplinary Definition

Chemical Engineering is the profession in which knowledge of mathematics, physics,
chemistry and biology, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied with judgment to
develop economic and safe ways of using materials to benefit mankind.
1.1.4 Occupational Definition
Chemical Engineering is a broad discipline dealing with processes (industrial and natural)
involving the transformation (chemical, biological, or physical) of matter or energy into forms
useful for mankind, economically and without compromising environment, safety, or finite
resources.
1.1.5 Domain of Chemical Engineering
The molecular basis of the chemical and physical transformation of matter that Chemical
Engineers are concerned with, coupled with the global principles underlying the discipline
(conservation of mass, energy, and momentum, the notion of unit operations, and reaction
kinetics) allows them to work from the nano-scale (design of catalysts, or molecular design of
drugs) to the meso-scale (petroleum refinery) to the global-scale (air pollution modeling and
control). This is unique to Chemical Engineering and is depicted in the figure as shown on next
page.
Time
scale
Month
Enterprise
Week
Site
day
Plants
h
Process units
min
Single and multi-
phase systems
s
Particles, Small
thin films
ms Chemical scale Intermediate
Molecule
cluster Large
ns
Molecules
ps
1 pm 1 nm 1 mm 1 mm 1m 1 km Length scale
Fig. 1.2 : Domain of Chemical Engineering in Time and Length Scale

1.1.6 Where Do Chemical Engineers Work ?
Chemical Engineers can do just about anything ! The broad training receive as a chemical
engineering student equips to not only have highly rewarding careers in the chemical industry,
but to pursue further education and careers in just about any other field including business
management, banking and finance, law, teaching, and medicine etc. Now-a-days chemical
engineering graduates have entered just about every profession imaginable. For this reason,
chemical engineering is sometimes called the "liberal arts of engineering".
Chemical or process engineers turn great ideas discovered in laboratories into practical
devices and processes that :
• Improve our quality of life;
• Protect the environment;
• Ensure products and services we purchase are cheaper and of better quality; and
• That industry increases competitiveness, thereby protecting and creating jobs and
wealth for communities.
Chemical engineers do this using a combination of biology, biochemistry and/or chemistry
with mathematics (as well as a bit of economics and finance) to predict how these ideas will work
on a larger-scale outside the laboratory in the real world, and then building and operating the
equipment needed to bring these ideas to life. Chemical engineers have helped do this by
performing "research and development" or by "design and operation" of many chemical
manufacturing processes.
Work Description :
Chemical engineers design and operate plants and processes for large-scale production of
chemical products. They use chemistry, physics, and mathematical equations to solve real
problems and design ways to produce products safely and economically.
Working Conditions :
Chemical engineers typically work in manufacturing plants, research laboratories, or pilot
plant facilities. They work around large-scale production equipment that is housed both indoors
and outdoors. Often they are required to wear safety protective equipment, such as hard hats,
goggles, and steel-toe shoes. Workdays may involve of moving from place to place within a
facility. Chemical engineers also work in business and management offices; these positions,
however, often require visiting research and production facilities. Interaction with other people
who are part of a team is critical to the success of projects.
Personal Characteristics :
A strong interest in chemistry, maths, and physics is vital to success in this field because
chemical engineering draws on all three disciplines. Chemical engineers are trained to apply lab
processes to large-scale production, monitor processes, and understand highly technical material.
As a result, thinking analytically, solving problems, and being creative are essential. Because
projects often involve complex processes and problems that require teamwork and the
preparation of reports, good interpersonal, oral, and written communication skills are highly
desirable.
1.1.7 The Chemical Engineering Industry
The following is a listing of the traditional chemical industry subdisciplines along with
examples of some companies employing chemical engineers :
• Fuels and Energy
Petroleum (ONGC, DGH, OIL, IOCL, GSPC, RELIANCE, CAIRN ENERGY)
Natural Gas/Utilities (ONGC, PETRONET, GAIL)
Hydrogen (BOC)
Batteries (EXIDE)
Fuel Cells
• Commodity Chemicals
Agricultural Chemicals (HOCL, INDOFIL, HIL)
Plastics (GE Plastics)
Rubber (CEAT Tyres)
• Specialty/Consumer Chemicals
Adhesives (Fevicol)
Specialty Chemicals (Kodak)
Paints, Varnishes, Inks (Asian Paints)
Soaps, Detergents (Proctor and Gamble, Godrej Soaps)
Cosmetics, Perfumes (Clairol)
• Advanced Materials
Glass
Ceramics (Kajaria)
Composites
Polymers (Reliance)
Metals (Relience, Pearl)
Catalysts
• Textiles
Petrochemicals (IPCL, Reliance)
Air Chemicals (Air Products, Praxair)
• Medicine
Biotechnology (BICON)
Biomedical Devices
• Transportation
Auto (BAJAJ)
Aerospace
Microelectronics (Intel, IBM, GE)
Pharmaceutical (Pfizer)
Process Control (Fisher, Foxboro, Tata Honeywell)
Process Design (Aspen Plus)
Food and Beverages (Coca-Cola, National Starch)
Pulp and Paper (Ballarpur Paper Industries)
Design and construction (UHDE, SULZER, CHEMTEX, PRAJ etc.)
Environmental, safety, and health
1.1.8 Job Titles
Within the subdisciplines listed above, chemical engineers work as :
• Production Engineer
• Process Engineer
• Production Manager
• Maintenance Engineer
• Process Control Engineer
• Sales and Marketing Engineer
• Design Engineer
• Environmental Engineer
• Manufacturing Engineer
• Research Engineer
• Development Engineer
• Technical Service Engineer
• Quality Control Engineer
• Chief Executive Officer
1.1.9 Other Career Opportunities

In addition to traditional engineering jobs, many chemical engineers work in the following
areas :
• Consultant
• Environmental Consultant
• Business Management
• Law
• Patent Attorney
• Medicine
• Government
• Military
• Finance
• University Professor
• Entrepreneur
1.1.10 Job Descriptions
The specific responsibilities of chemical engineers, though varying among industries and
even within the same company, can be categorized in general terms. Titles such as "process
design engineer" and "project engineer" will describe positions in most industries, whatever the
type of work, process, equipment, and product that is involved.
Job Function Description
Process Design Engineer Designs manufacturing facilities and the equipment and material used
inside. Process design engineers work with teams of engineers to develop
new or improved processes to meet a company’s production needs.
Environmental Engineer Develops techniques to reduce and recover usable materials from waste
created during manufacture of a product. Designs waste storage and
treatment facilities, as well as pollution control strategies for plant
operations. Environmental engineers may be responsible for monitoring all
systems in a facility for compliance with government environmental
regulations.
Plant Process Engineer Provides technical support to staff and troubleshoots processes in a
production facility to keep a plant running efficiently. Plant process engineers
work closely with equipment operators to get feedback on the operations of
each process and determine how to avoid shutdowns. They may also be
involved with some design work for improvement projects.
Process Safety Engineer Designs and maintains plants and processes that are safer for workers and
communities. Process safety engineers may conduct safety analyses of new
and existing equipment, and train employees on how to safely operate a new
piece of equipment.
Project Engineer Oversees the design and construction of specific processes in a facility. After
construction, they may assist in equipment testing, operator training, and
plant start-up. Project engineers may be responsible for the design, and
start-up, of a specific process in a facility.

Consultant Works for many different customers and brings specialized knowledge to
individual projects. Consultants in a construction company may work with
teams of engineers to design and construct an expansion project for a
pharmaceutical company.
Product Engineer Follows the production cycle of a particular product to ensure that it is being
produced according to specification. Product engineers may work with
marketing and R&D to ensure that a product will meet the needs of
customers, then sees the product through production. They may work on
new products or special variations of existing products.
Manufacturing Production Responsible for the day-to-day operation of a specific manufacturing
Engineer process. Manufacturing production engineers work directly with operators to
ensure that a particular product is made according to specifications.
Research & Development Seeks out new and more efficient ways of using and producing existing
Engineer products. Explores and develops new processes and products and
determines their usefulness and applicability. Chemical engineers working in
research and development may work with chemists and other engineers to
develop a new process or new product that will better meet customer needs.
Project Manager Oversees the overall design and construction of a facility, and then manages
ongoing operations. Project managers may manage a group of project
engineers during the design and construction of a new facility.
Attorney Specializes in intellectual property law, patent law, technology transfer,
environmental compliance, and safety issues. Patent attorneys obtain
patents for clients and monitor the marketplace for possible patent
infringements.
Biomedical Specialist Works alongside physicians to develop systems that track critical chemical
processes in the body. Biomedical specialists may be involved in the design
of artificial organs, such as hearts and lungs.
Computer Applications and Designs instrumentation and programs systems monitor and control certain
Technology Engineer processes. Automation engineers may design systems to monitor a series of
processes in a chemical, petroleum or biotechnology facility.
Technical Manager Responsible for the engineering staff and programs at a facility. Manages
people, research programs, and daily operations of the engineering
functions. Technical managers may oversees the R&D program and work
with plant managers to plan and implement the funding programs and
expansion necessary to develop a new product.
Business Co-ordinator Develops budgets and capital projections for a facility or process. Business
co-ordinators work closely with production and design team members to
ascertain the exact needs of a new process then plans the capital needs
necessary to implement the program.

Professor Instructs students in the field of chemical engineering and conducts research
in pertinent areas. Professors may teach several classes in chemical
engineering, be members on university committees, and conduct research
using funding from government, corporate, or private grants.
Quality Control Engineer Monitors the manufacture of a product to ensure that it meets specifications.
Also, tests materials to determine how they perform over time. Quality control
engineers may bring samples of a product in from a field test, or from a
normal application, and test them to determine how specific properties, such
as strength, color, and weatherability, change over time.
Regulatory Affairs Engineer Researches, develops, and monitors policies and procedures that companies
must follow to ensure the proper handling of chemicals and chemical
components. Chemical engineers in regulatory affairs may be government
employees, who study the environmental impact of a new chemical, then
recommend appropriate guidelines for the chemical’s use.
Technical Services Engineer Works with customers, usually on-site, to solve production problems caused
by a specific process or machine. Chemical engineers working in technical
services may represent the manufacturer of a specific machine to determine
why it is not performing as designed. They often must understand the other
steps in the production process to determine if there is a breakdown in
another area.
Sales and Marketing Engineer Assists customers in solving production and process problems by providing
products and services to meet their specific needs. Chemical engineers in
sales use their technical knowledge to sell chemicals, equipment, and other
products, and provide follow-up services and training where needed.
1.2 OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPARATION PROCESSES
1.2.1 Background
The traditional concept of unit operations has been a major factor in the phenomenal success
of chemical engineers and chemical engineering in last fifty years or so. Unit operations is
concerned with those separation processes that depend upon the differences in the physical
properties, rather than chemical behaviour. Such processes depend either upon a difference in
composition of phases at equilibrium or upon a difference in the rate of mass transfer of
constituents of mixture. A typical process, which a chemical engineer might work with, is
production of gasoline from crude oil.
Process = Sequence of “ unit operations” (physical changes) + Chemical reactors.
In this process chemical engineers realized that the many process involved the same physical
and chemical operations. Examples of this include : filtration, drying, distillation, crystallization,
grinding, sedimentation, combustion, catalysis, heat exchange, extrusion, coating, and so on.
These "Unit Operations" repeatedly find their way into industrial chemical practice, and
became a convenient manner of organizing chemical engineering knowledge.
Methane-rich gas Ethane
Reboiled
absorption
Absorber
Wet natural gas

Distillation
Isobutane Propane
Distillation
Distillation Distillation
Normal Natural
Butane Gasoline
Fig. 1.3 : A Typical Chemical Engineering Separation Process
1.2.2 Unit Operations
• Separations • Distillation
• Mixing • Leaching
• Heating/cooling • Extraction
• Pumps • Absorption/Stripping
• Drying • Membrane Separations
• Humidification • Mechanical Separations
• Crystallization
• Adsorption in fixed-bed separations
Distillation
Gas absorption
Use Crystallization
Absorption
Membranes
Chromatography
Technology maturity
Fig. 1.4 : Technology Maturity and Use for Unit Operations

1.2.3 Examples for early separation techniques
• Salt by evaporating seawater,
• Metals extracted from ores,
• Perfumes extracted from plants,
• Various drinks, medicines extracted from plants,

• Liquors distilled form plants.
1.2.4 Critical separations in human body
• Separation of oxygen from air and of CO2 from blood in the lungs.
• Selective removal of water and waste products of metabolism from blood in the kidneys.
• Selective absorption of nutrients in the intestines.
In chemical industry, separation techniques are mainly used for :
• Isolating and manufacturing valuable chemicals from mixtures,
• Removing impurities from raw materials,
• Purification of products,
• Removal of contaminants and valuable constituents from effluent streams
(Environmental Protection).
1.2.5 Mechanism of Separation
Mixing : spontaneous, natural process accompanied by increase in entropy and randomness.
Second Law of Thermodynamics states that all natural processes take place so as to increase the
entropy or randomness of the universe.
Separation : Reverse of mixing, demixing. Equivalent of thermodynamic work has to supplied
to cause the separation to occur.
Separation process is the technology of unmixing and isolating the wanted product or
products economically, feasibly and without harming the environment. To accomplish a
separation there are usually several competing techniques available.
Each technique has to be analyzed in terms of :
1. Economic conditions
2. Customer requirements
3. Applicable official regulations
In order to affect a separation, separating agents are needed in the form of either :
• Energy input (heat, pressure, electricity, magnetism, kinetic or potential energy).
• Withdrawal of energy (cooling, freezing).
• Matter (filter, membrane, chemicals).
A separation process is an operation carried out in a special separation device which
transforms a mixture into at least two product streams which are different in composition.
In the separation device, separation takes place due to an imposed gradient such as
temperature, concentration, pressure or electrical field.
Two important elements of separation are :
1. Separating agent used (heat, pressure, solvent, matter such as resins, filters, adsorbents
etc.).
2. Principle of separation used, separation gradient applied (temperature, concentration,
chemical potential, magnetic field etc.).
1.3 SELECTION OF SEPARATION PROCESSES

1.3.1 Basic Principle
Examine physical properties and exploit differences in physical properties between
components being separated.
1.3.2 General Rules
1. Consider processes that exploit vapor-liquid equilibrium first (e.g., distillation) since
these processes tend to be energy efficient and simple to design, build, and operate. Difference in
boiling points between components being separated usually gives a good indication of the
feasibility :
• A boiling point difference (∆TBoiling) of greater than 100°C usually indicates a single stage
process is feasible.
• A boiling point difference between 10 and 100°C usually indicates that a multistage
distillation process is feasible.
• A boiling point difference less than 10°C usually means distillation is unlikely to work
since a very large number of stages is required.
In general, a boiling point difference of 10°C corresponds to a relative volatility of 1.2
between components. In close cases, estimate the relative volatility and use it as a criterion since
a relative volatility greater than 1.2 is usually needed for multistage distillation to be successful.
2. Don't use distillation if :
• Boiling points are high (e.g., greater than 200°C).
• Components decompose when heated.
• Boiling point difference is less than 10°C (see above).
3. If vapor-liquid equilibrium processes are not promising, consider liquid-liquid
extraction next. Solubilities in various solvents are the key physical property.
• For physically interacting solvents (e.g., no hydrogen bonding) the "cohesive energy
density" (which is also related to the solubility parameter in regular solution theory) is
the key property. Try to select a solvent so that the solubility parameter of the solvent is
within 3 (cal/cm3)2 of the solubility parameter of one of the components to be separated
and more than 3 units from the other component.
• For chemically interacting solvents, try to exploit hydrogen bonding, acid-base
interactions, or other "specific" chemical interactions.
4. Consider membrane processes next. A key consideration is whether an appropriate
membrane material exists.
5. Consider adsorption processes next.
1.3.3 Other Considerations
• Favour processes that remove a minor component from a major component.
• Adsorption processes become favourable as the solute concentration becomes very small
since the fact these processes are batch process becomes less of a disadvantage under
these conditions. This is because an adsorption bed can be left on stream for long time
between regeneration cycles when the solute concentration is dilute.
1.4 SELECTION OF FEASIBLE SEPARATION PROCESS
The selection of a best separation process must be frequently made from among a number of
feasible candidates. When the feed mixture is to be separated into more than two products, or a
combination of two or more operations may be best. Even when only two products are to be
produced, a hybrid process of two or more operations may be most economical. The important
factors in the selection of feasible separation operations are listed in Table. These factors have to
do with feed and product conditions, property differences.
Table 1.1 : Factors That Influences The Selection of Feasible Separation Operations
A. Feed Conditions :
1. Composition, particularly concentration of species to be recovered or separated
2. Flow rate
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
5. Phase state (Solid, liquid, and/or gas)
B. Product Conditions :
1. Required purities of products
2. Temperature
3. Pressure
4. Phase States
C. Property differences that may be exploited :
1. Molecular
2. Thermodynamic
3. Transport
D. Characteristics of separation operation :
1. Ease of scale-up
2. Ease of staging
3. Temperature, pressure, and phase-state requirements
4. Physical size requirements
5. Energy requirements
Table 1.2 : Examples of Separation Processes and Separating Agents
Process Separating agent(s) Application(s)

Absorption Solvent Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide from natural gas
with amine solvents.
Adsorption and ion Adsorbent/resin Separation of meta- and paraxylene, air separation, water
exchange demineralisation.
Chromatography Adsorbent Separation of sugars.
Crystallisation Heat removal Production of beverages such as "ice" beer.
Distillation Heat Propylene/propane separation, production of gasoline from crude oil,
air separation.
Drying Heat Drying of ceramics, plastics and foods.
Electrodialysis Membrane Water desalination.
Evaporation Heat Water desalination, sugar manufacture.
Extraction Solvent Recovery of benzene/toluene/xylenes from gasoline reformate,
removal of caffeine from coffee.
Membranes Membrane Separation of hydrogen from hydrocadrbons, concentration of fruit
juices, water desalination.
Stripping Stripping gas Removal of benzene from wastewaters.
1.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF DISTILLATION AND OTHER VAPOUR-

LIQUID SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
• Economically, if a stream can be easily vaporized or condensed, distillation or a related
vapour-liquid seaparation technique is generally preferred. Reasons of this choice are :
1. Large number of stages at reasonable equipment costs. High degrees of separation even
with low relative volatilities, down to 1.2.
2. Process equipment requirements in terms of size of units needed are small compared to
other separation techniques involving mass separting agent (MSA’s) Throughput/unit
volume of equipment is highest for distillation.
3. Low scale-up factors. Doubling a distillation column’s capacity increases the capital
investment by abt. 1.5 times. Higher scale-up factors for other techniques often lead to
multiple units arranged in parallel, resulting in higher capital costs.
4. Energy costs usually run second in impact to capital costs. Substitution of a more
complex, higher-investment but lower-energy usage process for an existing distillation
usually does not pay off in reduced energy costs. Besides, distillation is suitable for heat
integration to cut energy costs.
1.6 FACTORS WHICH FAVOUR SEPARATION PROCESSES FOR LIQUID

MIXTURES
• Distillation
– Relative volatility a greater than 1.2
– Products thermally stable
– Rate greater stable
– No corrosion, precipitation or explosion problems
• Azeotropic/Extractive Distillation • Extraction

– Systems normally contain azeotropes – Solvent selectivity greater than for distillation
– A in solvent greater than for distillation and greater than 1.5 – 2.0
– Solvent thermally stable easily regenerable – Solvent selective for low-concentration
– Solvent commercially available (at a resonable cost) – Energy costs high
– Easy solvent recovery
• Adsorption • Membranes
– Adsorbent selectivity greater than 2 for bulk – Membrane selectivity greater than 10 (except
separations and greater than 10 – 100 for purifications – Bulk separation, clean air/water projects and
– High percentage solute removal some trace removals
– Acceptable delta and loadings – Acceptable fluxes
– Adsorbent not susceptible to rapid fouling – Membrane chemically stable
– Bed(s) easily regenerable – Membrane not susceptible to rapid fouling
– Clean air/water projects – Low to moderate feed rates.
1.7 PROCEDURE FOR SEPARATION PROCESS SELECTION

1. Lay out the nature of the separation task; listing feed rate and its composition and
different product streams required and their purities.
2. Apply first guides for deciding on alternative separation techniques taking into account
various factors regarding physical, chemical properties of the feed components, and the
production rate of the process.
3. Compare economic analyses for alternative procedures that use the selected separation
techniques.
4. Evaluate possible column/unit sequences and determine the best flowsheet based on the
lowest overall capital plus operating costs.
1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF SEPARATION PROCESSES
Several ways to classify separation processes :
• Mechanical (heterogeneous-feed) Vs. Diffusional (homogeneous-feed) techniques.
• Equilibration processes vs. rate-governed techniques.
• Energy-separating agent vs. mass separating agent techniques.
1.9 CLASSES OF SEPARATION OPERATIONS

1. Equilibration processes : Equilibration of two immiscible phases, which have different
compositions at equilibrium.
2. Rate governed processes : Differences in transport rate through some medium under the
influence of an imposed force, resulting from a gradient in pressure, temperature,
composition, electric potential, or the like.
3. Mechanical processes : Heterogeneous feed consisting of more than one phase of matter.
These simply serve to separate phases from each other.
Name Feed Separating Agent Products Principle of Separation
Equilibrium Separation Processes :
1. Evaporation Liquid Head Liquid + Vapour Difference in volatilities
(vapour pressure)
2. Flash expansion Liquid Pressure reduction Liquid + Vapour Same
(energy)
3. Distillation Liquid and/or Heat Liquid + Vapour Same (repeated internally)
Vapour
4. Stripping Liquid Non-condensable gas Liquid + Vapour Same
5. Adsorption Gas Non-volatile Liquid Liquid + Vapour Preferential Solubility
6. Extraction Liquid Immiscible Liquid Two Liquids Different solubilities of
different species in the two
liquid phases
7. Gel filtration Liquid Solid gel (e.g. cross- Gel phase and Difference in molecular size
linked dextran) liquid and hence in penetrate
swollen gel matrix
8. Dual-temperature Fluid Heating and cooling Two fluids Difference in reaction
exchange reactions equilibrium constant at two
different temperatures
9. Zone melting Solid Heat Solid of non- Same as crystallization
uniform
composition
10. Osmosis Salt solution More concentrated Two liquids Tendency to achieve
salt solution : uniform osmotic pressures
membrane removes water from more
dilute solution
11. Bubble fractionation; Liquid Rising air bubbles; Two liquids Tendency of surfactant
Liquid foam sometimes also molecules to accumulate at
fractionation complexing gas-liquid interface and rise
surfactants with air bubbles
12. Flotation Mixed Added surfactants; Two solids Tendency of surfactants to
powdered rising air bubbles adsorb preferentially on
solids one solid species
13. Magnetic separation Mixed Magnetic field Two solids Attraction of materials in
powdered magnetic field
solids
14. Paper Liquid Capillarity; paper or Regions of Preferential solubilities and
chromatography gel phrase moistened paper adsorption potentials in two
phrases
15. Freeze drying Frozen water- Heat Dry solid and Sublimation of water
containing water vapour
solid
16. Desublimation Vapour Cooling Solid and vapour Preferential condensation
(desublimation);
preferential participation in
crystal structure
17. Dialysis Liquid Selective membrane; Liquids Different rates of diffusional
solvent transport through
membrane (no bulk flow)
18. Electrodialysis Liquid Anionic and cationic Liquids Tendency of anionic
membranes; electric membranes to pass only
field anions, etc.
19. Gas permeation Gas Selective membrane; Gases Different solubilities and
pressure gradient transport rates through
membrane
20. Electrophoresis Liquid Electric field Liquids Different ionic mobilities of
containing
21. Molecular distillation Liquid mixtures Heat and vacuum Liquid and Difference in kinetic theory
vapour maximum rate of
vapourization. Proportional
to vapour pressure
(molecular weight)1/2
Mechanical Separation Processes :
1. Filtration Liquid + Solid Pressure reduction Liquid + Solid Size of solid greater than
(energy); filter pore size of filter medium.
medium
2. Mesh demister Gas + Solid or Pressure reduction Gas + Solid or Same
Liquid (energy); wire mesh Liquid
3. Settling Liquid + Solid Gravity Liquid + Solid or Density difference
or another another
immiscible immiscible liquid
liquid
4. Centrifuge Liquid + Solid Centrifugal force Liquid + Solid or Density difference
(semdimentation or another another
type) immiscible immiscible liquid
liquid
5. Centrifuge (filtration Liquid + Solid Centrifugal force Liquid + Solid Size of solid greater than
type) pore size of filter medium
6. Cyclone Gas + Solid or Flow (inertia) Gas + Solid or Density difference
Liquid Liquid
7. Electrostatic Gas + Fine Electric field Gas + Fine Charge on fine solid
precipitation Solids Solids particles.
1.10 MASS TRANSFER OF COOKING-CHEMICAL ENGINEERING THROUGH

COOKING
Mass transfer is important concept in the field of chemical engineering and science in general.
Mass transfer is the movement of something that has mass. Since all matter has mass, then mass
transfer just refers to the movement of all things. Mass has the tendency to move from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration. What we mean by that is, it moves from an
area where it is crowded to a more open space. This is just how people act in a crowd. To avoid
feeling claustrophobic, many people will move from the center of a crowd to the outskirts to get
more breathing room. Everything in nature does this, which is the basis behind mass transfer.
Mass transfer is often seen in many day-to-day situations. Have you ever sprayed perfume in
one corner of the room and smelled it a few seconds later in another corner of the room ? The
perfume moved from the area where it was sprayed (high concentration) to an area where there
was less perfume (low concentration). Mass transfer can also be seen when a glass of water is left
on the table overnight. The next morning the glass is found empty. What happened to the water ?
Was it spilled ? Probably not. The water probably turned into water vapor and spread into the
room where there was a low concentration of water vapour. How many of you have ever poured
bubble bath into a tub of running water ? The bubbles don't just stay in the area where you
poured them. Instead, they move throughout the bathtub evenly. This is just yet another example
of mass transfer.
The types of mass transfer discussed above are examples of diffusion. The bath bubbles
diffuse through the bathtub and the perfume diffuses through the air in the room. Diffusion can
also be related to the example of making Brewing Coffee.
Have you ever heard a coffee drinker say, "Coffee is an acquired taste" ?
Tea, coffee is the most popular drink in the world. It must be a pretty easy taste to acquire.
Often times, it is not the flavour of coffee that is desired, but its caffeine. Now, there are several
ways of preparing coffee, that is, several ways of extracting caffeine from the coffee bean. The
most often used method is to allow hot water to strain through coffee grounds, picking up
caffeine and the flavourful tannins as it goes. The coffee is then strained out of the grounds into a
collection container. Percolation is a similar method in which the coffee is allowed to circulate
through the grounds several times. Other methods, like steeping and vacuum brewing let the
boiling water stay in contact with the grounds throughout the entire brewing process. Another
method of making coffee is through the use of instant coffees. Instant coffee is actually coffee
brewed through a traditional method and then dried or freeze dried.
So exactly how do we get the caffeine out of the coffee beans ? This process can be described
using mass transfer equations used in chemical engineering. The specific equation, which
describes this movement, is called Fick's Law.
1.11 GENERAL OVERVIEW
In the heart of all industrial processes where raw materials are processed, separated or
purified into useful products resides the science of chemical engineering. since a chemical process
may be visualised as a collections or co-ordinated steps or operations – called unit operations –
involving, changes in chemical composition or physical properties of materials being prepared,
processed, separated or purified, so the fundamental duty of a chemical engineer is to choose
proper raw materials, select appropriate steps/operations in appropriate sequence and specify
the exact conditions under which each such step is to be carried out. He/she must see that his
plants are run efficiently, safely and economically and that the end products meet the standards
required by the customers.
Formal theory alone cannot help a chemical engineer to solve his/her process problems.
He/she must coin valuable informations from operators who have observed process and learned
methods of detail control. The most capable engineer is he/she who gives proper weightage to all
the available facts and data regardless of their resource.
Mass transfer phenomena are to be found everywhere in nature and are important in all
branches of science and engineering. The phrase "mass transfer", which has come into common
use only in recent years, refers to the motion of molecules or fluid elements caused by some form
of potential or "driving force". It includes not only molecular diffusion but also transport by
convection and sometimes simple mixing – not the convenience of a material, as in the flow of a
fluid in a pipe.
Mass transfer is involved wherever a chemical reaction takes place, whether in an industrial
reactor, a biological system, or a research laboratory. The general subject of mass transfer may be
divided into four broad areas of particular interest and importance :
• molecular diffusion in stagnant media
• molecular diffusion in fluids in laminar flow
• eddy diffusion or mixing in a free turbulent stream and mass transfer between two
phases.
The first has been subject of much study by scientists for more than a century. The theory is in
good shape for diffusion in gases, though not for diffusion in dense fluids. The second is
application of first and is treated by a mathematical manipulation, often difficult, of what is
known about molecular diffusion in situations where the flow field can be described or
calculated. Eddy diffusion in a free stream away from a phase boundary is the process by which
gases leaving a stack are dispersed into the atmosphere and by which mixing occurs in many
situations, as in turbulent jets.
Transfer between two phases, across an interface, is of particular importance in engineering
largely as it is involved in most separation processes, as in the recovery of a pure product from a
mixture. Evapouration from a reservoir, oxygenations of blood, removal of pollutants from the
atmosphere by rain, chemical reaction at the surface of a solid catalysts or within the porous
structure, deposition by electrolysis or electrophoresis, drying of wood are all examples of mass
transfer between phases.
The chemical engineer's interest in mass transfer stems primarily from his traditional role as a
specialist in the design of separation processes. The materials fed to a chemical process are
purified by separation or concentration of the reactants and the valuable products must be
separated from the stream leaving the reactor. Though the separation equipment is ancillary to
the reactor, its cost is often major part of the investment in the plant.
1.11.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer Operations
Absorption, Distillation, Stripping, Drying, Extraction are mass transfer operations. These
operations are widely used in various (petro-) chemical separation processes. During such an
operation either one (or more) component(s) in the vapour phase is transferred to the liquid
phase and/or from the liquid phase to the vapour phase.
Some examples are :
• Absorption is used for removal of gaseous hydrogen sulfide and/or carbon dioxide
and/or mercaptans from Natural Gas, Synthesis Gas etc. (any process gas stream, really)
by dissolving them in a (reacting) liquid stream.
• Distillation is used in every oil refinery and also in many chemical manufacturing plants
in the separation and purification of the desired products. Distillation is the most
important separation technique, in general. Distillation columns are very visible in the
skyline of any refinery and many chemical plants.
• Stripping is the reverse of Absorption. Stripping of dissolved and contaminating volatile

organic components (VOC's) from (ground) water, is a good and actual example.
• Drying (removal of water vapour) from Natural Gas by dehydrating liquids
(i.e. Triethylene Glycol) is an actual process example.
• Extraction is a liquid/liquid contacting operation, and is used in the petroleum industry
(to separate aromatics and aliphatic species) and in the pharmaceutical industry (to
recover penicillin).
These operations are usually performed in cylindrical columns. These columns come in a
wide range of sizes, their diameter ranges from 0.05 m (for a typical laboratory scale column) to
about 10 to 12 m (for the largest industrial columns) and their height ranges from about 0.5 m to
about 100 m. The required contacting needed for the separation(s) is provided by filling these
columns with packings and/or trays. Packings (either structured or random) come in many types
and sizes and so do trays.
Commonly used tray types are : Bubble cap trays, Sieve tray and Valve trays etc.
To illustrate the conceptualization of mass transfer processes and provide a few simple
applications, we will start by considering two different "thought experiments" that will help us
define what mass transfer means.
Experiment 1 – Mass exchange between two tanks :
Consider two containers connected by a pipe that has a valve, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Both tanks
have the same volume V, and they are at the same temperature and pressure (T, P). Tank A
contains 1 mole of gaseous oxygen whereas tank B contains 1 mole of gaseoous nitrogen.
P, V, T P, V, T
Initial state of
1 mole O2 1 mole N2 the system
Closed valve
Tank A Tank B
Fig. 1.5 : Two tanks of equal volume at the same pressure and temperature contain initially different
ideal gases. The tanks are connected by a pipe that has an initially closed valve. Note that, since P, V and
T are the same, the number of moles in both tanks must be the same according to the ideal gas equation
of state, PV = nRT
We now open the valve connecting the tanks. What happens ? Fluid Mechanics tells us that,
since the pressures at both ends of the pipe are the same, there will be not net flow through the
pipe. However, if we let time pass, we observe that N2 starts to appear in tank A, and O2 in tank
B. After a long time an equilibrium state will be reached, in which there will be 0.5 moles of each
gas in each tank (See Fig. 1.6).
P, V, T P, V, T
0.5 moles O2 0.5 moles O2 Equilibrium state
0.5 moles N2 0.5 moles N2
Open valve
Tank A Tank B
Fig. 1.6 : After a long time has passed, the system in Fig. 1.1 reaches equilibrium The two gases are
uniformly distributed between the two tanks
Experimental observation tells us that, at equilibrium, the concentration of each chemical

species will be uniform throughout the system. In fact, knowing this and applying the principle of
mass conservation allows us to know exactly how many holes of each species are in each tank
after the equilibrium state is reached.
What has happened in this experiment ? We know that, in gas, individual molecules are in
continuous motion at all times. This molecular motion implies that the gas will tend to distribute
itself uniformly (from a statistical point of view) over all the space available to it. At the final
equilibrium stage, both O2 and N2 are uniformly distributed throughout the two tanks. Notice
that, if we perform the experiment with two liquids, the final outcome would be the same since
the liquid will also try to occupy all the space available, but, since the molecular motion in the
liquid phase is much slower than in the gas phase, it would take longer to reach the final
equilibrium state.
In experiments like this, the use of principle of conservation of mass allows us to predict the
final outcome of the experiment. However, if we are interested in determining how fast the
material exchange between the two tank is, we would need to use other physical principles,
which relate to what we call mass transfer.
Experiment 2 – Dissolution of sugar in water :
If we put a certain amount of sugar crystals in water at ambient conditions, we will observe
that it will slowly dissolve until all the crystals disappear (provided that we do not saturate the
solution). After a long time there will be no solid left and, furthermore, the concentration of sugar
in the solution will be uniform, i.e., if we take a sample of the solution from any point within the
reservoir, we would observe the same sugar concentration. (See Fig. 1.7).
Initial state Final state
Water Sugar
Long time solution
Sugar crystals
Fig. 1.7 : Solid sugar eventually dissolves in water to form a solution with uniform concentration
In this experiment, there is a phase change : the sugar goes from the solid phase into the
liquid phase, and the continuous motion of the dissolved sugar molecules eventually leads to
their uniform distribution in the liquid. Once again, if we know the amount of sugar that we
added, we can calculate the concentration of sugar in water at the end of the experiment. But if
we want to know how fast the system reaches the final equilibrium state, we need to use other
physical principles, which fall under what we will call mass transfer.
It is interesting to mention that we know how to make the process faster : everyday
experience tells us that if we stir the solution, we will achieve the final state faster. Therefore, we
already know some mass transfer !
1.12 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF MASS TRANSFER KNOWLEDGE ?

In general, most of chemical engineers work :
(1) At a producing plant of any of process industries :
(a) At producing plant, being a person handling daily plant operation.
(b) At laboratory, examining processes involving mass transfer.
(2) In engineering departments of process company.
(3) In an engineering company working closely with the industry.
(4) As consultant to process industry.
1.12.1 Where and Why Mass Transfer is Important ?
Mass Transfer is exchange of material between phases :
(a) Vapour-Liquid mass transfer occurs in distillation and absorption, including reactive
forms of these operations.
(b) Liquid-liquid mass transfer occurs in liquid extraction and extractive distillation, as well
as in chemical reaction between two liquid phases.
(c) Vapour-solid mass transfer occurs in adsorption.
(d) Liquid-solid mass transfer occurs in dissolving, crystallization and leaching process
(solid-liquid extraction).
1.12.2 Benefits that An Engineer can Achieve By Learning Mass Transfer
Today, theory and methods related to mass transfer are well developed and have been
implemented in the advanced process simulators. First reason to learn mass transfer theory and
methods is to finding out that valuable calculations can be done by average engineer. Secondary,
your education might never include sufficient level of mass transfer knowledge (a mechanical
engineer or physical chemist working in the process industry). Theory and techniques could have
been taught at level existing years ago, when only first attempts to implement theory in
production were made. Some faculties, such as mechanical engineering still do not teach their
students mass transfer. Other faculties, as chemistry, may give students knowledge about mass
transfer, but the knowledge is not always targeted at industrial applications. Thirdly, becoming
experienced in mass transfer techniques, you will be able to help your company (engineering or
producing) to solve equipment and process related problems.
Although there are several processes (such as Distillation) where mass transfer can be
calculated by already collected empirical data, many other processes need to be examined in
laboratory. For instance, by applying theory and a process simulator, you will be able to study
and determine kinetics of mass transfer, e.g., for extraction, leaching or dissolving/ crystallisation
processes. These data will be critical information for production engineers.
1.13 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MASS TRANSFER
In modern chemical process industries, a large number of unit operations of chemical
engineering are carried out with the problem of changing the composition of solution and
mixtures without involving any chemical reactions. Usually these operations are directed toward
separating into its component parts. Thus the operations, which involve changes in composition
or concentration of solution, are called mass transfer operations.
The process of mass transfer deals with the flow of constituents in presence of concentration
gradient. When two phases of different compositions are brought into contact, a transfer of
components may occur from one phase to another phase, and vice versa. This is the physical basis
of mass transfer operations. If the two phases are allowed to remain in contact for sufficient time,
they will reach equilibrium condition where there is no further net transfer of components
between phases.
In most cases of interest of mass transfer operations the two phases are only partially
miscible, so that at equilibrium there still exist two phases that can be separated from each other.
Usually these two phases have compositions different from each other and also different from
compositions of the two phases that were initially contacted. As a result, the relative amounts of
components transferred between the phases are different so that separations are achieved.
Example :
When water evapourates from a pool into an air-stream following over water surface,
molecules of water vapour diffuses through those of the air at the surface into the main portion of
the air-stream where they are carried away. In this case, the mass transfer is a result of
concentration difference or gradient, the diffusing substance moving from a place of high
concentration to low concentration.
1.13.1 Importance of Mass Transfer Operations
(i) It doesn’t require a preliminary purification of raw materials or final separation of
products from byproducts.
(ii) In petroleum refinery, large number of processes are to be carried out, in each of which
mass transfer operations are frequently carried out for separation or purification. The
cost of separation or purification depends directly on the ratio of final initial
concentration of the separated substances. Note that if this ratio is large, the product
costs are also large.
Example : Sulphuric acid is relatively low – priced product as sulphur is found naturally in
relatively pure state, where as pure Uranium is expensive because of low concentration in which
it is found in the nature.
1.14 CLASSIFICATION OF THE MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS
The classification of mass transfer operations is complicated and may be done in various
ways. Mass transfer may occur :
(a) In one direction.
(b) In opposite direction.
(c) With the exchange of a single component.
(d) With the exchange of multicomponent.
(e) With a simultaneous chemical reaction.

(f) With a simultaneous heat transfer.
(g) Isothermally and
(h) Non-Isothermally.
The following phenomena must exist in a mass transfer operations
(i) Two or more phases must come in contact with each other.
(ii) Materials should flow from one phase to the other.
(iii) A part of the total flow must be by molecular motions or molecular diffusion. Since
similarities between the various mass transfer operations, the mass transfer operations
have been classified according to the phase contact as shown in Table 1.13.
Table 1.3
No. Phases in Contact Mass Transfer Operations
(1) Liquid – Liquid Extraction, Liquid thermal diffusion
(2) Liquid – Solid Dissolving, Crystallization
(3) Liquid – Vapour Distillation
(4) Liquid – Gas Gas Absorption
(5) Solid – Vapour Sublimation, Adsorption
(6) Solid – Solid Solid Diffusion
(7) Gas – Gas Gas diffusion, Thermal diffusion
(8) Solid – Liquid – Solid Leaching
(9) Solid – Liquid – Vapour Adsorption
1.14.1 Similarities between the Operations
There are many similarities between the various mass transfer operations. They are :
(i) Phase equilibrium is reached after a sufficiently long period of contact.
(ii) Rate of transfer is calculated by deviation from equilibrium concentration.
(iii) Equilibrium exists at phase interface or there is no resistance to mass transfer at the
interface, with some exceptions.
(iv) Material transfer is due to the combined effect of molecular diffusion and turbulence.
1.14.2 Differences between the Operations
(a) Number of components : In distillations, thermal diffusion, adsorption gas diffusion
and leaching there are normally two active components, though three, or more
components may also be present. Extraction and gas absorption almost always involve
three or more components.
(b) Distribution of components between phases : In leaching and adsorption the solid
present is more or less inert, in other words, the component appears only in one
phase. In distillation, gas diffusion and thermal diffusion all the components are usually
well – distributed between the phases, crystallization and sublimation may be either way.
(c) Temperature : Some operations are isothermal. In others, temperature gradients are
produced incidentally. There are still others, which depend on difference in
temperature.
1.15 SEPARATION PROCESS
Modes of Separation : Continuous (as in packed beds) or stagewise (as in tray columns).
Classification of Separation Processes :
Equilibrium Separation
• Absorption
• Adsorption
• Distillation
• Evapouration
• Crystallisation
• Leaching
Rate-governed Separation
• Gas diffusion
• Reverse osmosis
• Dialysis
• Electrophoresis
Mechanical Separation
• Filtration
• Settling
• Centrifuge
Examples of Separation Processes :
Gas mixture separation

Absorption (Principle : Solubility of solute gas in a liquid solvent) : SO2 scrubbing with water.
Adsorption (Principle : Adsorption affinity of gas/liquid on a solid adsorbent) : Air separation.
Cryogenics (Principle : Condensation of gas to a liquid form) : Air separation.

Liquid mixture separation

Distillation (Principle : Boiling point difference) : Crude oil fractionation.
Solvent extraction (Principle : Solubility of a liquid solute) : Lube oil/furfural solvent.
Diffusional extraction (Principle : Diffusion) : Fish oil removal with alcohol.
Liquid-solid separation
Drying (Principle : Mass transfer by thermal input) : Paper manufacture.
Leaching (Principle : Solubility of a solid solute) : Copper from ore/H2SO4 solvent.
Gas/Liquid-solvent separation
Cyclones (Principle : Density difference) : Dust removal from flue gas.
Settler (Principle : Density difference) : Waste water treatment.
Solid-solid separation
Screening (Principle : Size difference) : Mineral dressing.
Electromagnetic (Principle : Electromagnetic affinity) : Fe removal from non-ferrous matter.
Separation System Design Guidelines :

Practical guidelines when deciding on separation systems to be used :
• In chemical process, differences in composition dominate the design of the process,

therefore, select separation tasks early on.
• If a feed impurity is inert, then remove it if the quantity is significant; leave it, if the
quantity is insignificant.
• If a feed impurity is not inert, remove it, else, it may lead to raw material losses and
need for a complex separation process to recover additional byproducts.
• If a feed impurity is inert, but is easier to separate from the product than the feed, then it
is better to process the feed without separation.
• If a feed impurity is a catalyst poison or corrosive, remove it.
• Save difficult separations for last.
Factors to consider in designing separation systems :
• Production rate.
• Phases present : Liquid gas, solid.
• Operational issues.
• Conditions : Temperature, pressure, etc.
• Product distribution.
1.16 CHOICE OF SEPARATION METHOD

The chemical engineer faced with the problem of separating the components of a solution
must ordinarily choose from several possible methods. While the choice is usually limited by the
peculiar physical characteristics of the material to be handled, the necessity for making a decision
nevertheless almost always exists.
(i) Choice between using a mass transfer operation of purely mechanical separation
method : e.g. In the separation of a desired mineral from its ore, it may be possible to use
either the mass transfer operations of leaching with a solvent or the purely mechanical
methods of flotation. Vegetable oils can be separated from the seeds in which they occur
by extraction, or by leaching with a solvent. A vapour can be removed from a mixture
with a permanent gas by the mechanical operation of compression or by the mass transfer
operation of gas absorption or adsorption. Some times both mechanical and mass transfer
operations are used; where the former is incomplete, as in processes for recovery of
vegetable oils wherein extraction is followed by leaching.
(ii) Choice between using mass transfer operation and chemical reaction or combination
of both method : For example, water can be removed from an ethanol-water solution
either by reacting with unslaked lime or by special methods of distillation. H2S can be
separated from other gases either by absorption in a liquid solvent with or without
simultaneous chemical reaction or by chemical reaction with ferric oxide.
(iii) There are also choices to be made within the mass transfer operation : e.g. a gaseous
mixture of oxygen and nitrogen may be separated by adsorption of the oxygen on
activated carbon, by adsorption, by distillation or by gaseous effusion. The principle basis
for choice in any case is cost. The method, which costs the least, is normally the one to be
used. In addition, other factors such as simplest operation, favourable previous
experience with one method may be given strong considerations.
1.17 METHODS OF CONDUCTING THE MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS
1.17.1 Solute Recovery and Fractionation

If the components of a solution fall into two distinct groups of quite different properties, so
that one can imagine that one group of component constitutes the solvent and the other group the
solute, separation according to the groups is usually relatively easy and amounts to solute recovery
or solute removal operation. e.g. a gas consisting of methane, pentane and hexane can be imagined
to consist of methane as solvent with pentane plus hexane as solute, the solvent and solute in this
case differing considerably in at least one property. Whether a solute-recovery or fractionation
procedure is used may depend upon the property chosen to be exploited. e.g. the separation of
propanol from butanol requires a fraction technique (fractional extraction or fractional
distillation) as all their properties are very similar.
1.17.2 Unsteady-state Operation

It is characteristic of unsteady-state operation that concentration at any point in the apparatus
changes with time. This may results from changes in concentrations of feed materials, flow rates
or condition of temperature or pressure. In any case batch operation are always of the unsteady-
state operations. In purely batch operations, all the phases are stationary from a point of view
outside the apparatus. i.e. no flow in or out, even though there may be relative motion within. e.g.
the laboratory extraction procedure of shaking a solution with an immiscible solvent. In semi-
batch operation, one phase is stationary while the other flows continuously in and out of the
apparatus. e.g. in case of drier where a quantity of wet solid is contacted continuously with fresh
air, which carries away the vapourized moisture until the solid is dry.
1.17.3 Steady-state Operation
It is characteristic of steady-state operation that concentration of any position in the apparatus
remains constant with passage of time. This requires continuous invariable flow of all phases into
and out of the apparatus, constant concentration of the feed streams and unchanging condition of
temperature and pressure.
1.17.4 Stagewise Operation
If two insoluble phases are first allowed to come into contact so that the various diffusing
substances can distribute themselves between the phases, and if the phases are then mechanically
separated, the entire operation and equipment required to carry it out are said to constitutes a
stage. e.g. laboratory batch extraction in a separatory funnel. The operation can be carried on in
continuous fashion (steady state) or batch wise fashion. For separation requiring greater
concentration changes, a series of stages can be arranged so that the phases flow through the
assembled stages from one to the other. e.g. in countercurrent flow such as assembled is called as
cascade.
1.17.5 Continuous-contact (Differential Contact) Operation
In these operations, the departure from equilibrium is deliberately maintained, and the
diffusional flow between the phases may continue without interruption. A high stage efficiency
can mean a relatively inexpensive plant and one whose performance can be reliabely predicted. A
low stage efficiency, may make the continuous-contact methods more desirable for reasons of cost
and certainty.
1.18 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Following are four factors to be established in the design of any plant involving the
diffusional operations :
(1) Number of Equilibrium Stages : In order to determine the number of equilibrium
stages required in a cascade to bring about a specified degree of separation, or the equivalent
quantity for a continuous-contact device, the equilibrium characteristics of the system and the
material balance calculations are required.
(2) The Time of Phase Contact Required : In stagewise operations the time of contact is
intimately connected with stage efficiency, whereas for continuous-contact equipment the time
leads ultimately to the volume or length of the required device. Material balances permit
calculation of the relative quantities required of the various phases. The equilibrium
characteristics of the system establish the ultimate concentrations possible and the rate of transfer
of material between phases depends upon the departure from equilibrium which is maintained.
In addition, the rate of transfer depends upon the physical properties of the phases as well as the
flow regime within the equipment.
(3) The Permissible Rate of Flow : This factor enters into consideration of semi-batch and
steady-state operations, where it leads to the determination of cross-sectional area of equipment.
Considerations of fluid dynamics establish the permissible flow rate and material balances
determine the absolute quantity of each of the streams required.
(4) Energy Requirements : In general heat and mechanical energies are normally required
to carry out the diffusional operations. Heat is necessary for the production of any temperature
changes, for the creation of new phases (such as – vapourisation of liquid), and for overcoming
heat-of-solution effects. Mechanical energy is required for fluid and solid transport, for dispersing
liquids and gases, and for operating moving parts of machinery.

REFERENCES
1. Pafko, Wayne. "Chemical Engineering Then and Now." Chemistry In Australia, Royal
Australian Chemical Institute. Volume 67, Number 6. July 2000. (p. 17-22).
2. Pafko, Wayne. "What is a Chemical Engineer?" CGP Reprint R-135, Chronicle Guidance
Publications. December 1998. (4 pages).
3. Farhad Sharifi, “Chemical Engineering : Professionally Ignored?” Proceedings of the
2002 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference and Exposition,
American Society for Engineering Education.
4. William F. Furter, “History of Chemical Engineering”: Based on a symposium
cosponsored by the ACS Divisions of History of Chemistry and Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry at the ACS/CSJ Chemical Congress, Honolulu, Hawaii, April 2-6,
1979, Washington, American Chemical Society, 1980.
5. Clive Cohen,“ The Early History of Chemical Engineering : A reassessment”, British
Journal for the History of Science, 1996, Volume 29, Number 101, pp. 171-194.
6. King C.J., “ Separation Process Principles”, Second Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 1988.
7. R.E. Treybal, "Mass Transfer Operations", Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 1981.
,,,
2
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTALS OF
DIFFUSION MASS TRANSFER
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases
2.3 Molecular Diffusion
2.4 Molecular Diffusion Vs Eddy Diffusion
2.5 Molar Flux
2.6 Molecular Diffusion in Fluids and Diffusion Coefficient or Diffusivity
2.7 Diffusion in Binary Solution
2.8 Steady-state Diffusion in Fluids at Rest and Laminar Flow
2.9 Principles of Mass Transfer
2.10 Properties of Mixtures
2.10.1 Concentration of Species
2.10.2 Mass Averaged Velocity
2.11 Diffusion Flux
2.11.1 Fick's Law
2.11.2 Relation among Molar Fluxes
2.12 Diffusivity :
2.12.1 Diffusivity in Gases
2.12.2 Diffusivity in Liquids
2.12.3 Diffusivity in Solids
2.13 Steady state Diffusion
2.13.1 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film
2.13.2 Pseudo – Steady – State diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film
2.13.3 Equimolar Counter Diffusion
2.13.4 Diffusion into an Infinite Stagnant Medium
2.13.5 Diffusion in Liquids
2.13.6 Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reaction
2.13.7 Diffusion in Solids
2.14 Transient Diffusion
2.15 Differential Equations of Mass Transfer
Solved Problems
Exercise for Practice
Nomenclature
References
(2.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 2.2 Fundamentals of Diffusion Mass Transfer
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Molecular transport of mass is called as molecular diffusion. Molecular transport of mass,
heat and momentum occurs in gases, liquids and solids. It is the basic physical mechanism
underlying many important unit operations. Molecular transport occurs in any homogenous
material, it may be gas, liquid or solid.
When a system contains two or more components whose concentrations vary from point to
point, there is a tendency for mass to be transferred to minimize the concentration differences.
There are two mass transfer mechanisms of interest :
• Molecular scale mass diffusion (conduction).
• Bulk mass transport (convection).
The factors affecting mass transfer includes vapour pressure, solubility and diffusivity.
In unit operations, mainly concerned with the transfer of mass between three phases : solid,
liquid and gaseous :
(i) Distillation : Separation of miscible liquids.
(ii) Absorption : Soluble vapour absorbed in liquid.
(iii) Desorption-Stripping : Solute moving from liquid to gas.
(iv) Dehumidification : Pure liquid condensed from inert gas.
(v) Evapouration : Liquid converted to gas.
(vi) Liquid extractions : Solid-liquid, liquid-liquid.
(vii) Crystallization.
(viii) Membrane separations.
(ix) Adsorption.
(x) Leaching.
(xi) Drying.
Molecular diffusion is concerned with the movement of individual molecules through a
substance by virtue of their thermal energy. An understanding of the molecular transport
mechanism may be understood from a study of the kinetic theory of gases and liquids or from
consideration of solid-state physics. The kinetic theory of gases provides a means of
visualising what occurs and quantitatively describes the diffusional phenomenon.
2.2 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
The ideal gas law tells us how gases behave, but not why they behave that way. The
molecular basis for this law is provided by the kinetic-molecular theory of gases.
2.2.1 Summary of Model
1. Gases consist of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous, random motion.
2. The volume of all molecules is negligible.
3. Attractive and repulsive forces between molecules are negligible.
4. Collisions are elastic. Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions, but
the average kinetic energy does not change with time, at constant temperature.
5. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature.
It is the concept of average kinetic energy that is the most important. For a given distribution of
molecules with different kinetic energies, and average kinetic energy changes in a predictable and
specific way as a function of temperature. Namely as the temperature increases, this distribution
shifts towards higher average kinetic energies.
For the kinetic energy of a given molecule,
1 2
K.E. = 2 mv
For the average kinetic energy,

1 2
∈ = 2 mu
where u is the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) speed.

Since the average kinetic energy increases with temperature, so too does the r.m.s. speed of
the molecules.
2.2.2 Using Kinetic Theory to Understand the Gas Laws
1. Kinetic Theory and Boyle’s Law :
At constant T, the average kinetic energy and hence, r.m.s. speed remains the same. If the
volume increases, however, the molecules must travel a longer distance between collisions, and
hence there are fewer collisions per unit time with the container walls. Consequently, as predicted
by Boyles Law, as the volume increases, the pressure decreases
2. Kinetic Theory and Charles Law
When the T increases, the average kinetic energy increases. Assuming no change in volume,
at higher T the molecules will travel faster and thus will hit the walls more often. This results in
an increase in the pressure. (Charles’s Law)
Molecular Effusion and Diffusion :
According to kinetic theory,
1 2
∈ = 2 mu
where,
m is the mass of the molecules
u is the r.m.s. speed of the molecules.
Note that the larger the mass the lower the r.m.s. speed.
In a related way, it can be shown that
3RT
u = (MW)
Two consequences of this result are predictions for the properties of two phenomenon.
Effusion – The escape of gas molecules through a hole.
Diffusion – The spread of one substance throughout a space or throughout a second
substance.
Diffusion :
Its easy to see how the rate of diffusion would be dependent on the r.m.s. speed.
The faster the molecules are going the faster it will diffuse.
From the equation for the r.m.s. speed,

3RT
u =
(MW)
Its easy to see that the lighter the gas molecule, the faster the diffusion rate under similar
conditions.
One qualification, however, is that the rate of diffusion is that these rates are dependent on
the density of the medium.
At lower pressures, the rates will be faster due to fewer collisions.
At higher pressures, the rates will be slower due to too many collisions.
In case of a simplified kinetic theory, a molecule is imagined to travel in straight line at
uniform velocity until it colloids with another molecule, whereupon its velocity changes both
in magnitude and direction. The average distance of molecule velocity is dependent upon the
temperature. The molecule thus travels highly zig-zag path, the net distance in one direction,
which it moves in a given time, the rate of diffusion, being only a small fraction of the length
of its actual path. For this reason the diffusion rate is very slow. Although we can expect it to
increase with decreasing pressure, which reduces the number of collisions, and with
increased temperature, which increases the molecular velocity.
From kinetic theory, it is estimated that the rate of evapouration of water at 25°C into
complete vacuum is approximately 3.3 kg/sec per m2 of water surface. But if we place a layer
of stagnant air at 1 std. atm. pressure and only 0.1 mm thick above the water surface,
reduces the rate by a factor of about 600. Note that for gases, for higher molecular
concentration, we find slower rate of diffusion.
2.3 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
Definition : The mass transfer of the species from region of higher concentration to
region of lower concentration is accomplished by the actual migration of molecules. This
phenomenon is called as molecular diffusion.
Molecular diffusion or molecular transport can be defined as the transfer or
movement of individual molecules through a fluid by means of random, individual
movements of the molecules. The molecules travel only in straight lines and in the process,
may collide with other molecules in their path. The molecules then change direction (still in a
straight line) after the collision. This is sometimes referred to as a random-walk process as
shown in the Fig. 2.1 as follows.
A A A
B
B A
B B A
A B
A B B
A
A B
A A B
B A
A
Fig. 2.1 : Random walk process

Now consider a container with a mixture of two components A and B at constant

pressure P and constant temperature T as shown in the figure below. A fictitious
partition c-c separates the container into two sections. The L.H.S. contains more molecules of
component A than the R.H.S., and the reverse is true for the B.
Molecule of A
Molecule of B
Partition C-C
Fig. 2.2 : Diffusion in Binary mixture

Next consider what happens when the partition c-c is removed. The molecules will move
around in all directions in a random manner. But since most of the A-molecules are to the
left of c-c, more of the A-molecules will travel from the L.H.S. and to the R.H.S. than in the
opposite direction.
This is the molecular diffusion often A in the direction of decreasing
concentration (i.e. from the region of high concentration to the region of low concentration).
At the same time there is also a net diffusion of B from the R.H.S. to the L.H.S. This diffusion
continues until the concentrations of A and B is uniform throughout.
Note : The rate of diffusion is much greater in gases than in liquids while, diffusion
becomes extremely slow process in solids for same difference in concentration.
2.4 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION VERSUS EDDY/TURBULENT DIFFUSION
Molecular diffusion is a slow process and with rapid mixing which can be brought about
by mechanical stirring and convective movement of fluids. Consider a tank as shown in
Fig. 2.3. Here a 0.75 m – deep layer of pure water has been carefully placed over the brine
solution without disturbing the brine solution in any way.
Water
H = 0.75m
Brine Solution
Tank
D = 1.5m
Fig. 2.3 : Molecular Diffusion
If the contents of the tank are left completely, undisturbed by molecular diffusion, the
salt will completely permeate the liquid, ultimately coming everywhere to one-half its
concentration in the original brine. But this process is very slow, and it is estimated that the
salt concentration at the top surface will be only 87.5% of its final value after 10 years and
will reach 99% of its final value only after 28 years. Now consider Fig. 2.4.
22 rpm Paddle Type Agitator
Water
H = 0.75m
Brine Solution
Tank
D = 1.5m
Fig. 2.4 : Eddy Diffusion
If we place a simple paddle type agitator rotating in the same tank as shown in Fig. 2.4
at 22 rpm will bring complete uniformity in about 1 min. The mechanical agitation has
produced rapid movement of relatively large chunks or eddies, of fluid characteristic of
turbulent motion, which has carried the salt with them. This method of solute transfer is
called as eddy or turbulent diffusion.
2.5 MOLAR FLUX
Rate of diffusion are most conveniently expressed in terms of molecular flux.

(mole)
i.e.
(Area) (Time)
It may be described by two terms :
(a) Molar flux (N) : It is defined w.r.t. fixed locations in space.

 mole 
m2.sec.
(b) Molar flux (J) : It is defined w.r.t. the relative velocity of all components.
 mole 
m2.sec.
2.6 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION IN FLUIDS AND DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT OR
DIFFUSIVITY
The diffusivity, DAB, of component A is solution in B which is a measure of its diffusive
∂C
A
mobility is defined as the ratio of its flux JA to the concentration gradient,
∂Z
∂C
A
JAZ = – DAB … (2.1)
∂Z
This is FICK’S FIRST LAW OF DIFFUSION in Z-direction.
where;
JAZ = molar flux of A in Z-direction relative to the molar average velocity.
2
(mole/m .sec.).
∂C
A 3
= Concentration gradient of A in Z-direction (k mole/m .m)
∂Z
∂X
A
= Mole fraction gradient of A in Z-direction (1/m)
∂Z
DAB = Mass diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for A diffusing through
2
component B. (m /s).
Note :
(1) Negative sign indicates that diffusion occurs in the direction of drop in concentration.
(2) Rate of transfer of A in a mixture of two components A and B will be determined not
only by the rate of diffusion of A but also behaviour of B.
(3) DAB is the diffusivity of A and B, a physical property of both components.
(4) It is a characteristic of the constituent and its environment (pressure, temperature,
concentration whether in liquid, gas or solid solution and nature of other
constituents).
2.7 DIFFUSION IN BINARY SOLUTION
(i) Box with partition P. P
I II
(ii) Add H2O / Ethanol.
(iii) Remove Partition P.
Fig. 2.5 : Illustration of Diffusion in Binary Solution
Consider the box as shown in Fig. 2.5 which is separated into two parts by the partition
P. Into section I, 1 kg water (A) is placed and into section II 1 kg ethanol (B) (the densities of
the liquids in each section are the same) Imagine the partition to be carefully removed, thus
allowing diffusion of both liquids to occur. When diffusion stops, the concentration will be
uniform throughout at 50 mass% of each constituents and the masses and moles of each
constituent in the two regions will be as indicated in the figure, it is clear that while the
water has diffused to the right and the ethanol to the left, there has been a net movement to
the right, so that if the box has originally been balanced on a knife edge, at the end of process
it would have tipped downward to the right.
If the direction to the right is taken as positive, the flux NA of A relative to the fixed
position P has been positive and the flux NB of B has been negative.
For steady state, the net flux is
NA + NB = N … (2.2)
The movement of A is made up of two parts :
(a) That resulting from bulk motion N and fraction XA of N that is A.
(b) That resulting from molecular diffusion JA of A itself, w.r.t, the average molal
velocity.
∴ NA = NXA + JA … (2.3)
From equation (2.2) and (2.3) we get,
CA ∂C
A
NA = (NA + NB) – DAB … (2.4)
C ∂z
Similarly equation for B is,

CA ∂C
B
NB = (NA + NB) – DBA … (2.5)
C ∂z
Adding equation (2.4) and (2.5) we get,
∂CA ∂C
B
– DAB = DAB … (2.6)
∂z ∂z
Adding equation (2.4) and (2.5) we get
i.e. JA = – JB
And if CA + CB = Constant then it follows that DAB = DBA
at prevailing concentation and temperature.

2.8 STEADY STATE MOLECULAR DIFFUSION IN FLUIDS AT REST AND IN
LAMINAR FLOW
Consider equation (2.4).
CA ∂C
A
NA = (NA + NB)
– DAB
C ∂z
Applying this equation to the case of diffusion only in Z-direction, with NA and NB both
constant (steady state) and separating variables and assuming DAB is constant, we get on
integration,
CA Z2
2
– ∂CA 1
⌠
⌡ NAC – CA (NA + NB)
=
CDAB
⌠
⌡ dZ … (2.5)
CA Z1
1
Where 1 indicates the beginning of diffusion path (CA high) and 2, the end of diffusion
path (CA low).
Let, Z2 – Z1 = Z
then we get,
NAC – CA C (NA + NB)
1 2 Z
ln = … (2.6)
NA + NB NAC – CA (NA + NB) CDAB
1
NA DAB C NA/(NA + NB) – CA /C
1 2
or, NA = ln … (2.7)
NA + NB Z NA/(NA + NB) CA /C
1
Note :
(1) Integration under steady state condition where flux NA is not constant is also
possible.
(2) To use these equations, NA, NB must be known.
Molecular Diffusion in Gases :
When the ideal gas law can be applied equation (2.6) can be written in more convenient
form for use with gases as follows :
–
CA pA
= = yA … (2.8)
C pt
–
where, p A = Partial pressure of component A
pt = Total pressure.
yA = Mole fraction (concentration)
n pt
Further, C= = … (2.9)
V RT
So equation (2.7) becomes,
–
NA DAB pt [NA/(NA + NB)] pt – pA
2
NA = · · ln · – … (2.10)
NA + NB RTZ [NA/(NA + NB)] pt – pA
1
NA DAB pt NA/(NA + NB) – yA2

or, NA =
NA + NB
·
RTZ
· ln N /(N + N ) – y  … (2.11)
 A A B A1
Example :
(a) Presence of chemical reactions : Stiochiometric considerations.
Methane is being cracked on a catalyst as per following reactions :
CH4 → C + 2H2
(A) (B)
CH4 (A) diffuses to the cracking surface and H2 (B) diffuses back,
∴ By reaction stiochiometry, we have
NB = – 2NA
NA NA
∴ = = –1 … (2.12)
NA + NB NA – 2NA
(b) Absence of chemical reactions : In this case, ratio can be fixed by enthalpy
considerations.
2.9 PRINCIPLES OF MASS TRANSFER
When a system contains two or more components whose concentrations vary from point
to point, there is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing the concentration
differences within a system. The transport of one constituent from a region of higher
concentration to that of a lower concentration is called mass transfer.
The transfer of mass within a fluid mixture or across a phase boundary is a process that
plays a major role in many industrial processes. Examples of such processes are :
(i) Dispersion of gases from stacks
(ii) Removal of pollutants from plant discharge streams by absorption
(iii) Stripping of gases from waste water
(iv) Neutron diffusion within nuclear reactors
(v) Air conditioning
Many of our day-by-day experiences also involve mass transfer, for example :
(i) A lump of sugar added to a cup of coffee eventually dissolves and then eventually
diffuses to make the concentration uniform.
(ii) Water evapourates from ponds to increase the humidity of passing-air-stream

(iii) Perfumes present a pleasant fragrance, which is imparted throughout the
surrounding atmosphere.
The mechanism of mass transfer involves both molecular diffusion and convection.
2.10 PROPERTIES OF MIXTURES
Mass transfer always involves mixtures. Consequently, we must account for the variation
of physical properties, which normally exist, in a given system. When a system contains three
or more components, as many industrial fluid streams do, the problem becomes unwidely
very quickly. The conventional engineering approach to problems of multicomponent system
is to attempt to reduce them to representative binary (i.e., two component) systems. In order
to understand the future discussions, let us first consider definitions and relations, which are
often used to explain the role of components within a mixture.
2.10.1 Concentration of Species
Concentration of species in multicomponent mixture can be expressed in many ways. For
species A, mass concentration denoted by ρA is defined as the mass of A, mA per unit volume
of the mixture.
mA
ρA = … (2.13)
V
The total mass concentration density ρ is the sum of the total mass of the mixture in unit
volume :
n
ρ = ∑ ρi
i
where ρi is the concentration of species i in the mixture.
Molar concentration of, A, CA is defined as the number of moles of A present per unit
volume of the mixture.
By definition,
mass of A
Number of moles =
molecular weight of A
mA
nA = … (2.14)
MA
Therefore from equation (2.13) and (2.14),
nA ρA
CA = =
V MA
For ideal gas mixtures,
pA V
nA = [From Ideal gas law, PV = nRT]
RT
nA pA
CA = =
V RT
where pA is the partial pressure of species A in the mixture. V is the volume of gas, T is
the absolute temperature, and R is the universal gas constant. The total molar concentration
or molar density of the mixture is given by,
n
C = ∑ Ci … (2.15)
i=1
2.10.2 Mass-averaged Velocities

In a multicomponent system, the various species will normally move at different
velocities; and evaluation of velocity of mixture requires the averaging of the velocities of
each species present. If v1 is the velocity of species i with respect to stationary fixed
co-ordinates, then mass-average velocity for a multicomponent mixture defined in terms of
mass concentration is,
∑ ρi vi ∑ ρi vi
i i
v= = … (2.16)
∑ ρi ρ
i
By similar way, molar-average velocity of the mixture v* is,
∑ C i Vi
i
v* = … (2.17)
C
For most engineering problems, there will be little difference in v* and v and so the mass
average velocity, v, will be used in all further discussions.
The velocity of a particular species relative to the mass average or molar average velocity
is termed as diffusion velocity i.e. Diffusion velocity = vi – v.
The mole fraction for liquid and solid mixture, xA and for gaseous mixtures, yA, are the
molar concentration of species A divided by the molar density of the mixtures.
CA
xA = (Liquids and solids) … (2.18)
C
CA
yA = (Gases) … (2.19)
C
The sum of the mole fractions, by definition must equal to 1;
∑ xi = 1
i
i.e. ∑ yi = 1 … (2.20)
i
by similar way, mass fraction of A in mixture is;
ρA
wA =
ρ
2.11 DIFFUSION FLUX
Just as momentum and energy (heat) transfer have two mechanisms for transport-
molecular and convective, so does mass transfer. However, there are convective fluxes in
mass transfer, even on a molecular level. The reason for this is that in mass transfer,
whenever there is a driving force, there is always a net movement of the mass of a particular
species which results in a bulk motion of molecules. Of course, there can also be convective
mass transport due to macroscopic fluid motion. In this chapter the focus is on molecular
mass transfer.
The mass (or molar) flux of a given species is a vector quantity denoting the amount of
the particular species, in either mass or molar units, that passes per given increment of time
through a unit area normal to the vector. The flux of species defined with reference to fixed
spatial co-ordinates, NA is :
N A = CA v A … (2.22)
This could be written in terms of diffusion velocity of A, (i.e., vA – v) and average velocity
of mixture, v, as NA = CA (vA – v) + CA v … (2.23)
∑ Ci v i
i
By definition, v = v* =
C
Therefore, equation (2.22) becomes,
CA
NA = CA (vA – v) +
∑ C v
C i i i
NA = CA (vA – v) + yA ∑ Ci vi
i
For systems containing two components A and B,
NA = CA (vA – v) + yA (CA vA + CB vB)
= CA (vA – v) + yA (NA + NB)
NA = CA (vA – v) + yA N … (2.24)
The first term on the right hand side of this equation is diffusional molar flux of A, and
the second term is flux due to bulk motion.
2.11.1 Fick’s Law
An empirical relation for the diffusional molar flux, first postulated by Fick and,
accordingly, often referred to as Fick’s first law, defines the diffusion of component A in an
isothermal, isobaric system. For diffusion in only the Z direction, the Fick’s rate equation is
dCA
JA = – DAB
dZ
Where DAB is diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for component A diffusing through
component B, and dCA/dZ is the concentration gradient in the Z-direction.
A more general flux relation which is not restricted to isothermal, isobaric system could
be written as,
dyA
JA = – CDAB … (2.25)
dZ
Using this expression, equation (2.24) could be written as
dyA
NA = – CDAB + yA N … (2.26)
dZ
2.11.2 Relation Among Molar Fluxes
For a binary system containing A and B, from equation (2.26),
NA = JA + yA N
or JA = NA + yA N … (2.27)
Similarly, JB = NB + yB N … (2.28)
Addition of Equation (2.27) and (2.28) gives,
JA + JB = NA + NB – (yA + yB) N … (2.29)
By definition N = NA + NB and yA + yB = 1.
Therefore equation (2.29) becomes,
JA + JB = 0
JA = –JB
dyA dyB
CDAB = – CDBA … (2.30)
dZ dZ
From, yA + yB = 1
dyA = – dyB
Therefore Equation (2.30) becomes,

DAB = DBA … (2.31)
This leads to the conclusion that diffusivity of A in B is equal to diffusivity of B in A.
2.12 DIFFUSIVITY
Fick’s law proportionality, DAB, is known as mass diffusivity (simply as diffusivity) or as
the diffusion coefficient. DAB has the dimension of L2/t, identical to the fundamental
dimensions of the other transport properties : Kinematic viscosity, ν = (µ/ρ) in momentum
K
transfer, and thermal diffusivity, α = in heat transfer.
ρ · Cρ
2 2
Diffusivity is normally reported in cm /sec; the SI unit being m /sec. Diffusivity depends
on pressure, temperature, and composition of the system. In table (2.1), some values of DAB
are given for a few gas, liquid, and solid systems. Diffusivities of gases at low density are
almost composition independent, incease with the temperature and vary inversely with
pressure. Liquid and solid diffusivities are strongly concentration dependent and increase
with temperature.
Table 2.1 : General range of values of diffusivity
Gases : 5 × 10–6 –
1 × 10–5 m2/sec.
–6 –
Liquids : 10 10–9 m2/sec.
Solids : 5 × 10–14 –
1 × 10–10 m2/sec.
In the absence of experimental data, semi theoretical expressions have been developed
which give approximation, sometimes as valid as experimental values, due to the difficulties
encountered in experimental measurements.
2.12.1 Diffusivity in Gases
Pressure dependence of diffusivity is given by :
1
DAB ∝ (for moderate ranges of pressures, upto 25 atm).
p
And temperature dependency is according to,
DAB ∝ T3/2
Diffusivity of a component in a mixture of components can be calculated using the
diffusivities for the various binary pairs involved in the mixture. The relation given by Wilke
is,
1
D1 – mixture = … (2.32)
y'2 y'3 yn'
+ +…… +
D1 – 2 D1 – 3 D1 – n
Where D1-mixture is the diffusivity for component 1 in the gas mixture; D1-n is the
diffusivity for the binary pair, component 1 diffusing through component n; and yn' is the
mole fraction of component n in the gas mixture evaluated on a component –1 – free basis,
that is,
' y2
y2 = … (2.33)
y2 + y3 + … … yn
(i) Gilliland's corelation for estimation of diffusivity of gases :
T3/2 1 1
DAB = 0.043 2 +
MA MB
 
1 1
3 3
PT VA + VB 
where, DAB = diffusivity, cm2/sec.

MA and MB = Molecular weight of solute and solvent respectively
VA and VB = Molecular volume of solute and solvent respectively,
cm3/gm. mole
PT = Total Pressure (atm.)
(ii) Fuller et. al for estimations of diffusivity of gases :
Empirical method of Fuller et al. is useful for moderate temperature ranges and can be
used for mixtures of non-polar gases and for a polar and non-polar mixture.
0.001 T1.75 1/MA + 1/MB

DAB =
P [(∑vA)1/3 + (∑vB)1/3]2
∑vA = Sum of structural volume increments
P is in atm., T is in K, D is in cm2/s.
Table 2.2 : Atomic Diffusion Volumes for use with the Fuller, Schettler,
and Giddings Method
A. Atomic and Structural Diffusion Volume Increments, v
C 16.5 (Cl) 19.5
H 1.98 (S) 17.0
O 5.48 Aromatic ring – 20.2
(N) 5.69 Heterocyclic ring – 20.2
B. Diffusion Volumes for Simple Molecules, ∑ v
H2 7.07 CO 18.9
D2 6.70 CO 2 26.9
He 2.88 N2O 35.9
N2 17.9 NH3 14.9
O2 16.6 H2O 12.7
Air 20.1 (CCl2F2) 114.8
Ar 16.1 (SF6) 69.7
Kr 22.8 (Cl2) 37.7
(Xe) 37.9 (Br2) 67.2
Ne 5.59 (SO2 41.1
Note : Parenthesis indicate that the value listed is based on only a few data points.
Source : From E. N. Fuller, P. D. Schettler and J. C. Giddings, Ind. Eng. Chem. 58,, 19 (1966).
2.12.2 Diffusivity in Liquids
Diffusivity in liquid are exemplified by the values given in Table 2.1. Most of these values
-5 2
are nearer to 10 cm /sec, and about ten thousand times lower than those in dilute gases.
This characteristic of liquid diffusion often limits the overall rate of processes accruing in
liquids (such as reaction between two components in liquids). In chemistry, diffusivity limits
the rate of acid-base reactions; in the chemical industry, diffusion is responsible for the rates
of liquid-liquid extraction. Diffusion in liquids is important because it is slow.
Certain molecules diffuse as molecules, while others which are designated as electrolytes
ionize in solutions and diffuse as ions. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl), diffuses in
+ –
water as ions Na and Cl . Though each ions has a different mobility, the electrical neutrality
of the solution indicates the ions must diffuse at the same rate; accordingly it is possible to
speak of a diffusion coefficient for molecular electrolytes such as NaCl. However, if several
ions are present, the diffusion rates of the individual cations and anions must be considered,
and molecular diffusion coefficients have no meaning. Diffusivity varies inversely with
viscosity when the ratio of solute to solvent ratio exceeds five. In extremely high viscosity
materials, diffusion becomes independent of viscosity.
Estimation of Diffusion Coefficient using Wilke-Chang (1958) Equation : The
diffusion coefficient or diffusivity of liquids may be estimated by Wilke-Chang correlation :
1
o
–18 2 T
DAB = (117.3 × 10 ) (φ MB) 0.6 … (1)
µ B VA
This is Wilke-Chang equation and this equation is good only for dilute solutions of
non-dissociating solutes upto about ± 10%.
where,
o
DAB = Diffusivity of A in very dilute solutions in solvent B, m2/sec.
MB = Molecular weight of solvent, kg/kmole
T = Absolute temperature, K
µ = Viscosity of solution, kg/m. sec.
VA = Solute molar volume at normal boiling temperature, m3/ k mole.
= 0.0756 m3/k mole for water as solute
φ = Association factor for solvent
= 2.26 for water as solvent.
= 1.9 for Methanol as solvent.
= 1.5 for Ethanol as solvent.
= 1.0 for unassociated solvents such as benzene and ethyl ether.
Temperature Dependency of Diffusivity (DAB) :
In equation, we can write as
T
DAB ∝
µ
T1
(DAB)T1  µ1 
= × 
T1 µ2
Hence, =
(DAB)T2 T2  µ1  T2
 µ2 
(DAB)T1 = (DAB)T2 ⋅  ⋅ 
T1 µ2
… (2.)
∴
 µ1 T2
where, (DAB)T1 = Diffusivity of A in B at temperature T1
(DAB)T2 = Diffusivity of A in B at temperature T2
2.12.3 Diffusivity in Solids
Typical values for diffusivity in solids are shown in Table '2.3'. One outstanding
characteristic of these values is their small size, usually thousands of time less than those in
a liquid, which are inturn 10,000 times less than those in a gas. Diffusion plays a major role
in catalysis and is important to the chemical engineers. For metallurgists, diffusion of atoms
within the solids is of more importance.
Table 2.3 : Molecular Diffusitivites of Gases at 1 Atm. Abs Pressure

System Temperature °C Diffusivity, cm2/sec.
Air – NH3 0 0.198
Air – H2O 0 0.220
42 0.288
Air – CO2 3 0.142
44 0.177
Air – ethanol 42 0.145
25 0.135
Air – acetic acid 0 0.106
Air – n-hexane 21 0.080
Air – toulene 25.9 0.086
59.0 0.104
Air – hydrogen 0 0.611
Air – n-butanol 0 0.0703
25.9 0.087
59.0 0.104
Air – n-pentane 21 0.071
H2 – Ar 22.4 0.83
175 1.76
796 8.10
He – Ar 25 0.729
225 1.728
CH4 – Ar 25 0.202
CH4 – He 25 0.675
N2 – He 25 0.687
CH4 – H2 0 0.625
N2 – NH3 25 0.230
85 0.328
H2 – NH3 25 0.783
85 1.093
H2 – N2 25 0.784
85 1.052
H2O – N2 34.4 0.256
55.4 0.303
H2O – CO2 34.3 0.202
55.4 0.211
SO2 – CO2 343°K 0.108
C2H5OH – CO2 67 0.106
(C2H5)2O – air 19.9 0.0896
(CH3)2O – SO2 30 0.0672
(C9H5)2O – NH2 26.5 0.1078
2.13 STEADY STATE DIFFUSION
In this section, steady-state molecular mass transfer through simple systems in which
the concentration and molar flux are functions of a single space co-ordinate will be
considered. In a binary system, containing A and B, this molar flux in the direction of z, is
given by,
dyA
NA = – CDAB + yA (NA + NB) … (2.34)
dZ
2.13.1 Diffusion Through a Stagnant Gas Film
The diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for a gas
can be measured, experimentally using Arnold Flow of gas B z = z2
diffusion cell. This cell is illustrated schematically in
figure. NAz|z+Dz
The narrow tube of uniform cross-section, Dz
which is partially filled with pure liquid A, is
NAz|z
maintained at a constant temperature and pressure. z = z1
Gas B, which flows across the open end of the tube,
has a negligible solubility in liquid A, and is also
chemically inert to A. (i.e. no reaction between Pure liquid A
A and B). Component A vapourizes and diffuses into Fig. 2.6 : Arnold Diffusion Cell
the gas phase; the rate of vapourization may be physically measured and may also be
mathematically expressed in terms of the molar flux. Consider the control volume S ∆ z,
where, S is the cross-sectional area of the tube. Mass balance on A over this control volume
for a steady-state operation yields,
[Moles of A leaving at z + ∆z] – [Moles of A entering at z] = 0.
i.e. SNA Z + ∆Z – SNA Z = 0 … (2.35)
Dividing through by the volume, S∆Z, and evaluating in the limit as ∆Z approaches zero,
we obtain the differential equation,
dNA
= 0 … (2.36)
dZ
This relation stipulates a constant molar flux of A throughout the gas phase from Z1 to
Z2. A similar differential equation could also be written for component B as,
dNB
= 0
dZ
and accordingly, the molar flux of B is also constant over the entire diffusion path from z1
and z2. Considering only at plane z1, and since the gas B is insoluble is liquid A, we realize
that NB, the net flux of B, is zero throughout the diffusion path; accordingly B is a stagnant
gas.
We know,
dyA
NA = – CDAB + yA (NA + NB)
dZ
Since,
NB = 0
dyA
NA = – CDAB + yA NA
dZ
Rearranging,
– CDAB dyA
NA = … (2.37)
1 – yA dZ
Since, NB = 0
dyA
NA = –CDAB + yA NA
dZ
Rearranging,
–CDAB dyA
NA = … (2.37)
1 – yA dZ
This equation may be integrated between the two boundary conditions :
at z = z1 YA = YA
1
And at z = z2 YA = yA
2
Assuming the diffusivity is to be independent of concentration, and realizing that NA is

constant along the diffusion path, by integrating equation (2.37) we obtain,
Z2 yA
2
–dy
NA ⌠
⌡ dZ = CDAB ⌠
A
⌡ 1 – yA
Z1 yA
1
CDAB 1 – yA2
NA =
Z2 – Z1
ln 1 – y  … (2.38)
 A1
The log mean average concentration of component B is defined as,

yB – yB
2 1
yB, lm =
 B2
y
ln  
yB
 
1
Since,
y B = 1 – y A,
(1 – yA ) – (1 – yA ) yA – yA
2 1 1 2
yB, lm = = … (2.39)
 A2
y  A2
y
ln   ln  
yA yA
 
1  1
Substituting from equation (2.39) in equation (2.38),
CDAB (yA1 – yA2)
NA = … (2.40)
Z2 – Z1 yB, lm
For an ideal gas,
n p
C = = and
V RT
for mixture of ideal gases,
pA
yA =
P
Therefore, for an ideal gas mixture equation, (2.40) becomes,
DAB Pt pA – pA
1 2
NA = –
RT (z2 – z1) p
B, lm
This is the equation of molar flux for p1

pt
steady-state diffusion of one gas through a A pB2
second stagnant gas. Many mass transfer
operations involve the diffusion of one gas pB
Pressure
component through another non-diffusing pB1
component; absorption and humidification are pA1
pA
typical operations defined by these equation.
The concentration profile (pA vs. z) for this
type of diffusion is shown in Fig. 2.7.
pA2
z1 z2
Distance, z
Fig. 2.7 : Diffusion of A through stagnant B

2.13.2 Psuedo–Steady–State Diffusion Through a Stagnant Film
In many mass transfer operations, one of the boundaries may move with time. If the
length of the diffusion path changes a small amount over a long period of time, a pseudo
steady state diffusion model may be used. When this condition exists, the equation of steady
state diffusion through stagnant gas’ can be used to find the flux. If the difference in the level
of liquid A over the time interval considered is only a small fraction of the total diffusion
path, and t0 – t is relatively long period of time, at any given instant in that period, the molar
flux in the gas phase may be evaluated by,
Flow of gas B
z = z2
NAz|z+Dz
Dz
NAz|z
z = z1 at t1 z = z1 at t0
Pure liquid A
Fig. 2.8 : Arnold diffusion cell with moving liquid interface
CDAB (yA – yA )
1 2
NA = … (2.41)
zyB‚ lm
where z equals z2 – z1, the length of the diffusion path at time t.
The molar flux NA is related to the amount of A leaving the liquid by,
ρA‚ L dZ
NA = … (2.42)
MA dt
ρA‚ L
Where is the molar density of A in the liquid phase. Under Psuedo steady state
MA
conditions, equations (2.41) and (2.42) can be equated to give :
ρA‚ L dz CDAB (yA – yA )
1 2
= … (2.43)
MA dt zyB‚ lm
Equation (2.43) May be integrated from t = 0 to t and from z = z t0 to z = zt as :

t Zt
ρA‚ L yB‚ lm/MA
⌠
⌡ dt =
CDAB (yA – yA )
⌠
⌡ z dz
1 2
t=0 Zt0
Yielding,
ρA‚ L yB‚ lm/MA z2 – z2 
t =  t t0 … (2.44)
CDAB (yA – yA )
1 2
 2 
This shall be rearranged to evaluate diffusivity DAB as,
ρA‚ L yB‚ lm z2– z2 

DAB =  t t0 … (2.45)
MA C (yA – yA ) t
1 2
 2 
2.13.3 Equimolar Counter Diffusion
A physical situation which is encountered in the distillation of two constituents whose
molar latent heats of vapourization are essentially equal, stipulates that the flux of one
gaseous component is equal to but acting in the opposite direction from the other gaseous
component; that is, NA = – NB. The molar flux NA, for a binary system at constant
temperature and pressure is described by,
dyA
dz
dCA
or NA = – DAB + yA (NA + NB) … (2.46)
dz
With the substitution of NB = –NA, Equation (2.46) becomes,
dCA
NA = – DAB … (2.47)
dz
For steady state diffusion Equation. (2.47) may be integrated, using the boundary
conditions :
at z = z1 CA = CA and z = z2 CA = C A
1 2
Giving,
Z2 CA
2
NA ⌠
⌡ dz = – DAB ⌠
⌡ d CA
Z1 CA
1
from which
DAB
NA = (CA – CA ) … (2.48)
z2 – z1 1 2
For ideal gases,

nA pA
CA = =
V RT
DAB
NA = … (2.49)
RT (z2 – z1) (PA – PA )
1 2
This is the equation of molar flux for steady-state equimolar counter diffusion.
Concentration profile in this equimolar counter diffusion may be obtained from,
d
(NA) = 0 (Since NA is constant over the diffusion path).
dz
dCA
And from equation (2.47) NA = – DAB
dz
d  dCA
Therefore, – DAB = 0
dz  dz 
d 2 CA
or = 0
dz2
This equation may be solved using the boundary conditions to give,
CA – CA z – z1
1
= … (2.50)
CA – CA z1 – z2
1 2
Equation, (2.50) indicates a linear concentration profile for equimolar counter diffusion.
2.13.4 Diffusion Into An Infinite Standard Medium
Here we will discuss problems involving diffusion from a spherical particle into an
infinite body of stagnant gas. The purpose in doing this is to demonstrate how to set up
differential equations that describe the diffusion in these processes. The solutions, obtained
are only of academic interest because a large body of gas in which there are no convection
currents is unlikely to be found in practice. However, the solutions developed here for these
problems actually represent a special case of the more common situation involving both
molecular diffusion and convective mass transfer.
(a) Evaporation of a spherical Droplet : As an example of such problems, we shall
consider the evaporation of spherical droplet such as a raindrop or sublimation of
naphthalene ball. The vapour formed at the surface of the droplet is assumed to diffuse by
molecular motions into the large body of stagnant gas that surrounds the droplet.
r+dr dr
r
r0
Fig. 2.9 : Evaporation of a Raindrop

Consider a raindrop, as shown in figure. At any moment, when the radius of the drop is
r0, the flux of water vapour at any distance r from the center is given by,
dyA
dr
Here NB = 0 (since air is assumed to be stagnant)
dyA
Therefore, NA = – CDAB + yA NA
dr
–CDAB dyA
Rearranging, NA = … (2.51)
1 – yA dr
The flux NA is not constant, because of the spherical geometry; decreases as the distance
from the center of sphere increases. But the molar flow rate at r and r + δr are the same.
This could be written as,
ANA r = ANA r + δr … (2.52)
where A = surface area of sphere at r or r + δr.
2
Substituting for A = 4 π r in equation (2.52),
4 πr2 NA r + δr – 4Wr2 NA r = 0
r2 N A r + δr – r2NA r
lim
or = 0
δr → 0 δr
d
(r2 NA) = 0 … (2.53)
dr
Integrating, r2 NA = constant … (2.54)
2
r2 NA = r0NA
0
From equation (2.54),
Substituting for NA from equation (2.51),
–r2 CDAB dyA 2
= r0NA
1 – yA dr 0
2 dr dy
r0NA ⌠ 2 = – CDAB ⌠ A
… (2.55)
0⌡ r ⌡ 1 – yA
Boundary condition : At r = r0 yA = yAS
And At r → ∞ yA = yA∞
∞ yA∞
2
– 1
r0NA
0  r r0 = [CDAB ln (1 – yA)]yAS
CDAB 1 – yA∞
Simplifying, NA = ln   … (2.56)
0 r0 1 – yAS
Time required for complete evapouration of the droplet may be evaluated from making
mass balance.
In – Out = Accumulation
2 d 4 3 ρL 
0 – 4 π r0NA =
0

dt 3
π r0
MA
2 ρL dr0
or, = – 4 π r0 … (2.57)
MA dt
Substituting for NA from equation (2.56) in equation (2.57),

0
CDAB  1 – yA  –ρL dr0

ln 1 – y  = M dt … (2.58)
r0  AS A
Initial condition : When t = 0, r0 = r1

Integrating equation (2.58) with these initial condition,
t 0
–ρL 1 1
⌠
⌡ dt = ⌠
⌡ r0 dr0
MA CDAB  – yA∞
1
0 ln   r1
1 – yAS
2
ρL 1 r1
t = … (2.59)
MA 2 CDAB 1 – yA∞
ln  
1 – yAS
Equation (2.59) gives the total time t required for complete evapouration of spherical
droplet of initial radius r1.
(b) Combustion of a coal particle : The problem of combustion of spherical coal
particle is similar to evapouration of a drop with the exception that chemical reaction
(combustions) occurs at the surface of the particle. During combustion of coal, the reaction,
C + O2 → CO2
occurs. According to this reaction for every mole of oxygen that diffuses to the surface of coal
(maximum of carbon), react with 1 mole of carbon, releases 1 mole of carbon dioxide, which
must diffuse away from this surface. This is a case of Equimolar counter diffusion of CO2 and
O2. Normally air (a mixture of N 2 and O2) is used for combustion, and in this case N2 does
not takes part in the reaction, and its flux is zero. i.e. NN = 0 .
( 2 )
The molar flux of O2 could be written as,
dyO
2
NO
2
= – CDO
2 – gas dr
+ yO
2 (N O2 + NCO + NN
2 2 ) … (2.60)
dyO
2
NO = – CDO … (2.61)
2 2 – gas dr
For steady state conditions,
d
(r2 NO ) = 0 … (2.62)
dr 2
2
Integrating, r2 N O = constant = r0 NO … (2.63)
2 2S
where r0 is the radius of coal particle at any instant, and NO in the flux of O2 at the
2S
surface of the particle. Substituting NO from equation (2.61) in equation (2.63).
2
dyO 2
2
–r2 CDO = r0 N O S … (2.65)
dr
2 – gas 2
Boundary condition : r = r0 , yO = yO S
2 2
And At, r → ∞, yO = yO
2 2∞
With this boundary condition, equation (2.65) becomes,
yO ∞
∞ 2
2 dr
r0 NA ⌠ 2 = –CDO – gas ⌠ dyO
0 ⌡ r 2 ⌡ 2
r0 yO S
2
CDO
2 – gas
which yields, NO
2S
=
r0 (y O2S – yO
2∞ ) … (2.66)
From fast reaction of O2 with coal, the mole fraction of O2 at the surface of particle is
zero.
yO S = 0
2
And also at some distance away from the surface of the particle yO = yO = 0.21
2 2∞
(because air is a mixture of 21 mole % O2 and 79 mole % N2)
With these conditions, equation (2.66) becomes,
0.21 CDO – gas
2
NO S = … (2.67)
2 r0
Dr
R r
N02r
NCOr
Fig. 2.10 : Combustion of a particle of Coal

2.13.5 Diffusion in Liquids
Equation derived for diffusion in gases equally applies to diffusion in liquids with some
modifications. Mole fraction in liquid phases is normally written as ‘x’ (in gases as y). The
concentration term ‘C’ is replaced by average molar density,   av
ρ
M
(a) For steady – state diffusion of A through non-diffusing B :
NA = constant, NB = 0
DAB
NA =  ρ  (x – x ) … (2.68)
zxBM Mav A1 A2
Where Z = Z 2 – Z 1, the length of diffusion path; and
XB – XB
2 1
XBM = … (2.69)
XB2
ln 
XB 
 1
(b) For steady – state equimolar counter diffusion :

NA = – NB = constant
DAB DAB
ρ
Na =
Z ( CA – CA
1 2) =
Z Mav (xA1 – xA2) …(2.70)
2.13.6 Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reaction

Absorption operations involves contact of a gas mixture with a liquid and preferential
dissolution of a component in the contacting liquid. Depending on the chemical nature of the
involved molecules, the absorption may or may not involve chemical reaction. The following
analysis illustrates the diffusion of a component from the gas phase into the liquid phase
accompanied by a chemical reaction in the liquid phase. Consider a layer of absorbing
medium (liquid) as shown in diagram.
Gas mixture
(A and inert gas) z
z=0
NAz|z
Liquid surface
Dz
NAz|z+Dz
Liquid B z=d
Fig. 2.11 : Absorption with homogeneous chemical reaction

At the surface of the liquid, the composition of A is CA 0. The thickness of the film, δ is so
defined, that beyond this film the concentration of A is always zero; that is CAδ = 0. If there is
very little fluid motion within the film,
dCA Ca
NA = – DAB + (NA + NB) … (2.71)
dz C
If concentration of A in the film, CA is assumed small, equation (2.71) becomes,
dCA
NA = –DAB … (2.72)
dz
The molar flux NA changes along the diffusion path. This change is due to the reaction
that takes place in the liquid film. These changes could be written as,
d
(NA) – rA = 0 … (2.73)
dz
where –rA is the rate of disappearance of A. For a first order reaction,
k
A >B
–rA = k CA … (2.74)
With the substitution from equation (2.74) and (2.72) in equation (2.73),
–d  dCA
D = kCA = 0
dz  AB dz 
For constant Diffusivity,

d2CA
–DAB + kCA = 0 … (2.75)
dz2
Which is a second order ordinary differential equation. The general solution to this
equation is,
 k   k 
CA = C1 cos h 
DAB 
z + C2 sin h 
DAB 
z … (2.76)
 
The constants of this equation can be evaluated from the boundary conditions :
at Z=0 CA = CA0
And at Z=δ CA = 0
–CA
0
The constant C1 is equal to CA , and C2 is equal to with this
0  k 
tan h 
DAB 
δ

substitution equation (2.76) becomes,
 k 
CA sin h 
DAB 
z
 k  0 
CA = CA cos h 
DAB 
z – … (2.77)
0   k 
tan h 
DAB 
z

This equation gives the variation of concentration of A with z (i.e concentration profile of
A in the liquid). The molar flux at the liquid surface can be determined by differentiating
equation (2.77), and evaluating the derivative,
dCA
at z = 0
dz
Differentiating CA with respect to z,
k  k 
cos h 
DAB 
CA z
dCA k  k  0 DAB 
sin h 
DAB 
= CA z – … (2.78)
dz 0 DAB   k 
tan h 
DAB 
δ

Substituting z = 0 in equation (2.78) and from equation (2.72),
 k

 
DAB CA δ
0
D AB
NA = … (2.79)
Z=0 δ
tan h  Dk δ

  AB 
For absorption with no chemical reaction, the flux of A is obtained from equation (2.72) as
DAB CA
0
NA = … (2.80)
δ
Which is constant throughout the film of liquid. On comparison of equation (2.79) and
 k

 
δ
DAB
(2.80), it is apparent that the term
  k 
tan h  D δ 
  AB  
shows the influence of the chemical reactions. This term is a dimensionless quantity, is
often called as Hatta Number.
2.13.7 Diffusion in Solids
In certain unit operation of chemical engineering such as in drying or in absorption, mass
transfer takes place between a solid and a fluid phase. If the transferred species is
distributed uniformly in the solid phase and forms a homogeneous medium, the diffusion of
the species in the solid phase is said to be structure independent. In this cases diffusivity or
diffusion coefficient is direction – independent.
At steady state, and for mass diffusion, which is independent of the solid matrix
structure, the molar flux in the z-direction is :
dCA
NA = – DAB = constant, as given by Fick’s law.… (2.81)
dz
Integrating the above equation,
DAB (CA – CA )
1 2
NA = … (2.82)
z
Which is similar to the expression obtained for diffusion in a stagnant fluid with no bulk
motion (i.e. N = 0).
(A) Fick's Law of Diffusion : When the concentration gradient remains unchanged
with passage of time, so that the rate of diffusion is constant. Fick's law of diffusion can be
applied when, (i) Diffusivity is independent of concentration, (ii) There is no bulk flow.
Thus,
dCA
NA = – DA … (2.83)
dz
where,
DA = Diffusivity of A through the solid
(a) If DA = constant, then equation can be integrated (for diffusion through a flat slab of
thickness z) give :
DA (CA – CA )
1 2
NA = … (2.84)
Z
which is similar expression obtained for fluids for similar situations. Here CA and CA
1 2
are the concentration at opposite sides of the slab.
(b) For other solid shape, the rate is given by,
DA Sav (CA – CA )
1 2
W = NA Sav = … (2.85)
Z
with appropriate values of the average cross-section for diffusion Sav to be applied.
Example :
(i) Radial Diffusion Through a Solid Cylinder :
Let, inner radii = a1
outer radii = a2
length = l
2π l (a2 – a1)
so, Sav = … (2.86)
a2
ln  
a1
and z = a2 – a1 … (2.87)
(ii) Radial Diffusion Through a Spherical Shell :
Let, inner radii = a1
outer radii = a2
So, Sav = 4π a1a2 … (2.88)
and z = a2 – a1 … (2.89)
Types of Solid Diffusion :
Diffusion in polymers is of interest to chemical engineers because thin "permselective"
polymer membranes may be employed in separation process and because processes for the
manufacture of polymers offers involve diffusion of reactants or products to or from the site
of polymerisation reaction. The separation process include hydrocarbon separation dialysis,
reverse osmosis, blood oxygenators and artificial kidneys. Diffusion of water and other
solvents presents problems in the manufacture of commercial polymers and the spinning of
these to produce textile fibers; low water permeability is required in polymer films used to
package the food. Separation by electrodialysis or by ion-exchange equipment depends on ion
diffusion in polymers.
The structure of the solid and its interaction with the diffusion substance have a
profound influence on how diffusion occurs and on the rate of transport.
(i) Diffusion Through Polymers :
Imagine two bodies of a gas (e.g. H2) at different pressures separated by a polymeric
membrane (e.g. Polyethylene). The gas dissolves in the solid at the faces exposed to the gas to
an extent usually described by Henry's law, concentration directly proportional to pressure.
The gas then diffuses from the high-to low-pressure side in a manner usually described as
activated : the polymeric chains are in a state of constant thermal motion, and the diffusing
molecules jump from one position to another over a potential barrier.
A commercial application of these principles has been made for separating hydrogen from
waste refinery gases in shell-and-tube devices which resemble in part the common heat
exchanger. However, in this use the polymeric fiber tubes are only 30 µm OD, and there are
50 million of them in a shell roughly 0.4 m in diameter.
(ii) Diffusion through a solid membrane :
Consider the mass transfer process that occurs when a gas (A) diffuses through a solid
membrane (B) : the membrane separates two gases in which the partial pressure of species A is
different (Figure 2.12). We will assume that the process is at steady state, and that the specified
partial pressures of A in the gases (PA1 and PA2 ) have been measured in the immediate vicinity of
the membrane.
Gas Soild Gas
(B)
cA1
PA1 PA2
cA2
NA
(PA1 > PA2)
x
x=0 x=L
Fig. 2.12 : A solid membrane made of a specific component (B) separates two gases with different partial
pressures of a species (A) that is soluble in the membrane material. Because of the partial pressure
difference, A will diffuse across the membrane. Other compounds might be present in the gases on each
side of the membrane.
One important characteristic of this example, which will appear in a large number of mass
transfer applications, is the presence of phase interfaces. In this case, there are two solid/gas
interfaces (at x = 0 and x = L). The molar concentration of a chemical species suffers a
discontinuity across a phase interface. For the case under consideration, molecules of A are not
subjected to appreciable molecular interactions in the gas phase, whereas in the solid phase, they
would have to "find their way" through a more compact molecular structure in which interactions
with molecules of B will occur. The amount of A that the solid phase can "accommodate" in terms
of moles of A per unit volume of material is then expected to be much less than the concentration
of A in the gas, and it will depend on molecular compatibility between A and B. This
distinguishes concentration profiles from temperature profiles : in heat transfer processes;
generally it is considered that the temperature is a continuous function of position, even across a
phase interface. However, the concentrations on both sides of the interface can be related by
assuming that the phases are at equilibrium across the interface. This condition of local
equilibrium is usually assumed to be valid. The rationale behind it is based on the hypothesis
that the first few layers of molecules on both sides of the interface reach equilibrium in a
characteristic time that is much faster than characteristic times of the mass transfer process.
Under the local equilibrium hypothesis, the concentrations on both sides of the interface are
related by a mathematical expression that can be determined in independent experiments
involving equilibrium contacting between the phases.
Going back to the process depicted in Figure 2.12, at the solid/gas interfaces, we can assume
that equilibrium between the solid and gas is achieved instantly. Therefore, the concentration of
A in the solid that is in contact with the gas is the solubility of A in the solid, when it is exposed to
the corresponding partial pressure of A; i.e., referring to the concentrations inside the membrane
CA1 and CA2 (Figure 2.12) , we have :
CA1 : solubility of A in B exposed to PA1
CA2 : solubility of A in B exposed to PA2
In many cases the solubility will be directly proportional to the partial pressure :
CA1 = KPA1
CA2 = KPA2
where K is a constant that depends on temperature and total pressure and can be measured
independently.
We are interested in analyzing the diffusion of A through the solid B. For this particular
example, species A will diffuse in the positive x direction since CA1 > CA2 . We start by
considering the flux equation for species A. In this case, we expect A to be present at relatively
low concentrations in the solid, so that we can consider c to be uniform in the solid. We can
write :
dcA
NA = xA (NA + NB) – DAB dx … (2.89)
The solid is stationary and, therefore, NB = 0. This equation can be rearranged to give,
dcA
(1 – xA) NA = – DAB dx … (2.90)
The condition that A is present at low concentrations in the solid (dilute system), can be
expressed mathematically by stating that the mole fraction of A everywhere is very small
compared to 1 : XA << 1, which implies : 1 – XA = 1, which in turn yields :
dcA
NA = – DAB dx … (2.91)
This equation is valid for 0 < x < L. The diffusivity will be considered uniform.
On the other hand, if NA were to vary with x, there would be accumulation of A in the
membrane. This is not possible under steady state conditions by virtue of the principle of mass
conservation. Therefore, we conclude :
NA is uniform (independent of x) due to mass conservation.
Since NA is constant, we can separate variables and integrate equation (2.91) through the
membrane, as follows :
L
cA2
NA ⌠
⌡ dx = – DAB ⌠
⌡ dcA … (2.92)
0 cA1
Which leads to,
(cA1 – cA2)
NA = DAB L … (2.93)
This equation can be expressed in terms. of partial pressures as follows,

(PA1 – PA2)
NA = KDAB L … (2.94)
We can then use this equation to calculate the flux of A through the membrane.
Equation (2.91) can also be integrated to determined the concentration profile of A within the
membrane by making one of the limits of integration a generic co-ordinate x :
x cA (x)
NA ⌠
⌡ dx = – DAB ⌠ dcA
⌡ … (2.95)
0 cA1
Integrating, we find that the concentration of A is a linear function of x :
NAx = – DAB (cA – cA1 ) … (2.96)
Also, substituting equation (2.93) and rearranging leads to :

x
cA = cA1 (cA1 – cA2) L … (2.97)
i.e., the concentration profile is a straight line joining the two boundary values as shown in
Fig. 2.13.
Gas Soild Gas
(B)
cA1
cA(x)
PA1 PA2
cA2
x
x=0 x=L
Fig. 2.13 : Concentration profile for the system shown in Figure 2.12
As a practical example of gas diffusion through a solid membrane, consider the following
problem : we are interested in setting the shelf like of a plastic soda bottle, knowing that the
process to consider is the loss of CO2 by diffusion through the walls. The physical situation is
illustrated in Figure 2.14.
Plastic wall
(B)
cA1
Liquid atmospheric
cA2 air
with CO2
Cola CO2(A)
PA – 0
diffusing
Fig. 2.14 : The loss of CO2 from a carbonated beverage through the plastic wall of the bottle is due to the
diffusion of CO2 through the wall. Inside the bottle, the liquid has a certain concentration of CO2,
whereas the concentration of CO2 in the atmospheric air outside the bottle is negligible.
The information necessary to solve the problem will be made available as required, and it will
be highlighted.
This problem can be treated with the diffusion equations developed above, provided that we
make the following assumptions :
(1) The wall is so thin compared to the bottle curvature that it can be considered flat
(diffusion is one-dimensional in the x-direction).
(2) The diffusion process through the wall can be considered pseudo-steady; i.e., even
though the CO2 content in the liquid will change with time, we will consider that these
changes are slow with respect to the time that it takes the diffusion process to become
steady.
(3) We neglect CO2 concentration profiles in the liquid and the atmosphere.
If these assumptions hold, then the flux, which will allow us to calculate the loss of CO2, is
given by :
(cA1 – cA2)
NA = DAB L … (2.98)
(iii) Surface Diffusion :
It is phenomenon accompanying adsorption of solutions onto the surface of the pores of
the solid. It is an activated diffusion involving jumping of adsorbed molecules from one
adsorption site to another. In general, surface diffusion can be described by a two
dimensional analog of Ficks' law.
Features of surface diffusion :
(a) Surface concentration expressed as mole/area instead of mole/volume.
(b) Surface diffusivities range in m2/sec.
(1) 10–7 × 10–9 m2/sec at ordinary temperature for physically adsorbed gases.
(2) 10–12 m2/sec for liquid solution in adsorbent resin particles.
The term "activated" refers to the temperature dependence of the diffusivity, which
follows an Arrhenius-type expression :
DA = Do e– HD/RT … (2.99)
where,
HD = Energy of activation
Do = A constant
For simple gases, DA is usually reasonably independent of concentration. It may,
however, be a strong function of pressure of molding the polymer. For the permanent gases,
diffusivities may be of the order of 10–10 m2/sec.
Due to complicated dimensions and awkward units, it has become the practice to describe
the diffusional characteristics in terms of quantity P, the permeability. Since at the two faces
of a membrane the equilibrium solubility of the gas in the polymer is directly proportional to
pressure, equation (2.84) can be converted into :
VA =
DA SA
(p– A1
–
– pA
)
2
… (2.100)
z
where,
VA = Diffusional flux, cm3 gas (STP)/cm2. s
DA = Diffusivity of A, cm2/s
–
p A = Partial pressure of diffusing gas, cm Hg
SA = Solubility coefficient or Henry's law constant,
cm3 gas (STP)/(cm3.solid). cm. Hg
z = Thickness of polymeric membrane, cm
Permeability, P is then defined as,
P = DA SA
P = Permeability, cm3.gas (STP)/cm2.s 

cm Hg
where,
 cm 
Diffusion in Porous Solids :

In some chemical operations, such as heterogeneous catalysis, an important factor,
affecting the rate of reaction is the diffusions of the gaseous component through a porous
solid. The effective diffusivity in the solid is reduced below what it could be in a free fluid, for
two reasons. First, the tortuous nature of the path increases the distance, which a molecule
must travel to advance a given distance in the solid. Second, the free cross-sectional area is
restricted. For many catalyst pellets, the effective diffusivity of a gaseous component is of the
order of one tenth of its value in a free gas. If the pressure is low enough and the pores are
small enough, the gas molecules will collide with the walls more frequently than with each
other. This is known as Knudsen flow or Knudsen diffusion. Upon hitting the wall, the
molecules are momentarily absorbed and then given off in random directions. The gas flux is
reduced by the wall collisions. By use of the kinetic flux is the concentration gradient is
independent of pressure; whereas the proportionality constant for molecular diffusion in
gases (i.e. Diffusivity) is inversely proportional to pressure. Knudsen diffusion occurs when
the size of the pore is of the order of the mean free path of the diffusing molecule.
2.14 TRANSIENT DIFFUSION
Transient processes, in which the concentration at a given point varies with time, are
referred to as unsteady state processes or time – dependent processes. This variation in
concentration is associated with a variation in the mass flux.
These generally fall into two categories :
(i) The process which is in an unsteady state only during its initial startup, and
(ii) The process, which is in a batch operation throughout its operation.
In unsteady state processes there are three variables-concentration, time and position.
Therefore the diffusion process must be described by partial rather than ordinary differential
equations. Although the differential equations for unsteady state diffusion are easy to
establish, most solutions to these equations have been limited to situations involving simple
geometries and boundary conditions, and a constant diffusion coefficient. Many solutions are
for one-directional mass transfer as defined by Fick’s second law of diffusion :
∂ CA ∂2CA
= DAB … (2.101)
∂t ∂z2
This partial differential equation describes a physical situation in which there is no bulk–
motion contribution, and there is no chemical reaction. This situation is encountered when
the diffusion takes place in solids, in stationary liquids, or in system having equimolar
counter diffusion. Due to the extremely slow rate of diffusion within liquids, the bulk motion
contribution of flux equation (i.e., y A Σ Ni) approaches the value of zero for dilute solutions;
accordingly this system also satisfies Fick’s second law of diffusion.
The solution to Fick’s second law usually has one of the two standard forms. It may
appear in the form of a trigonometric series, which converges for large values of time, or it
may involve series of error functions or related integrals, which are most suitable for
numerical evaluation at small values of time. These solutions are commonly obtained by
using the mathematical techniques of separation of variables or Laplace transforms.
2.15 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MASS TRANSFER

2.15.1 The Differential Equation for Mass Transfer
Consider the control volume, ∆x ∆y ∆z, through which a mixture including component A
is flowing, as shown in Fig. 2.15. The control volume expression for the conservation of mass
is,
⌠
⌡ ⌠
⌡ ρ (v · n) dA + ∂t ⌠
∂
⌡ ⌠
⌡ ⌠
⌡ ρ dV = 0 … (2.101)
c.s. c.v.
which may be stated in words as
Net rate of mass efflux  Net rate of accumulation of 
  +   = 0
 from control volume  mass within control volume
If we consider the conservation of a given species A, this relation should also include a
term which accounts for the production or disappearance of A by chemical reaction within the
volume. The general relation for a mass balance of species A for our control volume may be
stated as
Net rate of mass Net rate of accumulation Rate of chemical production
 efflux of A from  +  of A within control  –  of A within the control  = 0
 control volume   volume   volume 
… (2.102)
y
Dy
Dz
Dx
z
Fig. 2.15 : A differential control volume
The individual terms will be evaluated for constituent A, and a discussion of their
meanings will be given below.
The net rate of mass efflux from the control volume may be evaluated by considering the
mass transferred across control surface. For example, the mass of A transferred across the
area ∆y ∆z at x will be ρA υA, x ∆y ∆z |x, or in terms of the flux vector, nA = ρA vA, it would be
nA, x ∆y ∆z |x. The net rate of mass efflux of constituent A will be,
in the x-direction : nA, x ∆y ∆z |x + ∆x – nA, x ∆y ∆z |x
in the y-direction : nA, y ∆x ∆z |y + ∆y – nA, y ∆x ∆z |y
and
in the z-direction : nA, z ∆x ∆y |z + ∆z – nA, z ∆x ∆y |z
The rate of accumulation of A in the control volume is,

∂ρA
∆x ∆y ∆z
∂t
If A is produced within the control volume by a chemical reaction at a rate rA, where rA
has the units (mass of A produced) / (volume) (time), the rate of production of A is,
rA ∆x ∆y ∆z
This production term is analogous to the energy generation term which appears in the
differential equation for energy transfer.
Substituting each term in equation (2.102), we obtain
nA, x ∆y ∆z |x + ∆x – nA, x ∆y ∆z |x + nA, y ∆x ∆z |y + ∆y
– nA, y ∆x ∆z |y + nA, z ∆x ∆y |z + ∆z – nA, z ∆x ∆y |z
∂ρA
+ ∆x ∆y ∆z – rA ∆x ∆y ∆z = 0 … (2.103)
∂t
Dividing through by the volume, ∆x ∆y ∆z, and cancelling terms, we have
nA‚ x |x + ∆x – nA‚ x |x nA‚ y |y + ∆y – nA‚ y |y nA‚ z |z + ∆z – nA‚ z |z ∂ρA
+ + + – rA= 0
∆x ∆y ∆z ∂t
… (2.104)
Evaluated in the limit as ∆x, ∆y and ∆z approach zero, this yields
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ρA
n + n + n + – rA = 0 … (2.105)
∂x A, x ∂y A‚ y ∂z A‚ z ∂t
Equation (2.105) is the equation of continuity for component A. Since nA‚ x, nA‚ y, and nA‚ z
are the rectangular components of the mass flux vector, nA, equation (2.105) may be written,
∂ρA
∇ · nA + – rA = 0 … (2.106)
∂t
A similar equation of continuity may be developed for a second constitutent B in the
same manner. The differnetial equations are
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ρB
n B, x + n B, y + n B, z + – rB = 0 … (2.107)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
and
∂ρB
∇ · nB + – rB = 0 … (2.108)
∂t
where rB is the rate at which B will be produced within the control volume by a chemical
reaction. Adding equations (2.106) and (2.107), we obtain,
∂ (ρA + ρB)
∇ · (nA + nB) + – (rA + rB) = 0 … (2.109)
∂t
For a binary mixture of A and B, we have
nA + nB = ρA vA + ρB vB = ρv
ρA + ρB = ρ
and rA = – rB
by the law of conservation of mass. Substituting these relations into (2.109), we obtain,
∂ρ
∇ · ρv + = 0 … (2.110)
∂t
This is the equation of continuity for the mixture. Equation (2.110) is identical to the
equation of continuity for a homogeneous fluid.
The equation of continuity for the mixture and for a given species can be written in terms
of the substantial derivative. The continuity equation for the mixture can be rearranged and
written,
Dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0 … (2.111)
Dt
Though similar mathematical manipulations, the equation of continuity for species A in
terms of the substantial derivative may be derived. This equation is,
ρDωA
+ ∇ · j A – rA = 0 … (2.112)
Dt
We could follow the same development in terms of molar units. If RA represents the rate
of molar production of A per unit volume and RB represents the rate of molar production of B
per unit volume, the molar-equivalent equations are
For component A,
∂cA
∇ · NA + – RA = 0 … (2.113)
∂t
For component B,
∂cB
∇ · NB + – RB = 0 … (2.114)
∂t
And for the mixture,
∂ (cA + cB)
∇ · (NA + NB) + – (RA + RB) = 0 … (2.115)
∂t
For the binary mixture of A and B, we have,
NA + NB = cA vA + cB vB = cV
and
cA + cB = c
However, only when the stoichiometry of the reaction is
A B
which stipulates that one molecule of B is produced for each mole of A disappearing, can we
stipulate that RA = – RB. In general, the equation of continuity for the mixture in molar units
is
∂c
∇ · cV + – (RA + RB) = 0 … (2.116)
∂t
2.15.2 Special Forms of the Differential Mass Transfer Equation

Special forms of the equation of continuity applicable to commonly encountered
situations follow. In order to use the equations for evaluating the concentration profiles, we
replace the fluxes, nA and NA, by the appropriate expressions developed. These expressions
are –
NA = – cDAB ∇yA + yA (NA + NB) … (2.117)
or its equivalent,
NA = – cDAB ∇yA + cA V
and
nA = – ρDAB ∇ ωA + ωA (nA + nB) … (2.118)
or its equivalent,
nA = – ρDAB ∇ ωA + ρA v
Substituting equation (2.118) into equation (2.113), we obtain,
∂ρA
– ∇ · ρDAB ∇ ωA + ∇ · ρA v + – rA = 0 … (2.119)
∂t
and substituting equation (2.117) into equation (2.105), we obtain,
∂cA
– ∇ · cDAB ∇yA + ∇ · cA V + – RA = 0 … (2.120)
∂t
Either equation (2.119) or equation (2.120) may be used to describe concentration profiles
within a diffusing system. Both equations are completely general; however, they are
relatively unwidely. These equations can be simplified by making restrictive assumptions.
Important forms of the equation of continuity, with their qualifying assumptions, include :
(i) If the density, ρ, and the diffusion coefficient, DAB, can be assumed constant,
equation (2.119) becomes,
∂ρA
– DAB ∇2 ρA + ρA ∇ · v + v · ∇ ρA + – rA = 0
∂t
Dividing each term by the molecular weight of A and rearranging, we obtain
∂cA
v · ∇cA + = DAB ∇2 cA + RA … (2.121)
∂t
(ii) If there is no production term, RA = 0, and if the density and diffusion coefficient are
assumed constant, equation (2.121) reduces to
∂cA
+ v · ∇cA = DAB ∇2 cA … (2.122)
∂t
We recognize that (∂cA/∂t) + v · ∇cA is the substantial derivative of cA; rewriting the left-
hand side of equation (2.123), we obtain,
DcA
= DAB ∇2 cA … (2.123)
Dt
which is analogous to equation from heat transfer,
DT k
= ∇2 T … (2.124)
Dt ρcp
DT
or = α ∇2 T
Dt
where, α is the thermal diffusitivity. The similarity between these two equations is the
basis for the analogies drawn between heat and mass transfer.
(iii) In a situation in which there is no fluid motion, v = 0, no production term, RA = 0,

and no variation in the diffusivity or density, equation (2.122) reduces to,
∂cA
= DAB ∇2 cA … (2.125)
∂t
Equation (2.125) is commonly referred to as Fick's second "law" of diffusion. The
assumption of no fluid motion restricts its applicability to diffusion in solids, or stationary
liquids, and for binary systems of gases or liquids, where NA is equal in magnitude, but
acting in the opposite direction to NB; that is, the case of equimolar counter diffusion.
Equation (2.125) is analogous to Fourier's second "law" of heat conduction.
∂T
= α ∇2 T … (2.126)
∂t
(iv) Equations (2.121), (2.122), and (2.123) may be simplified further when the process to
be defined is a steady-state process; that is, ∂cA/∂t = 0. For constant density and a constant
diffusion coefficient the equation becomes,
v · ∇ cA = DAB ∇2 cA + RA … (2.127)
For constant density, constant diffusivity and no chemical production, RA = 0, we obtain,

v · ∇ cA = DAB ∇2 cA … (2.128)
If additionally, v = 0, the equation reduces to
∇2 cA = 0 … (2.129)
Equation (2.129) is the Laplace equation in terms of molar concentration.
Each of the equations (2.119) through (2.125) has been written in vector form, thus each
applies to any orthogonal co-ordinate system. By writing the Laplacian operator, ∇2, in the
appropriate form, the transformation of the equation to the desired co-ordinate system is
accomplished. Fick's second "law" of diffusion written is rectangular co-ordinates is
∂ cA + ∂ cA + ∂ cA
∂cA 2 2 2
= DAB … (2.130)
∂t  ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2 
in cylindrical co-ordinates is
∂ cA + 1 ∂cA + 1 ∂ cA + ∂ cA … (2.131)
∂cA 2 2 2
= DAB
∂t  ∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2 ∂z2 
and in spherical co-ordinates is
∂cA
= DAB 2
 1 ∂ r2 ∂cA + 1 ∂ 
sin θ
∂cA
+ 2
1 ∂2 c A 
… (2.132)
∂t r ∂r  ∂r  r sin θ ∂θ 
2 ∂θ  r sin θ ∂φ2 
The general differential equation for mass transfer of component A, or the equation of
continuity of A, written in rectangular co-ordinates is
∂cA ∂NA‚ x ∂NA‚ y ∂NA‚ z 
+
∂t  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z  = RA … (2.133)
in cylindrical co-ordinates is
∂cA 1 ∂ 1 NA‚ θ ∂NA‚ z 
+ (rNA‚ r) + + = RA … (2.134)
∂t  r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z 
and in spherical co-ordinates is
∂cA  1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂NA‚ φ 
+ 2 (r2 NA‚ r) + (NA‚ θ sin θ) + = RA … (2.135)
∂t r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 
Example 1 :
In a cylindrical nuclear fuel rod which contains fissionable material, the rate of
production of neutrons is proportional to the neutron concentration. Use one of the general
differential equations for mass transfer to write the differential equation which describes the
mass transfer process. List any obvious boundary conditions.
For component A, equation (2.113) stipulates
∂cA
∇ · NA + – RA = 0
∂t
Since the rate of production is proportional to the neutron concentration, RA = kcA. For
diffusion in solids, where the bulk motion contribution is zero,
NA = – DAB ∇ cA
Upon substituting these relations into equation (2.113), we obtain
∂ cA + 1 ∂cA + 1 ∂ cA + ∂ cA + kc
∂cA 2 2 2
= DAB
∂t  ∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2 ∂z2  A
If the cylinder is relatively long compared to the radius, ∂2 cA/∂z2 = 0 and if the
concentration does not vary with the angle θ, ∂2 cA/∂θ2 = 0; the equation reduces to
∂ cA + 1 ∂cA + kc
∂cA 2
= DAB
∂t  ∂r2 r ∂r  A
The only obvious boundary condition is,
∂cA
= 0
∂r r = 0
which requires the concentration of the diffusing species to be finite at the center of the rod.
Example 2 :
In a hot combustion chamber, oxygen diffuses through an air film to a carbon surface
where it reacts according to the following equation :
3C + 2O2 2CO + CO2
O2 CO CO2
z=d
z=0
Fig. 2.16
(a) With the assumption that the carbon surface is flat, reduce the general differential
equation for mass transfer to write the specific differential equation that describes this
steady-state process.
For oxygen, equation (2.113) stipulates,

∂cO2
∇ · NO2 + – RO2 = 0
∂t
Since this is a steady-state process ∂cO2 /∂t = 0. The reaction occurs at one of the
boundaries and not uniformly along the diffusion path; accordingly, RO2 = 0. With diffusion
in only the z-direction, ∇ · NO2 reduces to dNO2‚ z /dz and the differential equation becomes,
dNO2‚ z
= 0
dz
(b) Write Fick's law in terms of only oxygen.
Fick's law for molecular diffusion stipulates

dyO2
NO2‚ z = – cDO2 – mixture + yO2 (NO2‚ z + NCO‚ z + NCO2‚ z + NN2‚ z)
dz
According to the reaction, two moles of oxyen enter the film and two moles of carbon
monoxide leave; accordingly, NO2‚ z = – NCO. The direction also predicts that as the two moles
1
of oxygen enter, one mole of carbon dioxide leave; this stipulates N = – NCO2‚ z . The
2 O2‚ z
net flux of nitrogen is zero. With these stipulations, the bulk contribution term becomes,
1
yO2 (NO2‚ z + NCO, z + NCO2‚ z + NN2‚ z) = yO2 (NO2‚ z – NO2‚ z – N + 0)
2 O2‚ z
yO2
= – NO2‚ z
2
and Fick's law reduces to

dyO2 yO2
NO2‚ z = – cDO2 – mixture – NO2‚ z
dz 2
or
cDO2 – mixture dyO2
NO2 , z = –
yO2 dz
1+
2
This equation can either be substituted into the differential equation that is defined in
part (a) or integrated directly in order to obtain the flux of O2 in the z-direction.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) In an oxygen-nitrogen mixture at 10 atmosphere and 25oC, the concentrations of

oxygen at two places of 0.2 cm a part are 10 and 20 volume percent respectively.
Calculate the rate of diffusion of oxygen expressed as gm/cm2 – hr for the case of
unicomponent diffusion (nitrogen to non-diffusing).
Data : Value of diffusivity between oxygen – nitrogen = 0.181 cm2/sec.
atm. cm3
R = 82.06 gm.mole K
Sol. :Given Data :

DAB = 0.181 cm2/sec
Pt = 10 atm
T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Z = 0.2 cm
NA = ? gm/cm2.hr.
This is the case of steady-state diffusion of gas A (O2) through non-diffusing gas B (N2).
For this case, we have equation :
DAB Pt
NA = p– – p–  … (A)
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M
Since Volume % = mole %
We have, Partial pressure = Mole fraction × total pressure
–
pA = 0.2 × 10 = 2 atm.
1
–
pA = 0.1 × 10 = 1 atm.
2
– – – –
Also, pA + pB = pA + pB = pt = 10 atm.
1 1 2 2
– –
∴ pB = 8 atm, p B = 9 atm.
1 2
– –
pB – PB
– 2 1 9–8
Thus, PB, M = = 9 = 8.49 atm.
p  ln 8
–
B2  
ln p– 
  B1
Thus, equation (A) becomes,

0.181 × 10 × (2 – 1)
NA =
82.06 × 298 × 0.2 × 8.49
NA = 4.36 × 10–5 gm.mole/sec. cm2
= 4.36 × 10–5 × 32 × 3600
= 5.022 gm/cm2. hr. (Ans.)
(2) Ammonia gas is diffusing at constant rate through a layer of stagnant air 1 mm thick.
Conditions are fixed so that gas contains 50% by volume of ammonia at one boundary
of the stagnant layer. The ammonia diffusing to the other boundary is quickly
absorbed and the concentration is negligible at that plane. The temperature is 298 K
and 1 atm. pressure and under this condition the diffusivity of ammonia in air is 0.18 ×
10–4 m2/sec. Calculate the rate of diffusion of ammonia through the layer. Take
R = 8.314 kJ/k mole oK.
Sol. : Given data : Z = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
DAB = 0.18 × 10–4 m2/sec
Pt = 101.3 kN/m2
R = 8.314 kJ/k mol K
T = 25 + 273 = 298 oK
–
pA = 0.5 × 101.3 = 50.65 kN/m2
1
–
pA = 0
2
This is case of equimolar counter diffusion so we have equation,
DAB · Pt –
NA = RTZ pA – pA 
–
 1 2
–4
0.18 × 10 × 101.3 (50.65 – 0)
=
8.314 × 298 × 1 × 10–3
= 3.76 × 10–3 k mole/m2. sec. (Ans.)
(3) In an O2 – N2 gas mixture at 1 atm. and 25o C, the concentration of O2 at two planes
3 mm apart are 10 and 20 volume percent respectively. Calculate the rate of diffusion
kg mole O2
expressed as for the case where there is equimolar counter diffusion takes
m2. sec.
place.
Data : DAB = 0.206 × 10–4 m2/sec.
R = 0.08206 atm. m3/kg.mole K
Sol. : Given Data : DAB = 0.206 × 10–4 m2/sec.
R = 0.08206 atm/m3/kg.mole K
Pt = 1 atm.
T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Z = 3 mm = 3 × 10–3 m
–
pA = 0.10 × 1 = 0.1 atm.
1
–
pA = 0.20 × 1 = 0.2 atm.
2
For equimolar counter diffusion, we have,
DAB Pt –
NA = RTZ pA – pA 
–
 1 2
0.206 × 10–4 × 1 × (0.1 – 0.2)
=
0.08206 × 298 × 3 × 10–3
kg mole O2
= 2.85 × 10–5 (Ans.)
m2 . sec.
(4) Calculate the rate of diffusion of water vapour from a thin layer of water at the
bottom of a well 6 m in height to dry air flowing over the top of the well. Assume the
entire system is at 298 K and atmosphere pressure. If the well diameter is 3 m, find out
the total weight of water diffused per second from the surface of the water in the well.
The diffusion coefficient of water vapour in dry air at 298 K and atmospheric
pressure is 0.256 × 10–4 m2/sec. The partial pressure of water vapour at 298 K is
0.0323 × 10–4 kg/m2.
–
Sol. : Data given : pA = Partial pressure of water vapour
1
= 0.0323 × 10–4 kg/m2
= 0.0323 kg/cm2
= 0.031 atm.
–
pA = 0, Z = 6m
2
DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/sec.
T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
–
Thus, pB = 1 – 0.031
1
= 0.969 atm.
–
pB = 1 atm.
2
– –
pB – pB
– 2 1 1 – 0.969
So, P B, M = = = 0.984 atm.
  ln 0.969
– 1
pB
 
p– 
2
ln
  B1
We have equation,
DAB Pt
NA = p– – p– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M
0.256 × 10–4 × 1 (0.031)
=
0.08206 × 298 × 6
= 5.496 × 10–9 k mole/m2.sec.
Rate of diffusion of water to dry air,
= NA × Area × Mol. wt. of water
π
= 5.496 × 10–9 × 4 D2 × 18
π
= 5.496 × 10–9 × 4 × (3)2 × 18
= 7 × 10–7 kg/sec. (Ans.)

(5) A volatile organic compound benzene costing Rs. 45 per kg, is stored in a tank 10 m
diameter and open at top. A stagnant air film 10 mm thick is covering the surface of
the compound beyond which the compound is absent. If the atmospheric temperature
is 25°°C. Vapour pressure of the compound is 150 mm Hg and its molar diffusivity is
0.02 m2/hour, calculate the loss of benzene is Rs./day.
Sol. : Data Given : T = 25 + 273 = 298 K

Z = 10 mm = 0.01 m
– 150
pA = 150 mm Hg = 760 = 0.197 atm.
1
–
pA = 0
2
– –
pB = 1 – p A = 1 – 0.197 = 0.803 atm.
1 1
– –
pB = 1 – PA = 1 – 0 = 1 atm.
2 2
– –
pB – pB
– 2 1 1 – 0.803
So, PB, M = = = 0.898 atm.
p  ln 0.803
– 1
B2  
ln  – 
p  B1
DAB Pt
We have, NA = P– – P– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M
0.02 × 1
= (0.197 – 0)
0.082 × 298 × 0.01 × 0.898
= 0.018 kg mole/hr. m2
π
Area of the tank = 4 (10)2 = 78.5 m2
∴ Loss of benzene from the tank in one day (24 hours) is given by :
Loss in Rs./day = NA × A × hours × Molecular weight × Cost of benzene
= 0.018 × 78.5 × 24 × 78 × 45 = 11,19,115 (Ans.)
(6) A narrow tube is partially filled with liquid and maintained at a constant temperature.
A gentle stream of a gas is passed across the open end of the tube. As the liquid
evapourates, the level drops slowly. At a given time t, this level in the tube is Z from
the top. Derive an expression to calculate the value of diffusivity of liquid vapour in
the gas.
Sol. : Since the liquid level drops slowly, we assume that Pseudo steady state conditions
prevail in this case. For steady state diffusion;
DAB Pt Gas Stream
NA = P– – P–  (1)
–  1A A2
…
RTZ PB‚ M
At t = t, z = z
Let 'S' be the cross sectional area of the tube At t = dt, z = dz
dz
and dZ be the fall in the liquid level in time dt.
Therefore, volume of liquid evapourated is,
V = dZ × S in time dt.
If ρA is the density of the liquid, then the
mass of liquid evapourated is given by,
Fig. 2.17 : Diffusivity of liquid vapour in the gas
M = dZ × S × ρA from narrow tube
∴ Moles of liquid evapourated per unit area per unit time is given by :
ρA · dZ · S ρA · dZ
NA = = M · dt
MA × dt × S A
where, MA = Molecular weight of liquid A.
So equation (1) becomes,
ρA · dZ DAB Pt
p– – p– 
MA · dt = –  A1 A2 … (2)
RTZ PB, M
– –
– pB – pB
2 1
Since, PB, M =
p 
–
B2
n p– 
  B1
p 
–
B2
DAB P ln  – 
t
We have,
ρA · dZ
=
p  B1
× pA – pA
– –
 … (3)
 
RTZ pB – pB 
MA dt – – 1 2
 2 1
– – – –
Also since, pA – pA = pB – pB
1 2 2 1
p 
–
B2
DAB · P ln  – 
t
we have,
ρA dZ p  B1
MA · dt = RTZ … (4)
Integrating equations (4) between the limits of
Z = Z0, when t = 0
Z = Z, when t = t1, we get
p 
–
B2
DAB P ln  – 
t
We get,
ρA Z1 – Z02
=
p  B1
· ln (t1)
MA  2  RT
2 2
RT · ρA (Z1 – Z0)
or DAB = … (5)
 
–
pB
p– 
2
MA · t1 · 2 Pt · ln
  B1
Equation (5) is called as Stefan's equation.

(7) A tube of small diameter was filled with acetone having density 790 kg/m3 upto
1.1 × 10–2 m from top and maintained at a temperature of 20oC in a gentle current of air.
After 5 hours, the level of the liquid fall to 2.05 × 10–2 m from the top. Calculate the
value of diffusivity of acetone in air if the barometric pressure was 750 mm Hg.
Vapour pressure of acetone at 20oC is 180 mm Hg.
atm. m3
R = 0.08206 k mol K .
Sol. : Data Given : Partial Pressure = Vapour pressure of acetone
–
= pA = 180 mm Hg = 0.237 atm.
1
750
Total pressure = Pt = 760 = 0.987 atm.
–
pA = 0, Z1 = 2.05 × 10–2 m, Z2 = 1.1 × 10–2 m, t1 = 5 hours = 18000 sec.
2
– – – –
Since, pA – pA = pB – pB = Pt = 0.987 atm.
1 2 1 2
–
∴ pB = 0.987 – 0.237 = 0.75 atm.
1
–
pB = 0.987 atm.
2
– –
pB – pB
– 2 1 0.987 – 0.75
So, P B, M = =
p  ln  0.75 
– 0.987
B2  
ln p– 
  B1
= 0.863 atm.
We have Stefan's equation as,
2 2
ρA RT (Z1 – Z2)
DAB =
p 
–
B2
2 MA Pt t1 ln  – 
p  B1
790 × 0.08206 × 293 [(2.05 × 10–2)2 – (1.1 × 10–2)2]

DAB =
2 × 58 × 0.987 × 18000 · ln  0.75 
0.987
 
DAB = 0.10 × 10–4 m2/sec. (Ans.)
(8) Calculate the amount of diffusion of acetic acid (A) in 2 hours across a film on non-
diffusing water (B) solution 1 mm thick at 17oC when the concentration on opposite
side of the film are 9 and 3 weight % acid respectively. The diffusivity of acetic acid in
solution is 0.95 × 10–9 m2/sec.
Data : At 17o C,
Density of 9% solution = 1012 kg/m3,
Density of 3% solution = 1003 kg/m3.
Molecular weight of acetic acid = 60,
Molecular weight of water = 18.
Sol. : Mole fractions of 9% and 3% acetic acid :

9
60
xA = 9 91 = 0.0288
1
60 + 8
3
60
xA = 3 97 = 0.0092
2
60 + 18
xB = 1 – xA = 0.9712
1 1
xB = 1 – xA = 0.9908
2 2
xB – xB
2 1
So, xB, M = = 0.981
xB 
2
ln x 
 B1
Now, Average molecular weight :
For 9% Solution :
M1 = xA × MCH + xB · M H O
1 3COOH 1 2
= 0.0288 × 60 + 0.9712 × 18
= 19.23
For 3% solution :
M2 = xA × MCH + xB × M H O
2 3COOH 2 2
= 0.0092 × 60 + 0.9908 × 18
= 18.41
Thus, for 9% solution :
 ρ  = 1012 = 52.60
M 1 19.23
for 3% solution :
 ρ  = 1003.2 = 54.55
M 2 18.41
Thus, ρ 52.60 + 54.55

M avg = 2
= 53.58 kg/m3
DAB
So, NA = Z·x  ρ  (x – x )
B‚ M Mavg
A1 A2
0.95 × 10–9 × 53.58

= × (0.0288 – 0.0092)
0.07707 × 1 × 10–3
= 1.017 × 10–6 kg.mol/m2.sec.
∴ Amount of diffusion of acetic acid in 2 hours,
= 1.017 × 10–6 × 3600 × 2
= 7.32 × 10–3 kgmole/m2 (Ans.)
(9) Calculate the amount of oxygen (A) diffused in one hour under steady state conditions
through a non-diffusing gas mixture of methane (B) and hydrogen (C) in the volume
ratio of 2 : 1. The diffusivities one estimated to be :
DO2 – H2 = 6.99 × 10–5 m2/s
DO2 – CH4 = 1.86 × 10–5 m2/sec
The total pressure is 1 × 105 N/m2 and temperature is 0oC. The partial pressure of
oxygen at two planes 2 mm apart one respectively 13000 and 6500 N/m2.
Data : R = 8314 Nm/(k mole) (K).
Sol. : Let, us denote e : A = Oxygen
B = Methane
C = Hydrogen
Let, YB = mole fraction of component in the air mixture
2
YB = 2 + 1 = 0.667
Volume ratio of methane to hydrogen = 2 : 1
1
∴ YC = mole fraction of component C in air free mixture = 2 + 1 = 0.333
Effective diffusivity may be calculated as :
1
DE =
 B  +  yC 
y
D  D 
 AB  AC
1
=
 4   xH2 
xCH
D – D  + D 
 O2 CH4  O2 – H2
1
=
 0.667  +  0.333 
1.86 × 10–5 6.99 × 10–5
= 2.465 × 10–5 m2/sec.
Next, T = 0oC = 273 K
Z = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m
–
pA = 13000 N/m2 = 0.13 × 105 N/m2
1
–
pB = 6500 N/m2 = 0.065 × 105 N/m2
2
Pt = 1 × 105 N/m2
– – – –
pA + pB = p A + pB = Pt
1 1 2 2
–
∴ pB = 87000 N/m2
1
–
∴ pB = 93500 N/m2
2
– –
pB – pB
– 2 1 93500 – 87000
∴ PB = = = 90200 N/m2
M
p 
–
93500
ln 8700
B2  
ln p– 
  B1
= 0.902 × 105 N/m2

DAB Pt
Thus, NA = p– – p– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M
2.46 × 10–5 × 1 × 105
=
8314 × 273 × 2 × 10–3 × 0.902 × 105
(0.13 × 105 – 0.065 × 105)
= 3.095 × 10–5 kmol/s.m2
= 1.406 × 10–1 kmol/hr. m2 (Ans.)
(10) Determine the diffusivity of CO2 (1), O2 (2) and N2 (3) in a gas mixture having the
composition : CO2 : 28.5 %, O2 : 15%, N2 : 56.5%,
5
The gas mixture is at 273 K and 1.2 × 10 Pa. The binary diffusivity values are given
at 273 K as :
2
D12 P = 1.874 m Pa/sec
2
D13 P = 1.945 m Pa/sec
2
D23 P = 1.834 m Pa/sec
Sol. : Diffusivity of CO2 in mixture
1
D1m = y' y'2
2
D12 + D13
y2 0.15
y'2 = y +y = 0.15 + 0.565 = 0.21
2 3
y3 0.565
where, y'2 = y +y = 0.15 + 0.565 = 0.79
2 3
1
D1m P = 0.21 0.79
1.874 + 1.945
Therefore, = 1.93 m2.Pa/sec.
Since, P = 1.2 × 105 Pa,
1.93
D1m = = 1.61 × 10–5 m2/sec.
1.2 × 105
Diffusivity of O2 in the mixture,
1
D2m = y' y'2
1
D21 + D23
y1 0.285
y'1 = y + y = 0.285 + 0.565 = 0.335
1 3
where, (mole fraction on – 3 free basis).
y3 0.565
y'2 = y + y = 0.285 + 0.565 = 0.665
1 3
2
and D21 P = D 12 P = 1.874 m .Pa/sec
1
Therefore D2m P = 0.335 0.6655 = 1.847 m2.Pa/sec.
1.874 + 1.834
1.847
D2m = = 1.539 × 10–5 m2/sec.
1.2 × 105
By similar calculations diffusivity of N2 in the mixture can be calculated, and is found to
be, D3m = 1.588 × 10–5 m2/sec. (Ans.)
(11) Calculate diffusivity of dry H2 in air at 303 K and 1 atm. The molecular volume of air
and hydrogen are :
VH = 14.3 cm3/gm. mole
2
VAir = 29.9 cm3/gm. mole

Sol. : Gilliland's correlation is,
3
2
0.0043 T 1 1
DH = × MH + Mair
 
1 1
2 – air
3 2
Pt VH + Vair 
3 2
 2 
3
2
0.0043 (300) 1 1
= 1 2 × 2 + 29
 1
 3 3
1 (14.3) + (29.9) 
= 0.544 cm2/sec (Ans.)
(12) Use Wilke-Chang correlation to estimate the diffusivity of ethyl benzene into water at
293 oK. The viscosity of water at this temperature may be 1 cP and density of ethyl
benzene at normal boiling temperature (409.3 K) is 0.761 gm/cc. Assume φ = 2.6.
Compare this value with experimental at value of DAB = 0.81 × 10–5 cm2/sec.
Sol. : Wilke–Chang correlation is,

1
2 ·T
0 (117.3 × 10–18) (φ MB)
DAB = 0.6
µ VA
Data Given : φ = 2.6

B = H2O; MB = 18
A = Ethyl benzene (C6H3C2H5); MA = 105

VA = 139.5 cm3/mol
T = 293 oK
0 (117.3 × 10–18) (2.6 × 18)0.5 × 293
∴ DAB =
1 × (139.5)0.6
= 1.215 × 10–14 cm2/sec. (Ans.)
The deviation of calculated value from its experimental value of diffusivity of ethyl
benzene in water is given by :
(Calculated Value) – (Experimental Value)
= (Calculated Value) × 100
1.215 × 10–5 – 0.81 × 10–5

= × 100 = + 32.92% (Ans.)
1.215 × 10–5
(13) Mannitol (CH2OH (CHOH)4 · CH2OH) diffusivity in dilute solution in water at 293 ok
m2
has been reported to be 5.6 × 10–10 sec.. Compare the observed value with the
calculated value. Base your calculations on the following data :
φ = 2.26
Dynamic viscosity of dilute solution = 1005 × 10–6 pa. sec.
VA = 0.185 m3/k mol
Sol. : Wilke–Chang correlation is,
1
2
o (117.3 × 10–18) (φ MB) T
DAB = 0.6
µ VA
1
2
o (117.3 × 10–18) (2.26 × 18) × 293
DAB =
1005 × 10–6 × (0.185)0.6
= 6.003 × 10–10 m2/sec. (Ans.)
The deviation of calculated value from its experimental value of diffusivity of mannitol in
its dilute solution in water is given by :
(Calculated value) – (Experimental value)
= (Calculated value) × 100
6.003 × 10–10 – 5.6 × 10–10

= × 100
6.003 × 10–10
= + 6.66% (Ans.)
(14) The value of DAB for a dilute solution of methanol in water at 288 K is given by
cm2
1.28 × 10−5 s . Estimate DAB for same solution for 373 K, using Wilke-Chang
correlation.
Data : µ1 at 288 K = 1.14 Cp

µ2 at 373 K = 0.284 Cp
Sol. : Wilke-Change equation
117.3 × 10−18 (φMB)1/2 ⋅ T
DAB = 0.6
µ ⋅ VA
T
. .
. DAB ∝
µ
T1
(DAB)T1 = 288 K µ1  T1 µ2
= T = ×T 
(DAB)T2 = 373 K  2 µ1 2
µ2 
(DAB)T2 = 373 K = (DAB)T1  ⋅ T 
µ1 T2
∴
µ2 1
= 1.28 × 10−5 0.284 × 288
1.14 373
 
(DAB)T2 = 373 = 6.6 × 10−5 cm2/sec. (Ans.)
(15) Estimate DAB for a dilute solution TNT in benzene at 15°°C.
Data : µ = 0.705 Cp (Assume pure benzene in solution)
VA = 140 cm3/gm.mole (for TNT)
φB = 1.0 for benzene
MB = 78 for benzene
Sol. : Wilke-Chang equation is,
117.3 × 10−8 (φB ⋅ MB)1/2 ⋅ T
DAB =
µ (VA)0.6
Substituting all values from given data in above equation.
7.4 × 10−8 (1 × 78)1/2 × 288
DAB =
0.705 × (140)0.6
DAB = 1.38 × 10−5 cm2/sec. (Ans.)
(16) The air pressure in a tyre reduces from 2 bars to 1.99 bars in five days. The volume of
air in the tube is 0.0025 m3, the surface area is 0.5 m2 and wall thickness 0.01 m. The
kg mole air
solubility of air in rubber is 0.00286 . Estimate the diffusivity of air in
m3 rubber
rubber. Assume temperature 25o C.
Sol. : This is a case of diffusion in solid. We assume that air behave ideally. Equation for the
case is,
DAB
NA = Z (CA – CA )
1 2
DAB S
= Z (CA – CA )
1 2
DAB · S
and W = Z (CA – CA )
1 2
where W = Loss, kg mole/hour
kg mole air
Data Given : CA = Solubility of air in the rubber = 0.00286
1 m3 rubber
CA = 0 (since other end is at far surface)
2
Z = 0.01 m
S = 0.5 m2
Use ideal gas law to find initial mole of air in the tyre
i.e. P1V1 = n1RT1
P1V1
So, n1 = RT
1
2 × 0.025
=
0.08206 × 298
= 0.002022 kg mole
P2 V2 1.99 × 0.025
Mole of air after diffusion = n2 = RT1 = 0.083 × 298
= 0.002011 kg mole
Mole diffused in 5 days, = n1 – n2
= (0.002022 – 0.002011)
= 0.000011
n1 – n2
Loss per hour =
24 × 5
0.000011
W = 120
W = 9.167 × 10–8 k mole/hour
DAB · S
Thus, W = Z (CA – CA )
1 2
0.5
9.167 × 10–8 = DAB × 0.01 (0.00286 – 0)
Solving for DAB, we get,
DAB = 0.64 × 10–6 m2/hour (Ans.)
o
(17) If an O2 -N2 gas mixture at 1 atm. and 25 C, the concentration of O2 at two planes,
2 mm apart are 10 and 20% (v/v) respectively. Calculate the flux of diffusion of O2
for the case where
1. the N2 is non-diffusing.
2. there is equimolar counter-diffusion of the gases.
o
Data : DO at 0 C = 1.86 × 10–5 m2/sec.
2–N2
Solution : We know the variation of diffusivity with temperature as

DAB ∝ T1.5
o
We need to calculate DAB at 25 C.
∴ DO at 25 C = DO
o
at 0
o
C × T2981.5
2–N2 2–N2 T273
= 1.81 × 10–5 273
298 1.5
 
= 2.064 × 10–5 m2/sec.

o
∴ DAB at 25 C = 2.064 × 10–5 m2/sec.
1. pA = 0.1 × 105 N/m2
1
pB = 1 × 105 – 0.1 × 105
1
= 0.9 × 105 N/m2

pA = 0.2 × 105 N/m2
2
pB = 1 × 105 – 0.2 × 105
2
= 0.8 × 105 N/m2

5
PT = 1 × 10 N/m2
pB – pB
1 2
(PB)lm = p  
B1
ln p 
 B2
0.9 × 105 – 0.8 × 105
=
ln 0.8
0.9
 
= 0.849 × 105 N/m2
The flux of diffusion of O2 through non-diffusing N2 gas is
DAB · PT
NA =
R.T ∆z (PB)lm (p A2
– pA
2 )
2.064 × 10–5 × 105 × (– 0.1 + 0.2) × 105
=
8314 × 298 × 2 × 10–3 × 0.849 × 105
= 4.91 × 10–5 kmole/m2 sec
∴ NA = 4.91 × 10–5 kmole/m2.sec
2. For equimolar counter diffusion :

+ DAB
NA =
RT ∆z
pA – pA
1 2 ( )
–5
2.064 × 10
= (0.1 – 0.2) × 105
8314 × 298 × 2 × 10–3
= – 4.2 × 10–5 kmole/m2.sec (Ans.)
Negative sign shows that the diffusion is in opposite direction.
(18) The O2 (A) is diffusing through CO (B) under standard conditions with CO
o
non- diffusing. The total pressure is 1 × 105 N/m2 and temperature is 0 C. The partial
pressure of O2 at two planes, 2.0 mm apart is 1300 and 6500 N/m2. The diffusivity of
oxygen in CO is DAB = 1.87 × 10–5 m2/sec. Calculate the rate of diffusion of O2 in
kmole/m2.sec.
Solution : Given Data :
Let A → O2
B → CO
DAB = 1.87 × 10–5 m2/sec
PT = 1 × 105 N/m2
T = 273 K
p = 1300 N/m2
A1
p = 6500 N/m2
A2
∆z = 2 × 10–3 m
∴ p = 13000 N/m2 , p = 1 × 105 – 13000 = 87000
A1 B1
∴ p = 6500 N/m2 , p = 1 × 105 – 6500 = 93500

A2 B2
The flux of diffusion of O2 through a non-diffusing CO is given by,
(
DAB · PT · p
A1
–p
A2 )
NA =
R.T. (∆z) (PB)
lm
DAB · PT · p
( A1
–p
A2 )
=
(p B1
–p
B2 )
R.T. (∆z)
pB1
ln p 
 B2
DAB · PT · p
( A1
–p
A2 )
=
(PT – pA1) – (PT – pA2)
 
RT (∆z)
 B1
p
ln p 
 B2
pB2
DAB · PT · ln p 
 B1
=
RT ∆z
1.87 × 10–5 × 1 × 105 ln 87000

93500
 
=
8314 × 2 × 10–3 × 273
= 2.9 × 10–5 kmole/m2.s
∴ NA = 2.9 × 10–5 kmole/m2.s (Ans.)
o
(19) Calculate the mass flux of benzene through a layer of air 10 mm thickness at 25 C
and 200 kN/m2 (total pressure), partial pressure of benzene is 6 × 103 N/m2, at the left
side of the layer and 1 kN/m2 at the right side. The mass diffusivity at this
temperature and pressure is 4.4 × 10–6 m2/sec.
∆z = 10 mm = 10 × 10–3 m
T = 298 K
PT = 200 × 103 N/m2
p = 6 × 103 N/m2
A1
p = 1 × 103 N/m2
A2
DAB = 4.4 × 10–6 m2/sec

For diffusion of A through non-diffusing B, we have mass flux given by
DAB · PT
NA =
R.T. (PB) · ∆z
p –p
A1 A2
… (1)
lm
( )
p –p
B2 B1
(PB)lm =
 p
… (2)
B2
ln p 
 B1
p = PT – p
B1 A1 = 200 × 103 – 6 × 103 = 194 × 103 N/m2
p = PT – p
B2 A2 = 200 × 103 – 1 × 103 = 199 × 103 N/m2
From equation (2),
3
199 × 10 – 194 × 103
(PB) = = 196.5 × 103 N/m2
lm
199
ln 194
 
From equation (1),
4.4 × 10–6 × 200 × 103 (6 × 103 – 1 × 103)
NA =
8.314 × 103 × 298 × 196.5 × 103 × 10–2
NA = 9.037 × 10–9 kmole/m2.sec
We know molecular weight of benzene.

M = 78 kg/kmole
∴ NA = 9.037 × 10–9 × 78 kg/m2.sec
= 704.88 × 10–9 kg/sec.m2
∴ NA = 7.048 × 10−7 kg/m2.sec (Ans.)
(20) A Well located in the desert is 10 m deep to the water level and 1.0 m in diameter.
o
The stagnant air and water in the Well are at 30 C and normal atmospheric pressure.
A slight breeze of dry air is blowing across the top of Well. Calculate the rate of
steady-state diffusion of water vapour in the Well. (Assume partial pressure of water
o
vapour in the air = vapour pressure of water at 30 C). Assume diffusivity of water
o
vapour in air at 30 C is DAB = 2.6 × 10–5 m2/sec. Vapour pressure of water at
o
30 C = 4.112 kN/m2.
p = 4.112 kN/m2
A1
p = 0
A2
p = 1.013 × 105 – 4.112

B1
= 97.215 × 103 N/m2

p = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
B2
log mean pressure difference is given as

p –p
B2 B1
p =
B, lm p  B2
ln p 
 B1
1.013 × 105 – 97.215 × 103
=
ln  97.2 
101.3
 
p = 99.77 kN/m2
B, lm
For one component diffusing, we have rate of diffusion

DAB . PT
NA =
RT ∆z p
B, lm
(p A1
–p
A2 )
2.6 × 10–5 × 1.013 × 105 × (4.112 – 0)
=
8314 × 303 × 10 × 0.9977 × 105
= 4 × 10–9 kmole/m2.sec
= 4 × 10–9 × 18 kg/m2.sec
= 72 × 10–9 kg/m2.sec
∴ NA = 72 × 10–9 kg/m2.sec
∴ Steady-state diffusion of water in kg/s
= 72 × 10–9 A kg/s
πD2
= 72 × 10–9 × 4 kg/s
π
= 72 × 10–9 × 4 (1) 2
= 56.54 × 10–9 kg/sec
∴ Steady-state diffusion of water vapour
= 56.54 × 10–9 kg/sec. (Ans.)
(21) Water in the bottom of a narrow metal tube is held at a constant temperature of
293 K. The total pressure of air (assumed dry) is 1.01325 × 105 Pa and the temperature
o
is 293 K (20 C). Water evaporates and diffuses through air in the tube, and the
diffusion path ∆z is 0.1524 m long. Calculate the steady-state rate of evaporation in
kmole/m2.s. The diffusivity of water vapour at 293 K and 1 atm pressure is
0.25 × 10–4 m2/s. Assume the system is isothermal. Vapour pressure of water at
o
20 C = 17.54 mm Hg.
DAB = 0.25 × 10–4 m2/s
where A → for water vapour
B → for dry air
17.54
p = 760 × 1.013 × 105
A1
= 2.33 × 103 N/m2

p = 0 (pure air)
A2
p = 1.013 × 105 – 2.33 × 103

B1
= 98970 N/m2
p = 1.013 × 105 – 0
B2
= 1.013 × 105 N/m2

p –p
B2 B1
(pB)lm =

p 
ln p 
B2
 B1
 
1.013 × 105 – 98970
=
ln  98970 
1.013 × 105
 
= 1 × 105 N/m2
pB1 + pB2
If p is close to p , then linear mean  
B1 B2  2  could be used.
The flux of diffusion of water vapour into air is

DAB · PT
NA =
RT ∆z (PB)lm
p –p
A1 A2 ( )
–4 5
0.25 × 10 × 1.013 × 10
= × (2.33 × 103 – 0)
8314 × 293 × 0.1524 × 105
= 1.595 × 10–7 kmole/s.m2
∴ NA = 1.595 × 10–7 kmole /s.m2 (Ans.)
(22) A sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 2.0 mm is suspended in a large volume
of still air at 318 K and 1.013 × 105 Pa. The surface temperature of the naphthalene
can be assumed to be at 318 K and its vapour pressure at 318 K is 0.555 mm Hg. The
DAB of naphthalene in air at 318 K is 6.92 × 10–6 m2/s. Calculate the rate of
evaporation of naphthalene from the surface.
DAB = 6.92 × 10–6 m2/s
0.555 5 2
p = 760 × 1.013 × 10 = 74 N/m
A1
p = 0 (air is pure)
A2
2
r1 = 1000 = 2 × 10–3 m
p = 1.013 × 105 – p
B1 A1
5
= 1.013 × 10 – 74
= 1.012 × 105 N/m2
p = 1.013 × 105 – 0
B2
= 1.013 × 105 N/m2

Since values of p and p are close, we take their linear mean.
B1 B2
p +p
B1 B2
(pB)lm = 2
(1.012 + 1.013) × 105
= 2
= 1.0129 N/m2
The flux of diffusion of naphthalene into stagnant air is
DAB · PT
NA =
RT r1 p p –p ( B)lm ( A1 A2 )
6.92 × 10–6 × 1.013 × 105 × (74 – 0)
=
8314 × 318 × 2 × 10–3 × 1.012 × 105
= 9.68 × 10–8 kmole/s.m2
Rate of evaporation of naphthalene

2
NA × 4πr2 = 9.68 × 10–8 × 4 × π × (2 × 10–3)
= 4.86 × 10–12 kmole/sec.
∴ NA = 4.761 × 10–14 kmole/m2.sec
Helium loss from 0.1 m2 surface area of diffusion

= 4.761 × 10–15 kmole/sec
We know, molecular weight of He = 4 kg/kmole
∴ Helium loss = 4.761 × 10–15 × 4 kg/sec
= 19.04 × 10–15 kg/sec
Total mass loss of helium
= 6.85 × 10–11 kg/hr (Ans.)
(23) Find the rate of evaporation of chloropicrin into air (considered here as a pure
o
substance) at 25 C ?
Total pressure 770 mm Hg
Diffusivity 0.088 cm2/sec
Vapour pressure 23.81 mm Hg
Distance from liquid level to top of the tube 11.14 cm
Density of chloropicrin 1.65 g cm–3
Surface area of liquid exposed for evaporation 2.29 cm2
PT = 770 mm Hg DAB = 0.088 × 10–4 m2/s
p = 23.81 mm Hg ρ = 1650 kg/m3
A1
p = 0 A = 2.29 × 10–4 m2
A2
p = 760 – 23.81 = 736.19 mm Hg

B1
p = 760 – 0 = 760 mm Hg
B2
p –p
B2 B1
∴ ( B)lm
p =
pB2
ln p 
 
 B1 
760 – 736.19
= = 748.03 mm Hg
ln 736.19
760
 
748.03
∴ (pB)lm = 760 × 1.013 × 105
(pB)lm = 0.997 × 105 N/m2

For diffusion of A through non-diffusing B, we have mass flux given by

DAB · PT
NA =
R.T p · ∆z
p –p
( B)lm
A1 A2 ( )
770 23.81
0.088 × 10–4 × 760 × 1.013 × 105 × 760 × 1.013 × 105
=
8314 × 298 × 0.997 × 105 × 10 × 10–2
0.088 × 10–4 × 1.026 × 105 × 0.0317 × 105
=
2.47 × 1010
= 1.15 × 10–7 kmole/m2.sec
∴ NA = 1.15 × 10–7 kmole/m2.sec
∴ Rate of evaporation = 1.15 × 10–7 × A

= 1.15 × 10–7 × 2.29 × 10–4 kmole/sec
= 2.63 × 10–11 kmole/sec
Molecular weight of chloropicrin = 164.5
∴ Rate of evaporation = 2.63 × 10–11 × 164.5 kg/sec
= 1.55 × 10–4 kg/hr
= 0.155 gm/hr (Ans.)
(24) The diffusivity of the gas-pair oxygen-carbon tetrachloride determined by observing
the steady-state evaporation of CCl4 into a tube containing O2. The distance between
CCl4 liquid level and the top of the tube is 17.1 cm. The total pressure on the system
o
is 100.63 kN/m2 and the temperature is 0 C. The vapour pressure of CCl4 at that
temperature is 4.39 kN/m2. The cross-sectional area of the diffusion tube is 0.82 cm2.
If it is found that 0.0208 cm3 of CCl4 evaporate in 10 hours period after steady
state has been attained, what is the diffusivity of the gas-pair CCl4 – O2 ?
ρ = 1590 kg/m3, M = 154 kg/kmole.
CCl4

PT = 100.63 kN/m2
p = 4.39 kN/m2
A1
p = 0
A2
∴ p = 101.3 – 4.39 = 96.91 kN/m2

B1
p = 101.3 – 0 = 101.3 kN/m2

B2
p –p
B2 B1 101.3 – 96.91
∴ ( B)lm
p = = = 99.08 kN/m2
p  ln 96.91
101.3
ln p  B2
 
 B
 1
We need to calculate the flux NAB.
A → CCl4 and B → O2
1 1 1
∴ NAB = 0.0208 × 10–6 × 1590 × 154 × ×
0.82 × 10–4 10 × 3600
= 7.2 × 10–8 kmole/m2.sec
The same flux can be given as
PAB · PT × p
( A1
–p
A2 )
NAB =
RT ∆z (pB)lm
DAB × 100.63 × 103 × 4.39 × 103
=
8314 × 273 × 17.1 × 10–2 × 99.08 × 103
7.2 × 10–8 = DAB × 0.0114
DAB = 631.57 × 10–8
= 6.315 × 10–6 m2/s
∴ DAB = 6.315 × 10−6 m2/s (Ans.)
(25) An open cylindrical tank is filled within 2 m to the top with pure CH3OH. The tank is
tapered as shown in Fig. 2.18. The air within the tank is stationary but circulation of
air immediately above the tank is adequate to assume negligible concentration of
o
CH3OH at this point. The tank and air space are at 77 C and 1 atm. The diffusivity of
o
CH3OH in air at 77 C and 1 atm. is 0.6 m2/sec. Calculate the rate of loss of methanol
from the tank at steady state.
4m
Stationary 2m
Air
Methanol
6m
Fig. 2.18
o
Assume vapour pressure of CH3OH at 77 C = 135 mm Hg.
Solution : The general equation for diffusion plus convective mass transfer is
dxA
NA = – C DAB dz + xA (NA + NB)
But here, NB = 0, air is stationary
dxA
∴ NA = – C DAB dz + xA NA
dxA
∴ NA (1 – xA) = – C DAB dz
where, C → total concentration of methanol and air

A → methanol
B → air
DAB dxA
∴ NA = – C 1 – x dz
A
Here, the geometry of the tank is variable, hence rate of loss of methanol depends upon area.
'
NA = – C DAB dxA × (Area of tank)
 1 – xA dz 
DAB dxA
= – C 1 – x dz × A
A
π
Geometric consideration shows 4 (6 – z) 2 as a variable area
π 62
when z = 0, area = 4 at level of CH3OH
π
z = 2, area = 4 42 at top of tank
π 2
' dxA 4 (6 – z)
∴ NA = – C DAB (1 – xA) · dz
dxA
= – C DAB (1 – x )  4 
' dz π
NA
A  
∴
(6 – z)2
dz
=
– C DAB π dxA
(6 – z)2  N' 4  (1 – xA)
 A 
The above equation is integrated as
z2 xA
2
⌠ dz ⌠ dxA
 
⌡ (6 – z)2 = α ⌡ (1 – xA)
z1 xA
1
– C DAB π 
 4
where α =  '  = constant
 N A 
2 0
⌠ dz ⌠ dxA
 
⌡ (6 – z)2 = α ⌡ (1 – xA)
0 xA
1
2 0
(– ) (6 – z)
–1
∴
 0 = α (–1) [ln (1 – xA)]xA1
2 0
 1  = – α [ln (1 – xA)]x
(6 – z)0 A1
1 – 1 = – α ln (1) – ln (1 – xA )
∴
4 6 [ 1 ]
 2  = – α ln  1 
24  1 – xA 
  1
1
12 = α ln (1 – xA1)
p
A1
xA1 = P
135
= 760
= 0.1776
1
∴ 12 = α ln (1 – 0.1776)
= – 0.1955 α
∴ α = – 0.427
We know,
π
– C · DAB · 4
α = '
NA
π
– C · DAB · 4
∴ ' = 0.427
NA
π
C · DAB · 4
'
∴ NA = 0.427
P DAB · π
= RT 1.708
1.013 × 105 0.6 × π
= × 1.708
8314 × (77 + 273)
= 0.0383 kmole/sec
'
∴ NA = 0.0383 kmole/sec (Ans.)
(26) Oxygen is diffusing in a mixture of oxygen-nitrogen at 1 std. atm., 25°°C. Concentration
of oxygen at planes 2 mm apart are 10 ad 20 volume % respectively. Nitrogen is
non-diffusing
(a) Derive the appropriate expression to calculate the flux of oxygen. Define units of
each term clearly.
(b) Calculate the flux of oxygen. Diffusivity of oxygen in nitrogen = 1.89 × 10−5 m2/sec.
Sol. : Let us denote as A and nitrogen as B. Flux of A i.e. NA is made up of two components,
namely that resulting from the bulk motion of A i.e. NxA and that resulting from
molecular diffusion JA :
NA = NxA + JA (1)
From Fick’s law of diffusion,
∂CA
JA = −DAB (2)
∂z
From one dimensional diffusion equation (2), it becomes,

dCA
JA = −DAB dz
Substituting this in equation (2),
dCA
NA = NxA − DAB dz … (3)
Since N = NA + NB, and xA = CA/C equation (3) becomes,
CA dCA
NA = (NA + NB) − C − DAB dz
Rearranging the terms and integrating between the planes between 1 and 2,
CA2
⌠ dz ⌠ dCA
⌡ cDAB = − ⌡ NAC − CA (NA + NB) … (4)
CA1
Since B is non-diffusing NB = 0. Also, the total concentration C remains constant.
Therefore, equation (4) becomes,
CA2
z ⌠ dCA
CDAB = − ⌡ N AC − N AC A
CA1
1 C − CA2
= N ln C − C
A A1
CDAB C − CA2
Therefore, NA = z ln C − CA1 … (5)
Replacing concentration in terms of pressures using Ideal gas law, equation (5) becomes,
DABPt Pt − PA2
NA = RTz ln P − P … (6)
t A1
where, DAB = Molecular diffusivity of A in B
PT = Total pressure of system
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature of system in absolute scale
z = Distance between two planes across the direction of diffusion
PA1 = Partial pressure of A at plane 1, and
PA2 = Partial pressure of A at plane 2
Given :
DAB = 1.89 × 10−5 m2/sec
PT = 1 atm. = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
T = 25°C = 273 + 25 = 298 K
z = 2 mm = 0.002 m
PA1 = 0.2 × 1 = 0.2 atm. (From Ideal gas law and
additive pressure rule)
PA2 = 0.1 × 1 = 0.1 atm.
Substituting these equation (6),
(1.89 × 10−5) (1.01325 × 105) 1 − 0.1
NA = ln 1 − 0.2
(8314) (298) (0.002)  
= 4.552 × 10−5 kmol/m2.sec. (Ans.)
(27) CO2 is diffusing through a membrane (1.25 mm) thick at 298 oK. The partial pressure
of CO2 on one side of the membrane is 5 cm of Hg and other side is zero. The
solubility coefficient of CO2 at 298 K is
0.9 m3 gas (NTP)
SA =
(m3 · rubber) · (atm.)
The diffusivity of CO2 in the rubber is 1.1 × 10–5 m2/sec. Determine the permeability of
membrane for CO2 at 298 oK and rate of diffusion through the membrane.
Sol. : Diffusivity of CO2 in membrane at 298 K,
DA = 1.1 × 10–10 m2/sec
0.9 m3 · gas (NTP)
Solubility constant, SA =
(m3 rubber) · (atm.)
Permeability, P = DA · SA
m3 gas (NTP)
= 9.9 × 10–11 S (m rubber) (atm.)
– – 5
∆P = pA – pA = 5 – 0 = 5 cm = 76 = 0.06578 atm.
1 2
Z = 1.25 × 10–3 m
P = 9.9 × 10–11 m3 gas (NTP) sec. (m. rubber) (atm.)
DA · SA PA – PA 
– –
 1 2 
VA = Z
9.9 × 10–11 × 0.06578
=
1.25 × 10–3
m3 gas (NTP)
= 5.210 × 10–9 (Ans.)
(s) (m2. rubber)
(28) A polyethylene film 0.15 mm thick is being considered for use in packaging a
pharmaceutical product at 30oC. If the partial pressure of O2 outside is 0.21 atm. and
inside the package it is 0.01 atm., calculate the diffusion flux of O2 at steady state.
Data : PM = 4.17 × 10–12 m3 . Solute (STP)/(S.m2.atm./m.)
PM pA – pA 
– –
 1 2 
Sol. : We have equation, NA = 22.414 (Z – Z )
2 1
4.17 × 10–12 (0.21 – 0.01)
=
22.414 (0.00015 – 0)
= 2.480 × 10–10 kg mole/s.m2
Note that a film made of nylon has a much smaller value of permeability PM for O2 and
would make a more suitable barrier.
(29) H2 gas flows through a tube of neoprene rubber having ID = 30 mm and OD = 55 mm.
The pressure and temperature of the gas are 3 std. atm. pressure and 298 K
m3 (NTP)
respectively. If the solubility of hydrogen in rubber is S = 55 × 10–3 3
m .rubber.atm.
–10 2
and diffusivity of H2 through rubber DAB = 1.8 × 10 m /sec. Calculate rate of H2 loss
per unit length of tube due to diffusion.
Sol. :
H2 CA,2
H2 H2
H2 H2
CA,1
H2 H2
H2
Fig. 2.19 : Diffusion of H2 gas through a tube of neoprene rubber

To calculate the concentration difference (∆ CA) :
∆ CA = CA – CA
1 2
At 3 standard atmosphere pressure, the solubility of H2 in rubber is equal to 3 times
solubility (S).
m3 (NTP)
∴ 3 (55 × 10–3) = 0.165 3
m rubber
∴ Concentration at inner surface of tube is,
0.165 k mole H2
CA = 22.4 = 7.3 × 10–3 3
1 m rubber
CA = concentration of H2 at the outer surface of the tube = 0
2
k mole H2
∴ ∆ CA = 7.3 × 10–3
m3 rubber
Molar flux of H2 diffusion :
DA · ∆ CA
NA = Z
1 1
Z = 2 (55) – 2 (30)
= 12.5 mm
= 12.5 × 10–3 m
1.8 × 10–10 × 7.3 × 10–3 k mole H2
∴ NA =
12.5 × 10–3 S.m2. rubber
k mole H2
= 1.022 × 10–10
S.m2.rubber
Diffusion Surface : Since diffusion is taking radialy;
2 π l (r2 – r1)
Sav =
r2
ln r 
 1
Sav 2 π (r2 – r1) π (d2 – d1) π (25)
= = = 0.606
l r2
ln r 
d2
ln d 
 1  1
= 0.12960 m2/m. length of rubber tube.
H2 loss through unit length :

WA = NA · Sav
= 1.022 × 10–10 × 0.12960
k mole H2
= 1.325 × 10–11 s.m. m. length of tube (Ans.)
(30) A open bowl 0.3 m in diameter contains H2O at 350 K evapourating into the
atmosphere. If the air currents are sufficiently strong to remove into water vapour as it
is formed and it its resistance to its mass transfer in air is equivalent to 1 mm layer for
conditions of molecular diffusion. What will be the rate of cooling due to
evapouration ? The water can be considered as well mixed and the water equivalent of
system is 10 kg. The diffusivity of water vapour in air may be taken as 0.2 cm2/sec. and
kg molecules volume at NTP condition is 22.4 m3.
Sol. : Let '1' refers to water side of stagnant air and '2' refers to air water side of stagnant layer.
Let, A = Water vapour
B = Air
Then the rate of diffusion through a stagnant layer is,
DAB Pt
NA = – p– – p– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB‚ M
–
where, pA = Vapour pressure of water at 350 oK
1
= 41.8 kN/m2
–
pA = 0 (Since the air current removes the vapour as it is formed)
2
Pt = 101.3 kN/m2
– –
pB = Pt – p A
1 1
= 101.3 – 41.8 = 59.5 kN/m2
–
pB = 101.3 kN/m2
2
– –
pB – pB
– 2 1 101.3 – 59.5
So, PB, M = =
p  ln  59.5 
– 101.3
B2  
ln p– 
  B1
= 78.55 kN/m2
R = 8.314 J/kg.mole K.
0.2 × 10–4 × 101.3 × 4.18
NA = –
8.314 × 350 × 1 × 10–3 × 78.55
= – 3.725 × 10–4 k mole/m2.sec.
NA = – 6.66 × 10–3 kg water/m2. sec.
π π
Area of the bowl = 4 × D2 = 4 × (0.3)2 = 0.0706 m2
∴ Rate of evapouration = NA × Area
kg. water
= 4.7077 × 10–4 sec.
We have, Latent heat of vapourisation = 2318 kJ/kg.
Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K.
∴ Rate of heat removal = (rate of evapouration of water) × Latent heat of vapourisation.
∴ Heat removal = 1.10 kW
dQ
If rate of cooling = dt k/sec.
dQ
= (water equivalent) (Special Heat) × dt = 1.10
dθ
Solving for dt , we get,
dθ
dt = 0.026 kg/sec. (Ans.)
(31) NH3 absorbed in water from a mixture with air using a column operating at 1 atm and
295 K. The resistance to transfer can be regarded as lying entirely within the gas
phase. At a point in the column, the partial pressure of ammonia is 6.6 kN/m2. The
back pressure at water interface is negligible and resistance to transfer can be
regarded as lying in a stationary gas film 1 mm thick. If the diffusivity of NH3 in air
is 0.236 m2/s. What is transfer rate per unit area in that column ? If the gas were
compressed to 200 kN/m2, how could the transfer rate be altered ?
Sol. : If '1' and '2' refers to the water and air side of stagnant air film and subscripts 'A' and 'B'
refers to NH3 and air respectively. Then the rate of diffusion through a stagnant layer is :
DAB · Pt
NA = p– – p– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M ( )
–
Data : pA = 0
1
–
pA = 6.6 kN/m2
2
Pt = 101.3 kN/m2
–
So, pB = 101.3 kN/m2
1
–
pB = 94.6 kN/m2
2
– 94.6 – 101.3
∴ PB, M =
ln 101.3
94.7
 
= 97.96 kN/m2
0.236 × 10–4 × 101.3 × (–6.6)
Thus, NA =
8.314 × 295 × 1 × 10–3 × 97.96
= – 6.567 × 10–5 k mole/m2.sec.
– –
If pressure is increased to 200 kN/m2, pA is still zero. But pA is doubled.
1 2
– –
∴ pB and pB becomes,
1 2
–
pB = 200 kN/m2
1
–
pB = 94.7 × 2 = 189.4 kN/m2
2
– 189.4 – 200 2
So, PB, M = 189.4 = 193.3 kN/m

ln 200
 
Since diffusivity is inversely proportional to pressure. New value of diffusivity is given
(Pt)Initial
by, (DAB)New = (DAB)Initial × (P )
t Final
101.3
= 0.236 × 10–4 × 200
= 0.119 × 10–4 m2/s

0.119 × 10–4 × 200 (–6.6 × 2)
Thus, NA =
8.314 × 295 × 10–3 × 193.3
NA = 6.67 × 10–5 k mole/m2.sec.
Thus, if pressure is doubled, the rate of diffusion is unaltered. (Ans.)

(32) By what % would the rate of absorption be increased or decreased by increasing the
total pressure from 100 – 200 kN/m2 in the following cases :
(a) The absorption of NH3 from a mixture of NH3 and air containing 10% NH3 by
volume using pure water as a solvent. Assume that other resistance to mass
transfer lies within the gas phase.
(b) The same condition as (a) but the absorbing solution exerts a partial vapour
pressure of NH3 of 5 kN/m2 .
The diffusivity can be assumed to be inversely proportional to absolute temperature.
Sol. : (a) The rate of diffusion for this process is given by :
DAB Pt
NA = p– – p– 
–  A1 A2
RTZ PB, M
–
Data Given : pA = 0
1
– 10
pA = 100 × 100 = 10 kN/m2
2
Pt = 100 kN/m2
– –
pB = 100 kN/m2 ; pB = 90 kN/m2
1 2
– –
– pB – pB
2 1
∴ PB, M = = 94.91 kN/m2
p 
–
B2
ln p– 
  B1
Pt
So, – = 1.054
PB‚ M
–10.54 DAB
So, NA = RTZ … (1)
2
If pressure is doubled i.e. to 200 kN/m , the diffusivity becomes half to it's original value.
So, in this case,
–
pA = 0
1
– 10
pA = 100 × 200 = 20 kN/m2
2
–
pB = 200 kN/m2
1
–
pB = 180 kN/m2
2
– 180 – 200 2
PB, M = 180 = 189.82 kN/m

ln 200
 
Pt
So, – = 1.054
PB‚ M
–10.54 · DAB
∴ NA = RTZ … (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we can say that the rate of absorption is unchanged.
(b) If the absorbing solution now exerts a partial vapour pressure of NH3 of 5 kw/m2, then at
total pressure of 100 kN/m2,
–
pA = 5 kN/m2
1
–
pA = 10 kN/m2
2
– –
– pB – pB
2 1
∴ PB, M =
p 
–
B2
ln p– 
  B1
–
pB = 95 kN/m2
1
90 – 95 2
= 90 = 93.47 kN/m

ln 95
 
–
pB = 90 kN/m2
2
Pt
So, – = 1.0913
PB‚ M
–5.406 DAB
∴ NA = RTZ … (3)
Now, Pressure = 200 kN/m2, D = 0.5 DAB

–
pA = 5 kN/m2
1
–
pA = 20 kN/m2
2
–
pB = 195 kN/m2
1
–
pB = 180 kN/m2
2
– 180 – 195
∴ PB, M = = 187.4 kN/m2
ln 195
180
 
Pt
So, – = 1.057
PB‚ M
– 8.004 DAB
and thus, NA = RTZ … (4)
So, the rate of diffusion is increased by :

8 – 5.406
5.406 × 100 = 47.98% (Ans.)
(33) Diffusivity of vapour of volatile liquid in air can be conveniently determined by

Winklemann's method in which liquid is contained in a narrow vertical tube
maintained at constant temperature. Air stream is passed over the top of tube rapidly
to measure the partial pressure of vapour remains approximately zero.
On the assumption, vapour is transferred from surface of liquid to an stream by
molecular diffusion. Calculate the diffusivity of CCl4 vapour in air at 321 oK and
1 atm. pressure from following experimental data. Derive the equation you have used
in this problem.
Time from common cement of experiment (ks) Liquid Level

(cm) (mm)
0 0 0
1.6 0.25 0.025
11.1 1.29 0.129
27.4 2.32 0.232
80.2 4.39 0.439
117.2 5.47 0.547
168.6 6.70 0.670
199.7 7.38 0.738
289.3 9.03 0.903
383.1 10.48 1.048
2
Data : Vapour pressure of CCl4 at 321 K is 37.6 kN/m and density of liquid is 1540
3 3
kg/m . The kilogram molecular volume is 22.4 m . which diffusion
Gas Stream
Distance over
occurs
Liquid
Fig. 2.20 : Estimation of diffusivity of vapours by Winklemann's method

Sol. : Rate of mass transfer is given by,
CA·  CT 
NA = D ·
 L  CB‚ M … (1)
where, CA = Saturation concentration at the interface

L = Effective distance through which the mass transfer is taking
place.
CT = Total concentration of system.
CB, M = Logarithmic concentration differential considering the
evapouration of liquid, the rate of mass transfer is given by,
ρL dL
NA = M · dt … (2)
 
where ρL = Density of liquid
Thus, at any time these two rates are equal. Equating equations (1) and equation (2),
ρL dL
M · dt = D ·  L  · C 
CA CT
… (3)
     BM
Integrating equation (3) and putting,
L = Lo , at t=0
2 2 MD CA CTt
we get, L2 – L0 =    
 ρL   CBM 
Lo will not be measured accurately nor is the effective distance for diffusion at time t.
Most of the practical situations accurate values of (L – Lo) are available.
2 MD CA CTt
(L – Lo) (L – Lo + 2 Lo) =     … (4)
 ρL   CBM 
Equation (4) may be written in the form,
 t  =  ρL   CBM  (L – L ) +  ρL – CBM  L … (5)
L – Lo 2 MD CA CT o
MD CA CT o
Plot a graph of L – L  Vs
t
L – Lo
 o
4 ×
×
t/(L – L0) (ks/mm)
3 ×
×
×
2 ×
×
1 ×
×
0×
20 40 60 80 100 120
(L – L0) (mm)
Fig. 2.21 : Plot t/(L – Lo) Versus (L – Lo)
From graph, Slope = S = 0.0310 ks/mm2
= 3.1 × 107 s/m2
Now, CT = 22.4 T
1 To
   
where, To = reference temperature = 273 K
CT = 22.4 321
1 273
∴
   
CT = 0.0376 k mole/m3
M = 154 kg/k mole
Vapour pressure
CA = Total pressure × CT
37.6
= 101.3 × 0.0376
= 0.01396 k mole/m3
ρL = 1540 kg/m3
In this problem, we assume,

k mole
CT ≅ CB = 0.0376
1 m3
Pt– Vapour Pressure C

and CB =   T
2  Pt 
= 101.3 – 37.6 × 0.0376
 101.3 
= 0.0238 k mole/m3
CB – CB
2 1 0.0238 – 0.0376
∴ CBM = =
CB2
0.4573
ln C 
 1
B
= 0.0303
(ρL/CBM)
From graph, S = (2MDC C ) = 3.1 × 107 S/mm2
A T
 ρL · CBM  1540 × 0.0303

∴ D = 2M C C S = 2 × 154 × 0.01396 × 0.0376 × 3.1 × 107
 A T 
D = 9.2 × 10–6 m2/sec. (Ans.)

(34) A binary mixture of methane and hydrogen gas is contained in a tube at 101.32 kPa
and 273 K. The tube connects two large, well-mixed gas reservoirs of A and B. At one
point of partial pressure of methane is PA = 60.79 kPa and at a point 0.02 m away
1
PA = 20.26 kPa. If the total pressure is constant throughout the tube and reservoirs,
2
calculate the flux of methane in the tube, assuming steady-state, equimolar counter
diffusion.
Data : DAB = 6.25 × 10–5 m2/s.
Sol. : Let, CH4 = A , H2 = B
Data given : P = 101.32 kPa
T = 273 K
–
pA = 60.79 kPa
1
–
pA = 20.26 kPa
2
L = 0.02 m
DAB = 6.25 × 10–5 m2/s
1 2
A B
z
Fig. 2.22 : Diffusion of Methane and Hydrogen Gas
This is the case of steady-state, equimolar counter diffusion,
DAB pA – pA 
– –
 1 2 
So, NA, Z = RT (Z2 – Z1)
6.25 × 10–5 m  (60.79 × 103 Pa – 20.26 × 103 Pa)
2
 s 
=
8.314 Pa.m  (273 k) (0.02)
3
 mole·K
= 5.58 × 10–3 mole A/m2 s. (Ans.)
(35) A flat rubber plug (30 mm thick, area 4.0 × 10–4 m2) is used to seal CO2 gas (T = 25 oC,
P = 2 atm.) inside a bottle. Assuming steady-state diffusion through the plug, what is
the rate of CO2 leakage through the plug ? Data for the system :
Solubility (S), CO2 in rubber (T = 25, C = P = 1 atm.) = 40.2 mole CO2/m3 rubber-atm.
DCO = 0.11 × 10–9 m2/s. You may assume that the partial pressure of CO2 outside the
2–air
bottle and plug is zero.
Sol. : Data given : L = 0.030 m
A = 4 × 10–4 m2
T = 298 k
–
PA = 2 atm.
1
S = 40.2 mole CO2/m3 atm.
DAB = 0.11 × 10–9 m2/s
Let, CO2 = A, Air = B
L
CO2 CA1
pA2 = 0
CA2
pA1
Z1 Z2
Fig. 2.23 : Steady-state diffusion, through rubber plug

dCA
From Fick's law, NA = – C DAB dZ + CA (NA, Z + NB, Z)
1, Z
Assume CO2 is very dilute (CA ≅ 0)

dCA dCA
NA = – C DAB dZ = – DAB dZ
1, Z
After integration we get,
DAB (CA – CA )
1 2
NA = (Z2 – Z1)
1, Z
We must find CA and CA .
1 2
40.2 mole CO2 (2 atm.)

CA = S · PA =  
1 1  m3 atm. 
mole CO2
= 80.4
m3
CA = S · PA =0
2 2
0.11 × 10–9 m  80.4 mole CO2

2
 S  m3 atm. 
∴ NA = (0.030 m)
1, Z
mole CO2
= 2.95 × 10–7
m2. s
Now, to find rate of leakage of CO2 through the plug :

WA , Z = NA Z · A = 2.95 × 10–7
mole CO2
 (4 × 10–4 m2)
1 1  m2 · s 
mole CO2
= 1.18 × 10–10 s (Ans.)
(36) Ammonia (NH3) is selectively removed from an air – NH3 mixture by absorption into
water. In this process, ammonia is transferred by molecular diffusion through a
stagnant gas layer 2 cm thick and then through a stagnant water layer 1 cm thick. The
concentration of ammonia at the outer boundary of the gas layer is 3.42 mole% and the
concentration of ammonia at the lower boundary of the water layer is essentially zero.
Other useful data for the system (T = 15 °C, P = 1 atm.) :
DNH –air = 0.215 cm2/s, DNH –H O = 1.77 × 10–5 cm2/s
3 3 2
Equilibrium data for ammonia in air over aqueous solutions :
PNH in air (mm Hg) 5 10 15 20 25 30
3
CNH in water (mole/cm3 × 106) 6.1 11.9 20.0 32.1 53.6 84.8
3
z = 0, y NH = 0.0342
Air film 3
z = 2 cm, interface
z = 3 cm, x NH = 0
3
Water film
Assuming steady-state operation, what is the rate of ammonia absorption into the
water from the air ?
Sol. : Let A = NH3, B = Air and C = H2O
Data Given : T = 15 + 273 = 288 K
P = 760 mm Hg
DAB = 0.215 cm2/s
DAC = 1.77 × 10–5 cm2/s
We must use stagnant film conditions. At steady state, fluxes of NH3 for liquid and for
gas must be equal at Air – H2O interface.
P – p 
–
Pi DAB t A2
∴ NA = RT (Z – Z ) · ln P – p–  → for Air film.
2 1
 t  A1
760 – p– 
 
2
(760 mm Hg) (0.215 cm /s) A2
= × ln 760 – 30
62.36 mm Hg 1000 cm  (288 K) (2 cm)
lit. 3
 
 mole k   1L 
760 – p– 
= [4.55 × 10–6 mole/cm2 S] · ln
 A2
 … (1)
 730 
C DAC 1 – XA3
Also, NA = (Z – Z ) · ln 1 – X  → for H2O film
3 2 A  2 
CH = 55.5 mole  1L 3 = 0.0555 mole/cm3
2O  L  1000 cm 
0.0555 mole  (1.77 × 10–5 cm2/s)

 cm3 
· ln 1 – X 
1–0
NA = (1 cm) 
 A2
= (9.82 × 10–7 mole/cm2.s) · ln 1 – X 

1
 … (2)
A  2 
There are three unknowns NA pA XA . But we have only two equations. The third
–
 1‚ 2‚ 2 
equation comes from equilibrium data.
100
90
80
CNH3 in Water
3 6 50
(mol./cm × 10 )
20
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PNH3 in Air (mm Hg)
Fig. 2.24 : Ammonia absorption into water from air
From above plot,
CA × 106 = XA (C × 106) = 3.9765 exp (0.1037 pA )
2 2 2
3.9765
XA = e (0.1037 pA )
2 (0.0555 × 106) xp 2
= 7.16 × 10–5 exp (0.1037 pA ) … (3)

2
Combining equation (1) and (2),
 = (4.55 × 10–6) · × ln 
760 – pA 
(9.82 × 10–7) · ln 1 – X
1

2

 A2  730 
 = 4.63 ln 
760 – pA 
ln 1 – X
1

2

 A 2
 730 
4.63
1 760 – pA2
=  730  … (4)
1 – XA
2
 
Solving for XA , we get,
2
XA = 1.57 × 10–3
2
PA = 29.8 mm Hg
2
From either equation (1) or equation (2), we find that,
NA = 9.55 × 106 mole  ln 760 – 24.8

 cm2
. S   730 
mole NH3
NA = 1.25 × 10–9 (Ans.)
cm2 sec.
(37) A tank containing water (T = 310 K) has its top open to the air (P = 1 atm.). The tank is
cylindrical with a diameter of 1 m. The liquid level is maintained at a level 1 m below
to top of the tank as shown below. The vapour pressure of water at 310 K is
47.1 mm Hg.
(a) How many moles of water are lost per hour if dry air at 310 K is blow across the
top of the tank ?
(b) It is proposed to add a tapered top to this water tank as shown in sketch (b).
(c) What will be the loss per hour in this case if dry air at 310 K is blown across the
top of the tank ?
0.5m
1m 1m
1m 1m
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.25
Data : DAB = 2.61 × 10–5 m2/s
298
Sol. : Data given : T = 310 K

PVap = 47.1 mm Hg → for H2O
(a) Let, H2O = A and Air = B
DAB = 2.61 × 10–5 m2/s
298 K
To correct for temperature

3/2
DAB, 298 K = 310 K
298 K
Air
P = 1 atm
D=1m
H2O
Fig. 2.26
310 K 3/2
DAB, 310 oK = 298 K (2.61 × 10–5 m2/s)
 
= 2.77 × 10–5 m2/s
(1.01 × 105 P) (2.77 × 10–5 m2/s)

× ln 1 – 47.1
1–0
∴ NA, Z =
8.314 pa.m (310 K) (1m)
3
 760 
 mole K   
NA, Z = 6.94 × 10–5 mole/m2.sec.
Rate of H2O loss = NA Area
1, Z
2
= 6.94 × 10–5 mole  (π) 1m
 m .S 
2
2
= 5.45 × 10–5 mole  3600 s 
 S  1 hour
mole H2O
= 0.196 Hour (Ans.)
(b)
z r2 = 0.25 m
h=1m r
z'
l = 0.25 m
r1 = 0.5 m
Fig. 2.27
From equivalence of triangles (Geometry)
h 1 Z Z Z
l = 0.25 = r → r =4→r=4
How does r vary with Z ?

Z
r (Z) = 0.25 + 4
Flippinal direction of Z,
Z' = 1 – Z → Z = 1 – Z'
(1 – Z')
r (Z') = 0.25 + 4
 (1 – Z') 2
A (Z') = πr2 = π 0.25 + 4 

0
d XA
From Fick's law, NA
1
, Z' = –C D AB ·
D Z' [
+ XA N A Z' + N
1
B Z'
1 ]
dXA
(1 – XA) · NA Z' dZ' = – C DAB . (1 – X )
1 A
dXA
NA dZ' = – CDAB · (1 – X )
1 A
WA Z2
1
We know that, NA = A (Z)
1, Z
WA Z' · dZ' dXA
1
∴ 2 = – C DAB (1 – X )
π 0.25 +
(1 – Z') A
 4 
1 0
WA · Z' dZ' dXA
⌠ 1 Z' 2 = – C DAB ⌠ (1 – X )
π ⌡   ⌡ A
0 Z – 4  X
A0
1
0
WA‚ Z'
(4) 1 Z' = C·DAB [ln (1 – XA)]
1
π XA0
2 – 4 
 0
4 WA
1‚Z'
π
(4 – 2) = C DAB
(– ln (1 – X )) A0
– π C DAB
WA , Z' = 8 ln (1 – XA )
1 0
P 1.01 × 105 pA mole

C = RT = = 39.2
8.314 Pa.m  (310 K)
3
m3
 mole.K
DAB = 2.77 × 10–5 m2/s [from part (a)]
47.1 mm Hg
xA = 760 mm Hg = 6.20 × 10–2
0
– π (39.2 mole/m3) (2.77 × 10–5 m2/s)
∴ WA , Z =
1 8 m–1
× ln (1 – 6.20 × 10–2)
= (2.73 × 10–5) sec  hour 
mole 3600 sec
 
WA = 9.80 × 10–2 mole H2O/hour (Ans.)
1‚ Z
(38) Oxygen is diffusing in a mixture of oxygen-nitrogen at 1 std. atm., 25°°C.
Concentrations of oxygen at planes 2 mm-apart are 10 and 20-volume % respectively.
Nitrogen is non-diffusing.
(a) Derive the appropriate expression to calculate the flux oxygen. Define units of
each term clearly.
(b) Calculate the flux of oxygen. Diffusivity of oxygen in nitrogen = 1.89 ×
–5 2
10 m /sec.
Sol. : Let us denote oxygen as A and nitrogen as B. Flux of A (i.e.) NA is made up of two
components, namely that resulting from the bulk motion of A (i.e.), NxA and that
resulting from molecular diffusion JA :
NA = NxA + JA … (1)
From Fick’s law of diffusion,

dCA
JA = – DAB dZ … (2)
Substituting this equation (1),
dCA
NA = NxA – DAB dZ … (3)
CA
Since, N = NA + NB and xA = C equation (3) becomes,
CA dCA
NA = (NA + NB) C – DAB dZ
Rearranging the terms and integrating between the planes between 1 and 2,
CA
2
dZ dCA
⌠ = – ⌠ N C–N C
⌡ CDAB ⌡ A A A
CA
1
C – CA
1 2
= N ln C – C
A A 1
Therefore,
CDAB C – CA
2
NA = Z ln C – C … (5)
A 1
Replacing concentration in terms of pressures using ideal gas law, equation (5) becomes,
DAB Pt Pt – pA
2
NA = RTZ ln P – p … (6)
t A1
where, DAB = Molecular diffusivity of A in B

PT = Total pressure of system
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature of system in absolute scale
z = Distance between two planes across the direction of diffusion
pA = Partial pressure of A at plane 1, and
1
pA = Partial pressure of A at plane 2
2
Given : DAB = 1.89 × 10-5 m2/sec
Pt = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
T = 25 oC = 273 + 25 = 298 K
z = 2 mm = 0.002 m
pA = 0.2 × 1 = 0.2 atm (From ideal gas law and additive pressure rule)
1
pA = 0.1 × 1 = 0.1 atm
2
Substituting these in equation (6)

(1.89 × 10–5) (1.01325 × 105)
⋅ ln 1 – 0.2
1 – 0.1
NA = (8314) (298) (0.002)  
= 4.55 × 10–5 k mole/m2.sec. (Ans.)
(39) A vertical glass tube 3 mm in diameter is filled with liquid toluene to a depth of
20 mm from the top opened. After 275 hrs at 39.4°°C and a total pressure of 760 mm Hg
the level has dropped to 80 mm from the top. Calculate the value of diffusivity.
2
Data : Vapour pressure of toluene at 39.4°°C = 7.64 kN / m ,
3
Density of liquid toluene = 850 kg/m
Molecular weight of toluene, (C6 H6 CH3) = 92
Z – Zt02 
2
ρA‚ L yBlm
Sol. : DAB = M C (y – y )  t 
A A A 1 2
 2 
yB – yB
2 1
yB‚ lm =
yB 
2
ln y 
 B1
where yB = 1 – yA ; yB = 1 – yA
2 2 1 1
pA
1 7.64
yA = P = 101.3 (760 mm Hg = 101.3 kN/m2)
1
= 0.0754
yB = 1 – 0.0754 = 0.9246
1
yA = 0 ; yB = 1 – yA = 1
2 2
1 – 0.9246
yB‚ lm = = 0.9618
ln 0.9246
1
 
P 1.01325 × 105
Therefore, C = RT =
8314 × (273 + 39.4)
= 0.039 k mole/m3
0.08 – 0.02 
2 2
850 × 0.9618
Therefore, DAB =
92 × 0.039 × (0.0754 – 0) × 275 × 3600  2 
= 1.5262 × 10–3 (0.082 – 0.022)
= 9.1572 × 10–6 m2/sec. (Ans.)
(28) Methane diffuses at steady state through a tube containing helium. At point 1 the
partial pressure of methane is pA = 55 kPa and at point 2, 0.03 m apart pA = 15 kPa.
1 2
The total pressure is 101.32 kPa, and the temperature is 298 K. At this pressure and
–5 2
temperature, the value of diffusivity is 6.75 × 10 m /sec.
(i) Calculate the flux of CH 4 at steady state for equimolar counter diffusion.
(ii) Calculate the partial pressure at a point 0.02 m apart from point 1.
Sol. : For steady state equimolar counter diffusion, molar flux is given by;
DAB – –
NA = RTz (pA – pA ) … (1)
1 2
Therefore,
6.75 × 10–5 k mole
NA = (55 – 15) 2
9.314 × 298 × 0.03 m . sec
k mole
= 3.633 × 10–5 2
m sec
And from equation (1), partial pressure at 0.02 m from point 1 is :
6.75 × 10–5
3.633 × 10–5 = (55 – pA)
8.314 × 298 × 0.02
PA = 28.33 kPa (Ans.)
(41) In a gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, steady state equimolar counter diffusion is
occurring at a total pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 20°°C. If the partial
pressures of oxygen at two planes 0.01 m apart, and perpendicular to the direction of
diffusion are 15 kPa and 5 kPa, respectively and the mass diffusion flux of oxygen in
–5 2
the mixture is 1.6 × 10 k mole/m .sec, calculate the molecular diffusivity for the
system.
Sol. : For Equimolar counter current diffusion :
DAB – –
NA = RTz (pA – pA ) … (1)
1 2
where, NA = Molar flux of A (1.6 × 10–5) k mole/m2. sec)
DAB = Molecular diffusivity of A in B
R = Universal gas constant (9.314 kJ/k mole. K)
T = Temperature in absolute scale (273 + 20 = 293 K)
z = Distance between two measurement planes 1 and 2 (0.01 m)
pA = Partial pressure of A at plane 1 (15 kPa); and
1
pA = Partial pressure of A at plane 2 (5 kPa)
2
Substituting these in equation (1)
DAB
1.6 × 10–5 = (8.314) (293) (0.01) (15 – 5)
Therefore,
–5 2
DAB = 3.898 × 10 m /sec (Ans.)
(42) A tube 1 cm in inside diameter that is 20 cm long is filled with CO2 and H2 at a total
pressure of 2 atm at 0°°C. The diffusion coefficient of the CO2 – H2 system under these
2
conditions is 0.275 cm /sec. If the partial pressure of CO2 is 1.5 atm at one end of the
tube and 0.5 atm at the other end, find the rate of diffusion for :
(i) Steady state Equimolar counter diffusion (N A = – N B)
(ii) Steady state counter diffusion where N B = – 0.75 N A, and
(iii) Steady state diffusion of CO2 through stagnant H2 (NB = 0)
Sol. : (i) Given : NB = –NA
dyA dCA
Therefore, NA = – CDAB dz = –DAB dz
pA
(For ideal gas mixture CA = RT
where, pA is the partial pressure of A; such that pA + pB = P.
d (pA/RT)
Therefore NA = – DAB dz
For isothermal system, T is constant
– DAB dpA
Therefore, NA = RT dz
–
Z2 pA
2
DAB
NA ⌠ dz = – RT ⌠ dpA
⌡ ⌡
Z1 –
pA
1
DAB
i.e. NA = RTz (pA – pA ) … (1)
1 2
where Z = Z2 – Z1
2 –4 2
Given : D AB = 0.275 cm /sec = 0.275 × 10 m /sec ; T = 0 oC = 273 K
0.275 × 10–4
NA = (1.5 × 1.01325 × 105 – 0.5 × 1.01325 × 105)
8314 × 273 × 0.2
k mole
= 6.1328 × 10–6
m2 sec
Rate of diffusion = NA ⋅ S
where S is surface area.

–6 2
Therefore rate of diffusion = 6.138 × 10 × π r
–6 –2 2
= 6.138 × 10 × π (0.5 × 10 )
–10
= 4.821 × 10 k mol/sec
–3
= 1.735 × 10 mol/hr. (Ans.)
dyA
(ii) NA = – CDAB dz + yA (NA + NB)
Given : NB = – 0.75 NA
dyA
Therefore, NA = – CDAB dz + yA (NA – 0.75 NA)
dyA
= – CDAB dz + 0.25 yA NA
dyA
NA – 0.25 yA NA = – CDAB dz
dyA
NA dz = – CDAB 1 – 0.25 y
A
For constant NA and C,

Z2 yA
2
dyA
NA ⌠ dz = – CDAB ⌠
⌡ ⌡ 1 – 0.25 yA
Z1 yA
1
⌠ dx = 1 ln (a + bx)
⌡ a + bx b 
 
y A2
 –1  ln (1 – 0.25 y )
NA z = (–CDAB) 0.25 [ A ]
y A1
4 CDAB 1 – 0.25 yA2

NA = – z ln 1 – 0.25 y  … (2)
A 1 
p 2 × 1.01325 × 105
Given : C = RT = = 0.0893 k mole/m3
8314 × 273
pA
1 1.5
yA = P = 2 = 0.75
1
pA
2 0.5
yA = P = 2 = 0.25
2
Substituting these in equation (2),
4 × 0.0893 × 0.275 × 10–4 ln 1 – 0.25 × 0.25
NA = 0.2  1 – 0.25 × 0.75
k mole
= 7.028 × 10–6 2
m sec
–6 –2 2
Rate of diffusion = NA S = 7.028 × 10 × π × (0.5 × 10 )
–10
= 5.52 × 10 k mole/sec
–3
= 1.987 × 10 mole/hr. (Ans.)
(iii) Given : NB = 0
dyA
Therefore NA = – CDAB dz + yA NA
Z2 yA
2
dyA
NA = ⌠ dz = –CDAB ⌠
⌡ ⌡ 1 – yA
Z1 yA
1
CDAB 1 – yA2
= Z ln 1 – y 
 A 1 
–4
=
0.0893 × 0.275 × 10 ln 1 – 0.25
0.2  1 – 0.75
k mole
= 1.349 × 10–5
m2 . sec.
Rate of diffusion = 1.349 × 10–5 × π × (0.5 × 10–2)2

= 1.059 k mole/sec
= 3.814 mole/hr. (Ans.)
(43) A sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 2 mm is suspended in a large volume of
shell air at 318 K and 1 atm. The surface pressure of the naphthalene can be assumed
to be at 318 K is 0.555 mm Hg. The DAB of naphthalene in air at 318 K is
–6 2
6.92 × 10 m /sec. Calculate the rate of evaporation of naphthalene from the surface.
Sol. : Steady state mass balance over a element of radius r and r + δr leads to
SNA r – SNA r + δr = 0 … (1)
2
Where, S is the surface are (= 4 π r )
Dividing (1) by Sδr, and taking the limit as δr approaches zero, gives :
d (r2 NA)
dr = 0
2 2
Integrating r NA = constant (or) 4 π r NA = constant
We can assume that there is a film of naphthalene – vapour/air film around naphthalene
through which molecular diffusion occurs.
Diffusion of naphthalene vapour across this film could be written as,
dyA
NA = – CDAB dr + yA (NA + NB)
NB = 0 (since air is assumed to be stagnant in the film)

dyA
NA = – CDAB dr + yA NA
d  yA 
NA = – CDAB dr 1 – y 
 A
d [ln (1 – yA)]
NA = CDAB dr
WA = Rate of evapouration = 4πr2 NA R = constant
4πr2 CDAB d (ln (1 – yA))

WA = dr
dr
WA ⌠ = 4π DAB ⌠ C d ln (1 – yA)
⌡ r2 ⌡
Boundary condition :
0.555 –4
yA = 760 = 7.303 × 10
At r = R ln (1 – yA) = –7.3 × 10–4
At r = ∞ yA = 0 ln (1 – yA) = 0
∞ 0
dr
Therefore, WA ⌠ = 4π DAB C ⌠ [ln (1 – yA)]
⌡ r2 ⌡
R –4
– 7.3 × 10
∞ 0
WA  r 
–1
= 4 π DAB C [ln (1 – yA)]
 R –7.3 × 10
–4
WA 0 + R
1
 = 4π DAB C [0 + 7.3 × 10 ]
–4

WA = 4π RDAB C × 7.3 × 10–4
P 1.01325 × 105
C= =
Gas constant × T 8314 × 318
= 0.0383 k mole/m3
Initial rate of evaporation :
Therefore, WA = 4 × 3.142 × 2 × 10–3 × 6.92 × 10–6 × 0.0383 × 7.3 × 10–4
= 4.863 × 10–12 k mole/sec.
= 1.751 × 10–5 mole/hr. (Ans.)
(44) Calculate the rate of diffusion of butanol at 20°°C under unidirectional steady state
conditions through a 0.1 cm thick film of water when the concentrations of butanol at
the opposite sides of the film are, respectively 10% and 4% butanol by weight. The
–6 2
diffusivity of butanol in water solution is 5.9 × 10 cm /sec. The densities of 10% and
4% butanol solutions at 20°°C may be taken as 0.971 and 0.992 g/cc respectively.
Molecular weight of Butanol (C4 H 9 OH) is 74, and that of water 18.
Sol. : For steady state unidirectional diffusion,
DAB (xA – xA )
1 2
NA = z C xB‚ lm
where C is the average molar density = M avg

ρ
 
Conversion from weight fraction the Mole fraction :
(0.1/74)
xA = (0.1/74 + 0.9/18) = 0.026
1
(0.04/74)
xA = (0.04/74 + 0.96/18) = 0.010
2
Average molecular weight at 1 and 2 :
1
M1 = (0.1/74 + 0.8/18) = 19.47 kg/k mole
1
M2 = (0.04/74 + 0.96/18) = 18.56 kg/k mole
(ρ1/M1 + ρ2/M2)
ρ
Mavg = 2
0.971/19.47 + 0.992/18.56
= 2
= 0.0517 g mole/cm3
= 51.7 k mole/m3
xB – xB (1 – xA ) – (1 – xA )
2 1 2 1
xB,lm = ln (x /x ) =
B2 B1 1 – x A2
ln 1 – x 
 A1 
(1 – 0.01) – (1 – 0.026)
xB,lm =
ln 1 – 0.026
1 – 0.01
 
0.016
i.e. = 0.163 = 0.982
DAB (xA – xA )
Therefore, NA = 2 ρ 1 2
M avg xB, lm
5.9 × 10–6 × 10–4 × 51.7 (0.026 – 0.010)
= ×
0.1 × 10–2 0.982
k mole
= 4.97 × 10–7
m2 sec
g mole
= 1.789
m2 . hr.
g
= 1.789 × 74
m2.hr.
g
= 132.4 (Ans.)
m2.hr.
(45) Carbon monoxide gas (CO) is diffusing at steady state through a tube 0.15 m long with
a 0.015 m diameter containing nitrogen at 100oC. The total pressure is constant at
101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of CO at one end is 655 mm Hg and 85 mm Hg at the
other. Calculate mass flow rate of CO through the tube.
–4 2
Sol. : From literature, 8 × 10 m /s at 100°C and 101.32 kPa
o
Temperature T = 373 K
Convert pressures into S.I. Units by dividing by 760 mm Hg and multiplying by 101325
Pascals.
Use formula for ideal gases in equimolar counter-diffusion :
DAB (pA – pA )
* 1 2 101325 3.18 × 10–5 (655 – 85)
JAz = RT (z2 – z1) = 760 ×
8314 × 373 (0.15)
= 5.1951 × 10–6
Net cross-sectional area of tube for molar flowrate :
π 2 π
AX = 4 di = 4 (0.015)2 = 1.76715 × 10–4 m2
Net molecular weight of carbon monoxide for mass flowrate : 12 + 16 = 28 kg/k mole
–6 –4 –8
Mass flowrate = 5.1951 × 10 × 1.76715 × 10 × 28 = 2.5705 × 10 so mass flow rate of
CO = 2.57 × 10–8 kg/s (Ans.)
(46) Helium and air are contained in a conduit 7 mm in diameter and 0.08 m long at 44°C
and atmospheric pressure. The partial pressure of helium at one end of the tube is
0.075 atm and 0.030 atm at the other. Calculate the following for steady-state
Equimolal counter diffusion :
(a) Molar flux of helium;
(b) Molar flux of air;
(c) Partial pressure of helium at the halfway point of the conduit.
–4 2
Data : From literature, DAB = 0.765 × 10 m /s at 44°C and 101.32 kPa,
Sol. : Temperature, T = 317 K.
Convert pressures into SI Units by multiplying by 101325 Pascals.
Use formula for ideal gases in equimolar conterdiffusion for helium flux :
DAB (pA – pA )
* 1 2 7.65 × 10–5 (0.075 – 0.030)
JAz = RT (z2 – z1) = 101324 × = 1.654 × 10–4
8314 × 317 (0.08)
–6 2
So Molar flux of helium = 1.65 × 10 k mole/m s (Ans.)
Air is the only other gas present, so pB1 = Ptotal – pA1 = 1 – 0.075 = 0.925 atm.
Similarly, pB2 = Ptotal – pA = 1 – 0.030 = 0.970 atm. Use formula for ideal gases in
2
Equimolar conterdiffusion for air, remembering that DBA = DAB :
DBA (pB – pB )
* 1 2 7.65 × 10–5 (0.925 – 0.970)
JBz = RT (z2 – z1) = 101325 × = –1.654 × 10–6
8314 × 317 (0.08)
–6 2
So Molar flux of helium = –1.65 ×10 k mole/m s
Negative value indicates opposite direction to helium flux. (Ans.)
For partial pressure, re-arrange the equimolar conter-diffusion formula,
for (z2 – z1) = 0.04 m and pA = 0.075 atm. :
1
*
JAz RT (z2 – z1)
pA = pA – DAB
2 1
1.654 × 10–6 × 8314 × 317 (0.04)

= (0.075 × 101325) –
7.65 × 10–5
= 7599.375
Thus partial pressure of helium at the halfway point of the conduit = 0.052 atm.
(Ans.)
(47) Carbon dioxide is diffusing through air under steady-state conditions with air
non-diffusing since it is insoluble in one boundary. The total pressure is 101 320 Pa
and the temperature is 3°C. The partial pressure of CO2 at one point is 15 625 Pa and
at the other point 3 cm away it is 5978 Pa.
(a) Calculate the flux of CO2.
(b) Do the same as (a) but assume that N2 also diffuses; i.e., both boundaries are
permeable to both gases and the flux is Equimolal counter diffusion. In which
case is the flux greater ?
–4 2
Data : From literature, DAB = 0.142 × 10 m /s at 3°C and 101.32 kPa
Sol. : Use formula for one ideal gas diffusing through a stagnant layer of a second :
DAB Ptotal (pA – pA ) pB – pB
1 2 1 2
NA = where, P =
RT (z – z ) P2 1 BM
BM p   B1
ln p 
 B2
Temperature T = 276 K.
Converting pressures into SI Units : pA = 15 625, pA = 5 978 Pascals
1 2
Air is the only other gas present, so pB1 = Ptotal – pA = 101 320 – 15 625 = 85 695 Pa.
1
Similarly pB2 = Ptotal – pA = 101 320 - 5 978 = 95342 Pa.
2
85695 – 95342
PBM = ln (85695/95342) = 90432.758
DAB Ptotal (pA – pA )

1 2
NA = –
RT (z2 – z1) PBM
1.42 × 10–5 × 101320 (15625 – 5978)
=
8314 × 276 (0.03) 90432.758
= 2.2295113 × 10–6
–6 2
Thus, flux of CO2 through air stagnant layer is 2.2295 × 10 k mole/m s (Ans.)
Using formula for ideal gases in Equimolar conterdiffusion :
DAB (pA – pA )
' = 1 2 1.42 × 10–5 (15625 – 5978)
JAz RT (z2 – z1) = = 1.9899413 × 10–6
8314 × 276 (0.03)
–6 2
i.e. Equimolar conter-diffusion of CO2 through air is 1.9899 × 10 k mole/m s, LOWER.
(48) Water is flowing in a covered irrigation ditch below ground. The ditch is vented to the
atmosphere by vertical pipes 0.0254 m long. The outside air can be assumed to be dry
and of 101 325 Pascals absolute pressure. Assume that the vapour partial pressure at
the water surface is saturated at the air temperature. Calculate the how much greater
the evapouration loss of water is on a summer day at 25°C than for a winter day at 0°C.
Sol. : Using experimental data for diffusivity, the two different values for the summer's day
–4 2 –4 2
and the winter's day are easily found : DAB = 0.260 × 10 m /s, DAB = 0.220 × 10 m /s.
1 2
Using steam tables, the saturated vapour pressure of water for days (1) and (2) are also
easily found : pA = 3166, pA = 611.2 Pascals
11 12
Using the formula for one ideal gas diffusing through a stagnant layer of a second :
DAB Ptotal Ptotal – pA2
NA = RT (z – z ) ln P 
2 1 total – pA  1 
 Ptotal – pA2 
P – p 
NA
1
DAB Ptotal
1  total A11  Ptotal – pA2 
∴ NA = RT (z – z ) ln D ln P –p 
2 1 2 1 AB Ptotal 2  total A12
RT2 (z2 – z1)
 Ptotal – pA2 
DAB T2 P – p 
1  total A11
= D ln
AB2 T1  Ptotal – pA2 
ln P –p 
 total A12
Inserting Ptotal = 101 325 Pa, PA = 0, and the other information :
2
NA  101325 
1
–4
0.26 × 10 × 273 101325 – 3166
= –4 ln = 5.68 (Ans.)
NA
2
0.22 × 10 × 298  101325
ln 101325 – 611.2 
 
Thus, the evaporation loss of water is 5.68 times greater for summer day than winter day.
(49) A drop of liquid toluene is kept at a uniform temperature of 298.9 K and is suspended
in air by a fine wire. The initial radius of the drop is 3.00 mm and the density of
3
liquid toluene is 866 kg/m .
Antoine coefficient A B C
Toluene 6.95464 1424.255 219.482
(a) Derive an equation to predict the time tF for the drop to evapourate completely in a
large volume of still air. Show all steps.
(b) Calculate the time in seconds for complete evaporation.
–
Sol. : We must return to the Fick's Law formula for a constant number of moles N A of A from a
2
sphere (area = 4pr ) through stagnant B
 pA 
NA 1 – P  = RT dr
–DAB dpA
 total
–
NA
where, NA =
4r2
–
– RTNA dr dPA
∴ 2 = Ptotal P
4 π DAB r total – A
Integrating with limits of pA at r2 and pA at r1 gives :
2 1
– r2 pA
–RTNA –1 2
 
4π DAB  r r 1
= Ptotal [–ln (P total – pA) ] pA
1
–
 1 – 1  = ln  total A2
RTNA P –p
∴
4π DAB Ptotal r1 r2 P –p
 total A1
As r1 << r2, then 1/r2 >> 0 :

–
RTNA Ptotal – pA2 pA – pA
1 2
= ln P – p  = –
4π1 DAB Ptotal
 total A1 PBM
–
NA DAB Ptotal (pA – pA )
1 2
∴ 2 = – = NA
1
4r1 RTPBM1
the flux at the surface. Now consider the rate of change of the number of molecules in the
sphere (evapouration) to be equal to their diffusion into the outside world :
In time dt, radius of sphere changes by – dr,
2
volume of sphere changes by – 4p r .dr
2
mass of sphere changes by – 4prAr .dr
flux of solute to air = NA
1
2
molecular flow to air = 4p r NA
1
2
mass flow to air = 4p r NA MA = evapouration rate
1
DAB Ptotal (pA – pA )
1 2 dr
∴ 4 r2 M A = – 4 π θA r2 dt
RTPBM1
MA DAB Ptotal (pA – pA )
1 2
∴ dt = –r · dr
ρA RTPBM
This time, the limits are r = r1 at t = 0 and r = 0 at t = tF :
tF 0
MA DAB Ptotal (pA – pA )
⌠ dt = – ⌠ r · dr
1 2
∴
ρA RTPBM ⌡ ⌡
0 r1
2
MA DAB Ptotal (pA – pA ) 0 r1
tF = –  2  = 2 0 – r1 = 2
1 2 r2 –1 2
 r1
∴
ρA RTPBM
2
r1 ρA RTPBM
∴ tF = (Ans.)
2MA DAB Ptotal
(p A1 – pA
2 )
Using the Antoine data for toluene :
B
log10 (pA ) = A – T + C
1
where pA is vapour pressure in mm of mercury and T is temperature in oC.

1
1424.255
∴ log10 (pA ) = 6.95464 – (25.9 + 219.482) = 1.1504
1
pA = 1885 Pa
1
pB = 101325 – 1885 = 99 440 Pa
1
pA = 0 (from data)
2
pB = 101325 – 0 = 101 325 Pa

2
MA = 6 (12) + 8 (1) = 80 kg/k mole,
3
ρA = 866 kg/m (from data)
2
r1 ρA RTPBM (0.003)2 866 × 8314 × 298.9 × 100379.56
tF = 2M D P =
A AB total (pA1 – pA2) 2 × 80 × 8.6 × 10–6 × 101325 (1885 – 0)
= 7398 seconds.
Therefore time for complete evaporation = 7398 seconds (Ans.)
(50) A pool of liquid benzene diffuses at steady state through a stagnant layer of air in a
conduit 2.00 m long at 25°C and a total absolute pressure of 101 320 Pa. The air is
saturated with benzene at the base and is assumed benzene-free at the top. The
conduit has an equilateral triangular cross-section, the side uniformly tapering from
1.00 meters at the base to 0.500 m at the top. Calculate rate of benzene loss to the air.
Antoine coefficient A B C
Benzene 6.90565 1211.033 220.790
Sol. : For an equilateral triangle, the formula for area (where u = length of one side) is :
1 u2
A=2 ×u×u = 2
Returning to the Fick's Law formula for a constant number of moles .A of A through a
triangle of stagnant B :
 pA 
NA 1 – P  = RT
–DAB dpA
 total dz
–
2 NA
where NA =
u2
–
– RTNA 2 dpA
∴ DAB u 2 dz = Ptotal Ptotal – pA
Before limits are imposed, it must be remembered that u is a function of z, as the size of
triangle uniformly tapers with distance along the duct :
u2 – u1
u = u1 + z – z (z – z1)
2 1
u2 – u1 u2 – u1
= u1 + z – z z – z – z z 1
2 1 2 1
du u2 – u1 u2 – u1 u2 – u1
∴ dz = 0 + z – z (1) – z – z (0) = z – z
2 1 2 1 2 1
z2 – z1
∴ dz = u – u du
2 1
We can now substitute z for u in the expression, and integrate with limits of pA at
1
triangle of side u1 and pA when the triangle is of side u2 :
2
pA
– u2 2
RTNA z2 – z1 2 dpA
∴ ⌠ u2 du = Ptotal
⌠ P –p
DAB u2 – u1 ⌡ ⌡ total A
u1 pA
1
– u pA
RTNA z2 – z1 –2 2
  = – [ln (Ptotal – pA)]p
2
∴ DAB Ptotal u2 – u1  u u A1
1
–
 1 – 1  = ln  total A1
2RTNA z2 – z1 P –p
∴ DAB Ptotal u2 – u1 u2 u1 P –p
 total A2
u1 – u2 = DAB Ptotal u2 – u1 ln  total A1
– P –p
∴ NA u u  P – p 
 1 2 2RT z2 – z1
 total A2
– DAB Ptotal u1u2 Ptotal – pA2
∴ NA = 2RT z2 – z1 ln P – p 
 total A1
Using the Antoine data for benzene :
B
log10 (pA ) = A – T + C
1
where pA is vapour pressure in mm of mercury and T is temperature in oC
1
1211.033
∴ log10 (pA ) = 6.90565 – (25 + 220.790) = 1.9785456
1
pA = 12 689.619 Pa
1
pB = 101320 – 12689.619 = 88 630.381 Pa
1
pA = 0 (from data)
2
pB = 101320 – 0 = 101 320 Pa
2
– DAB Ptotal u1 u2 Ptotal – pA2

NA = 2RT z2 – z1 ln P 
 total – pA
 1
–4
0.0962 × 10 × 101320 1 × 0.5  101320 
=
2 × 8314 × 298 2 ln 88630.381
= 6.58 × 10–9 k mole/m2 s
–9 2
Thus rate of benzene loss to the air = 6.58 × 10 k mole/m s (Ans.)
(51) A solution of ammonia in water at 5°C and 2.5 mm thick is in contact at one surface
with an organic liquid at this interface. The concentrations of ammonia in the
organic and bulk water phase are both held constant, and aqueous concentrations of
ammonia are 10% and 2.0% w/w at the respective interfaces (giving solution densities
3
of 991.7 and 961.7 kg/m respectively). Water is soluble in the organic phase. The
–9 2
diffusion coefficient of NH3 in water is 1.24 × 10 m /s. Calculate the steady state flux
of ammonia.
Sol. : As water can travel through the film as well as ammonia (and in the opposite direction)
we have the rare (but not unknown) phenomena of Equimolar conterdiffusion in the
liquid phase.
*
DAB (CA – CA )
1 2
JAz = z2 – z1
To find the concentrations, we must take the weight fractions and densities from the
question, and also the molecular weights (MA = 17, MW = 18 kg/k mole) :
(0.1/17) 91.7
CA = (0.1/17) + (0.9/18) × 17 = 6.1405573 k mole/m3
1
(0.02/17) 961.7
CA = (0.02/17) + (0.98/18) × 17
2
= 1.196 k mole/m3
* 1.24 × 10–9 (6.1405573 – 1.1965577)
∴ JAz = 0.0025
= 2.452 × 10 k mole/m2 s.
–6
–6 2
Thus flux the steady state flux of ammonia is 2.452 × 10 k mole/m s. (Ans.)
(52) Molecules of hydrogen chloride (HCl) diffuse through a thin, static film of water
4.0 mm thick at 10°C. The concentration of HCl at one boundary of the film is 12.0%
3
w/w HCl (density = 1060.7 kg/m ), and at the other boundary is 6.0% w/w HCl (density
3 –9 2
= 1030.3 kg/m ). The diffusion coefficient of HCl in water is 2.5 × 10 m /s. Assuming
steady state and one boundary impermeable to water, calculate the flux of HCl using
both exact and dilute formulae. Does the dilute formula approximate well to the exact
one here ?
Sol. : The exact formula for diffusion of A through a stagnant layer of liquid B in mole fractions
is :
DAB Cav
NA = x (z – z ) (xA – xA )
BM 2 1 1 2
xB – xB
2 1 1  ρ1 ρ2 
where, xBM = and Cav = 2 M + M 
xB2  1 2
ln x 
 B1 
The molecular weights are MHCl = 35.6 and Mwater = 18 kg/k mole
(0.12/36.5)
xA = (0/12/36.5) + (0.88/18)
1
= 0.0630
∴ xB = 1 – 0.0630 = 0.936
1
(0.06/36.5)
xA = (0.06/36.5) + (0.94/18)
2
= 0.0305
∴ xB = 1 – 0.0305 = 0.9694
2
0.9694 – 0.9369895
xBM = ln (0.9694/0.9369) = 0.9531
The molecular weights of the two solutions can now be found as follows :
1 k mole of solution at point 1 has (0.0630 × 36.5) = 2.2998 kg of HCl
1 k mole of solution at point 1 has (0.9369 × 18) = 16.865 kg of H2O
1 k mole at point 1 weights (16.86581 1+ 2.299) = 19.165 kg
M1 = 19.165 kg/K mole
1 k mole of solution at point 2 has (0.0305170 × 36.5) = 1.1138705 kg of HCl
1 k mole of solution at point 2 has (0.9694 × 18) = 17.45 kg of H2O
1 k mole at point 2 weights (17.450694 + 1.1138705) = 18.56 kg
M2 = 18.564565 kg/k mole
Cav = 2 190165694 + 18.56  = 55.42 k mole/m3

1 1060.7 1030.3
 
–9
2.5 × 10 × 55.420
∴ NA = 0.953 (0.004) (0.0630 – 0.030)
= 1.1808423 × 10 k mole/m3 s
–6
–6 2
i.e. flux is 1.181 × 10 k mole/m s
Now compare this result to that of the simplified formula
DAB
NA = z – z (CA – CA )
2 1 1 2
3
CA = 0.0630 × 1060.7 = 66.83 k mole/m
1
3
CA = 0.0305 × 1030.3 = 31.44 k mole/m
2
2.5 × 10–9
∴ NA = 0.004 (66.835 – 31.44)
= 2.212 × 10–6 k mole/m2 s
-6 2
i.e. flux is 2.212 ×10 k mole/m s, nearly TWICE the flux if calculated accurately.
(Ans.)
(53) Predict the diffusivity of methanol in water at 20°C by :
(a) Using the Wilke-Chang equation;
(b) Extrapolating existing literature values to the required temperature.
Sol. : (a) First the Wilke-Chang formula is :
Molecular weight of water MB = 18 kg/k mole
–6
From steam tables, water viscosity @ 20°C = 1002 × 10 kg/m.s
Absolute temperature of water = 20 + 273 = 293 K
–3 3
For water : φ = 2.6 VA = [(14.8) + 4(3.7) + 7.4] × 10 = 0.037 m /k mole
293
DAB = 1.173 × 10–18 2.6 × 18
1.002 × 10–3 (0.037)0.6
= 1.6962 × 10–9 m2/s
–9 2
Thus diffusivity of methanol in water at 20°C = 1.70 × 10 m /s (Ans.)
Using the reduced version of the Wilke-Chang formula :
T
DAB ∝ µ
B
DAB T 2 µ1
2
∴ DAB = µ T
1 2 1
µ1  T2 D
∴ DAB = µ  T  AB1
2  2  1
–9 2
Literature gives the diffusivity of methanol in water as 1.26 x 10 m /s at 288 K.
–6
Water viscosity at 288 K (15°C) is 1136 x 10 kg/m.s (from steam tables)
1.136 × 10  293 1.26 × 10–9
–3
DAB =  
2 1.002 × 10–3 288
= 1.4533 × 10–9 m2/s
o –9 2
Thus diffusivity of methanol in water at 20 C = 1.45 × 10 m /s (Ans.)
(54) Use the Wilke-Chang equation to predict the diffusivity of dilute acetic acid
(CH3COOH) in water at 9.7 and 25°C, and compare predictions with literature values.
Sol. : First the Wilke-Chang formula is :
T
DAB = 1.173 × 10–18 µMB 0.6
µB V A
Molecular weight of water MB = 18 kg/k mole
Absolute temperature of water = 9.7 + 273 = 282.7 K
For water : φ = 2.6
–3 3
VA = [2 (14.8) + 5 (3.7) + 7.4 + 12.0] × 10 = 0.0675 m /k mole
Value for viscosity at 9.7 oC needs to be interpolated from values for 5 and 10oC (1501
–6
and 1300 ×10 kg/m.s respectively) :
µwater =  10 – 5 (9.7 – 5) + 1501 × 10–6

1300 – 1501
 
= 1.312 × 10–6 kg/m.s
DAB = 1.173 × 10–16 2.6 × 18
282.7
= 8.7138 × 10–10 m2/s
1.31206 × 10–3 (0.0675)0.6
o –10 2
Thus the diffusivity of dilute acetic acid in water at 9.7 C = 8.71 × 10 m /s (Ans.)
Using the reduced version of the Wilke-Chang formula :
T
DAB ∝ µ
B
DAB T 2 µ1
2
∴ DAB = µ T
1 2 1
µ1 T2 D
∴ DAB = µ  T  AB1
2  2  1
–6
Water viscosity at 298 K (25°C) is 890 × 10 kg/m.s (from steam tables)
1.31206 × 10   298  8.713 × 10–10
–3
DAB =  890 × 10–6  282.7
2  
= 1.354 × 10–9 m2/s
o –9 2
Thus the diffusivity of dilute acetic acid in water at 25 C = 1.35 × 10 m /s (Ans.)
(55) A 7 mm thick layer of 10.0% w/w gelatin in water at 5°C separates two urea solutions.
At the gelatine surface, one solution has a concentration of 18 grammes per liter, and
2
the other 2.0 g/l. What is the steady state flux of urea in k mole/m s ?
–9 2
Sol. : Urea has a molecular weight of 60.1 kg/k mole, and a diffusivity of 0.542 × 10 m /s in
10% gelatin in water at 5°C.
Concentrations are converted :
0.018
CA = = 0.2995 k mole/m2s
1 0.001 × 60.1
0.002
CA = = 0.0332 k mole/m2s
2 0.001 × 60.1
As urea is dilute, xBM >> 1, so we use equimolar counterdiffusion formula :

DAB (CA – CA )
1 2
NA = z –z 2 1
(0.542 × 10–9) (0.2995 – 0.0332)

= 0.007
= 2.061 × 10–8 k mole/m2s
–8 2
Thus the steady state flux of urea = is 2.06 × 10 k mole/m s (Ans.)
(56) A flat circular vulcanized rubber plug of equal diameter and thickness of 25.4 mm
seals the top of a container holding carbon dioxide gas at 1.6 atmospheres and 298 K.
Calculate the rate at which the CO2 leaks through the seal to the atmosphere,
assuming that the air outside has a negligible CO2 concentration.
Sol. : Use the derivation of Fick's Law for diffusion through an impermeable solid slab :
–
NA DAB (CA – CA )
1 2
A = NA = z2 – z1
SpA
where, CA = 22.414 and pA is in atmosphere
0.90 × 1.6
∴ CA = 22.414 = 0.0642455 k mole/m3
1
∴ CA = 0
2
2
– DAB (CA – CA ) r1
1 2
∴ NA = z2 – z1 × 4
0.1 × 10–9 (0.0642455 – 0) π (0.0254)2

= 0.254 × 4
= 1.409 × 10–13 k mole/s
–13
i.e. leakage is 1.410 × 10 k mole CO2 per second. (Ans.)
(57) A loosely packed bed of sand 0.9144 meters thick separates an otherwise open water
stream at 25°C and the atmosphere at a total pressure of 101320 Pascals. Assuming
that atmospheric air is dry and the air at the water's surface is saturated, what is the
steady state rate of diffusion through the bed if its void fraction e is 0.50 ?
Void fraction ∈ 0.2 0.4 0.6
Tortuosity τ 2.0 1.75 1.65
Sol. : Use the derivation of Fick's Law for diffusion through a porous solid :
DAB (pA – pA )
1 2
NA = RT (z – z ) 2 1
Interpolated tortuosity gives τ = 1.60 for voidage ∈ = 0.5, At 298 K (25oC), the diffusivity
–4 2
of water in air is 0.260 × 10 m /s and its saturated vapour pressure is 0.03166 bar :
0.5 [0.260 × 10–4] (3166 – 0)
∴ NA =
1.60 × 8314 × 298 (0.9144)
= 1.1354 × 10–8 k mole/m2s (Ans.)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations 2.101 Diffusion Mass Transfer
(58) A binary system consisting of carbon dioxide and nitrogen at 100 kPa and 0°C
undergoes equimolar counter diffusion. The mole fraction of nitrogen at point A is
0.98 and that at point B, which is 4 meters away from point A is 0.8.
(a) What is the molar flux of nitrogen in kmol m–2 h–1 ?
(b) What is the net mass flux, kg m–2 h–1 ?
(c) At what velocity would an observer have to move from one point to the other so
that the net mass flux, relative to the observer, would be zero ?
(d) At what velocity would the observer have to move so that, relative to the observer,
the nitrogen is stationary ?
(e) What would be the molar flux of carbon dioxide relative to the observer under
condition (d) ?
Sol. : Subject : Equimolar diffusion (EMD) of CO2 and N2 at 100 kPa and 0°C.
Given : Compositions of mixture at specified locations.
To find : Molar flux of N2, net mass flux, molar flux of CO2, velocities of an observer.
Let nitrogen be species A and carbon dioxide be species B.
DAB = 0.001 (273.15)1.75 (1/44 + 1/28)0.5/(26.71/3 + 18.51/3)2 cm2/s
= 0.14 cm2/s
= 0.14 × 10–4 m2/s
Molar density of mixture = ρ = 1 kmol/22.71 m3 = 44.03 mol/m3.
(a) The molar flux of nitrogen under EMD conditions is given by,
NA = JA = – DAB ρ (dy/dz) = – 0.14 × 10–4 × 44.03 × (0.8 – 0.98)/4
= 0.2774 × 10–4 mol m–2 s-1
= 0.9981 × 10–4 kmol m–2 h–1 (Ans.)
(b) The mass flux of nitrogen is equal to 28 × 0.9981 × 10–4 kg m–2 h–1 (from A to B). The mass
flux of carbon dioxide is equal to 44 × 0.9981 × 10–4 kg m–2 h–1 (from B to A). The net mass
flux is therefore equal to 15.97 × 10–4 kg m–2 h–1 (from B to A). (Ans.)
(c) As there is a composition gradient in the system, the velocities depend on position. The
velocities of the species and the mixture are given by the following equations :
Molar flux of species i = (Velocity of species i) × (Molar concentration of i)
Molar flux of mixture = (Molar average velocity)
× (Molar concentration of mixture)
Mass flux of mixture = (Mass average velocity)
× (Mass concentration of mixture)
Molar average velocity = ∑i (Mole fraction of species i) × (Velocity of species i)
Mass average velocity = ∑i (Mass fraction of species i) × (Velocity of species i)
A : Nitrogen, B = Carbon dioxide

Point A Point B
Distance from point A, m 0 1 2 3 4
Mole fraction, yA 0.980 0.935 0.890 0.845 0.800
Mass fraction, yAM 0.9689 0.9015 0.8374 0.7762 0.7179
Molar concentration of A, kmol/m3 0.0431 0.0412 0.0392 0.0372 0.0352
Mass concentration of A, kmol/m3 1.2082 1.1527 1.0972 1.0417 0.9863
Velocity of A, m/h 0.0023 0.0024 0.0025 0.0027 0.0028 (d)
Molar concentration of B, kmol/m3 0.0009 0.0029 0.0048 0.0068 0.0088
Mass concentration of B, kmol/m3 0.0387 0.1259 0.2131 0.3003 0.3875
Velocity of B, m/h – 0.1133 – 0.0349 – 0.0206 – 0.0146 –0.0113
Molar average velocity, m/h 0 0 0 0 0
Mass average velocity, m/h – 1.281E-03 – 1.249E-03 – 1.219E-03 – 1.190E-03 – 1.162E-03 (c)
Molar flux of B relative to A, kmol m–2 h–1 – 1.018E-04 – 1.067E-04 – 1.121E-04 – 1.181E-04 – 1.248E-04 (e)
The vectors in the direction from A to B are positive and those in the direction from B to A are negative.
(59) Diffusivities for vapours in air can be determined by measuring the rate of
evaporation of a liquid contained in a vertical glass tube. For a tube 0.25 cm in
diameter filled with n-octane at 20°C, estimate the expected rate of decrease of the
liquid level when the meniscus is 1 cm from the top. The published diffusivity for
n-octane in air at 0°C is 0.0506 cm2 s–1. The vapour pressure and density of n-octane at
20°C are 1.395 kPa and 0.7022 g cm–3, respectively. Would there be any advantage in
using a tube with larger diameter ?
Sol. : Subject : Evapouration of n-octane from a small-diameter vertical tube into air at 20°C.
Given : Tube diameter, diffusivity for n-octane air at 0°C, density and vapour pressure of
n-octane at 20°C.
To find : Rate of evapouration (in terms of the rate of decrease of the liquid level).
Assumptions : Unimolecular diffusion in ideal gas at 101.3 kPa, the mole fraction of
n-octane in the air at the liquid-air interface is given by Raoult's law, and the mole
fraction of n-octane at the top of the tube is zero.
We can use the following equation,
dz/dt = (DAB ρ/z) (ML/ρL) ln [(1 – yA0)/(1 – yAZ)]
where,
DAB = 0.0506 × (293.15/273.15) 1.75 = 0.0573 cm2/s = 5.73 × 10–6 m2/s
ρ = 1.013 × 105/(8.314 × 293.15) = 41.57 mol/m3
z = 0.01 m
ML = 114 g/mol
ρL = 702.2 kg/m3
yA0 = 0
yAZ = 1.395/101.325 = 0.01377
Thus, inserting known values, we get,
dz/dt = 0.0536 × 10–6 m/s = 1.93 × 10–2 cm/h
Thus, expected rate of decrease of the liquid level = 1.93 × 10–2 cm/h (Ans.)
(60) An open tank, 4 m in diameter and containing toluene at 25°C, is exposed to air at
100 kPa in such a manner that the surface of the liquid is covered with a stagnant air
film estimated to be 5 mm thick. The concentration of toulene beyond the stagnant
film is negligible. The vapour pressure and density of liquid toulene at 25°C are 3.8
kPa and 862 kg/m3, respectively. The diffusivity of toulene in air at 0°C is 0.071 cm2/s.
Estimate the loss of toulene per day from this tank.
Sol. : Subject : Evapouration of toulene (A) at 25°C and 100 kPa from an open tank. The
molecules must travel through a stagnant air layer of constant thickness.
Given : Tank diameter, thickness of stagnant layer of air, density and vapour pressure of
toulene, diffusivity of toulene in air at 0°C.
To find : Loss of toulene by evapouration.
Assumptions : Steady-stadte diffusion in ideal gas. All mass transfer resistance is in the
stagnant layer of air. Raoult's law gives the mole fraction of toulene in the stagnant air at
the vapour-liquid interface. The mole fraction of toulene in the air on the other side of the
stagnant layer is zero.
The molar flux of toulene through a stagnant layer is given by
NA = – DAB ρ (dyA/dz)/(1 – yA)
Upon substituting the boundary conditions into the integrated form of the equation, we
obtain for steady-state Unimolecular diffusion.
NA = (DAB ρ/L) ln [(1 – yAL)/(1 – yA0)]
The numerical values of the variables in the above equation are given below :
DAB = 0.071 × (298.15/273.15)1.75 = 0.0828 cm2/s = 8.28 × 10–6 m2/s
ρ = P/(RT) = 105/(8.314 × 298.15) = 40.34 mol/m3
yA0 = 3.8/10 = 0.038
yAL = 0
L = 0.005 m
Thus, we obtain,
NA = 8.28 × 10–6 × 40.34 × ln (1/0.962)/0.005 = 0.2587 × 10–2 mol m–2 s–1
The cross-sectional area of the tank = 3.14 × (4 m)2/4 = 12.57 m2
The rate of toulene evapouration = 3.25 × 10-2 mol/s
= 2810 mol/day = 258821 g/day = 259 kg/day = (259/862) m3/day = 0.3 m3/day
So, Loss of toulene = 0.3 m3/day (Ans.)
(61) A binary system consisting of carbon dioxide and nitrogen undergoes equimolar
counter diffusion. The mole fraction of nitrogen at point A is 0.95 and that at point B,
which is 2 meters away from point A, is 0.85. The diffusivity for the nitrogen-carbon
dioxide system is 0.14 × 10–4 m2/s and the molar density of the system is 44 mol/m3.
(a) What is the molar flux of nitrogen in kmol m–2 h–1 ?

(b) What is the net mass flux in kg m-2 h–1 ?
(c) What is the velocity of the nitrogen at the mid-point between point A and point
B?
(d) What is the velocity of the net mass flux at the mid-point between point A and
point B ?
(e) What is the velocity of the carbon dioxide with reference to the nitrogen at the
mid-point between point A and point B ?
Sol. : (a) Let A stands for nitrogen and B stands for carbon dioxide. For Equimolar diffusion,
the molar flux of A is given by,
dyA
NA = – DAB ρ dz
where,
dyA 0.85 – 0.95
DAB = 0.14 × 10–4 m2/s, ρ = 44 mol/m3, dz = 2m – 0 = – 0.05/m
Thus,
N A = – N B = 0.308 × 10–4 mol/(m2s) = 1.1088 × 10–4 kmol/(m2h) (Ans.)
(b) The mass flux of nitrogen is
NA = 28 × 1.1088 × 10–4 kg/(m2h) = 3.105 × 10–3 kg/(m2h)
The mass flux of carbon dioxide is
NB = – 44 × 1.1088 × 10–4 kg/(m2h) = – 4.879 × 10–3 kg/(m2h)
The net mass flux is
N = NA + NB = – 1.774 × 10–3 kg/(m2h) (Ans.)
(c) At the mid-point between point A and point B, i.e. z = 1 m, the mole fraction of nitrogen
is the average of the mole fractions at the two end points,
yA = (0.95 + 0.85)/2 = 0.90
The mass fraction of nitrogen at the mid-point between point A and point B is given by,
yA = (28 × 0.90)/(28 × 0.90 + 44 × 0.10) = 0.8514
The molar density (i.e. molar concentration) of nitrogen at the mid-point between point A
and point B is given by,
ρA = ρyA = 44 × 0.9 mol/m3 = 39.6 mol/m3
The molar density (i.e. molar concentration) of carbon dioxide at the mid-point between
point A and point B is given by,
ρB = ρyB = 44 × 0.1 mol/m3 = 4.4 mol/m3
The velocities of the nitrogen and the carbon dioxide are given by,
uA = NA/ρA = 0.0028 m/h
uB = NB/ρB = – 0.0252 m/h (Ans.)
(d) The mass average velocity is given by

u = yA uA + yB uB
= [0.0028 × 0.8514 + (– 0.0252 × 0.1486)] m/h
= – 0.001361 m/h
(e) The velocity of carbon dioxide relative to nitrogen is given by,
uB – uA = [– 0.0252 – (0.0028)] m/h = – 0.0280 m/h (Ans.)
(62) A perfectly spherical naphthalene ball having a diameter of 0.01 m is suspended in air
at 25°C. The molecular weight and density of naphthalene are 128.17 g/mol and
1150 kg/m3, respectively. The vapour pressure of naphthalene at 25°C is 12.7 Pa and
the diffusivity of naphthalene vapour in air at 25°C is 0.06 cm2/s.
(a) How many days will it take for this naphthalene ball to complete disappear if the
naphthalene evapourates at a steady rate of 7.5 × 10–10 mol/s ?
(b) How would you solve this problem if the steady rate of evapouration was not
known and you had to rely on the properties given above to get an answer ?
Derive the differential equation that is consistent with Fick's law.
Sol. : (a) The number of mole of naphthalene contained in the sphere is given by,
n = (4πr3/3) ρ/M = (4 × 3.1416 × 0.0053/3) (1150)/128.17 kmol
= 4.698 × 10–6 kmol = 4.698 × 10–3 mol
At a steady vapourization rate of 7.5 × 10–10 mol/s, the sphere will disappear in t days,
where,
t = (4.698 ×10–3)/(7.5 × 10–10 × 60 × 60 × 24) = 72.5 days
(Ans.)
(b) If the vapourization rate is constant, the diffusion flux cannot be constant. This is because
the area normal to the diffusion is a function of the distane from the origin,
i.e. area = 4πr2, where r is the radius measured from the centre of the sphere.
The flux equation for the specified situation (i.e. Unimolecular Diffusion of naphthalene
vapour into air) can be written as
–  dt 
dn
 
= (1 – y )  dr 
– DAB ρ dyA
A  
4πr 2
where, –  dt  is a positive number representing the constant rate of vapourization, its

dn
 
value can be determined upon integrating the differential equation with the following
integration limits :
yA = 12.7/101325 at r = 0.005 m
yA = 0 at r = ∞ (Ans.)
(63) A binary gas mixture at a total pressure of 1.0 atm and 21°C has a molar composition of
30% CO and 70% CO2. The absolute velocities of CO and CO2 are 6.0 m/s and 3 m/s,
respectively, all in the direction of the z-axis.
(a) Calculate the mass average velocity, v, and the molar average velocity, V, for the
mixture.
(b) Determine the four fluxes : jCO, z, nCO, z, JCO, z, NCO, z
Data : R = 8.2 × 10–5 m3.atm/(mol.K)
∑ ci vi
Sol. : (a) V = c = ∑ yi vi = (0.3) (6.0) + (0.7) (3.0) = 3.9 m/s
∑ ρi vi
v= = ∑ wi vi = (0.214) (6.0) + (0.786) (3.0) = 3.642 m/s (Ans.)
ρ
Moles M Mass (g) Mass fraction
CO 0.3 28 8.4 0.214
CO2 0.7 44 30.8 0.786
Total 1.0 – 39.2 1.000
n P 1 atm
(b) c = V = RT = = 41.48 mol/m3
(8.2 × 10–5 m3 atm/mol K) (294 K)
ρ = cMavg = (41.48 mol/m3) (39.2 g/mol) = 1626.02 g/m3
jCO, z = wCO ρ (vCO – v) = (0.214) (1626.02) (6 – 3.642) = 820.5 g/m2.s
JCO, z = yCO c (vCO – V) = (0.3) (41.48) (6 – 3.9) = 26.1 g/m2.s
nCO, z = wCO ρ vCO = (0.214) (1626.02) (6) = 2087.8 g/m2.s
NCO, z = yCO cvCO = (0.3) (41.48) (6) = 74.7 g/m2.s (Ans.)
(64) Ammonia, NH3 (g), diffuses through a 10 cm long tube containing N2 (g) at 1.0 atm and
298 K. The partial pressures of NH3 at the entrance and exit of the tube are 0.1 atm and
0.05 atm, respectively. Calculate DNH3 , N2 and JNH3 .
JNH3 , as given by Fick's law,
dCNH3
JNH3 = – DNH3 , N2dz , can be assumed constant.
Data : MNH3 = 17, MN2 = 28, R = 82.06 cm3 atm/mol K
Sol. : Fick's law of diffusion :
dCNH3
JNH3 = – DNH3 , N2 dz
Assuming ideal gas law :
nNH3 PNH3
CNH3 = V = RT
DNH3‚ N2 dPNH3
Therefore : JNH3 = – RT dz
If JNH3 can be assumed constant :
DNH3‚ N2
JNH3 = RT
(PNH3)2 – (PNH3)1 DNH3‚ N2 (PNH3)1 – (PNH3)2
z2 – z1 = RT z2 – z1
Fuller et al. equation :
1/2
10–3 T1.75 M 
1 1

+M
 NH3 N 2
DNH3 ‚ N2 = 1/3 = 0.2372 cm2/s (Ans.)
 1/3
2
P (∑v) 
 NH3 + (∑v)N2 
MNH3 = 17, MN2 = 28, ∑vNH3 = 14.9, ∑vN2 = 17.9, T = 298 K

(1 + 0.1) + (1 + 0.05)
P = 2 = 1.085 atm
(0.2372 cm2/s) (0.1 – 0.05) atm

Consequently : JNH3 = 3
82.06 cm atm (298 K) 10 cm
 mol K 
mol
= 4.85 × 10–8 (Ans.)
cm2s
(65) A flat plug 30 mm thick having an area of 4.0 × 10–4 m2 and made of vulcanized rubber
is used for closing an opening in a container. The gas CO2, at 25°C and 2.0 atm
pressure is inside the container. Calculate the total leakage of CO2 through the plug to
the outside in kgmol CO2/s at steady state. Assume that the partial pressure of CO2
outside the container is zero.
Data : For CO2 in vulcanized rubber S = 0.90 m2 STP/m3.atm and DCO2 = 0.11 × 10–9 m2/s
PM ∆ PA
Formula : NA = – , where PM is the permeability of gas A in the solid.
22.4 ∆z
3 3
m2  mSTP  mSTP
Sol. : PM = DCO2 S = 0.11 × 10–9 s  0.9 3  = 9.9 × 10–11
   m atm 2
s m atm/m
3
 mSTP 
9.9 × 10–11 
PM ∆PA  s m atm (– 2 atm) kgmol
NA = – =– 3 = 2.95 × 10–10
22.4 ∆z  m  m2s
22.4 STP  (30 × 10–3 m)
 kgmol
Leakage Rate = NA A = 2.95 × 10–10

kgmol kgmol
(4 × 10–4 m2) = 1.18 × 10–13 s
 m2s

(66) Starting with Fick's equation for the diffusion of A through a binary mixture of A and
B.
NA = – cDAB ∇yA + yA (NA + NB)
Derive the following relations, starting the assumptions made in the derivations :
(a) nA = – DAB ∇ρA + wA (nA + nB)
(b) JA = – DAB ∇cA
(c) jA = –ρ
ρDAB ∇wA (It is important to realize that jA doesn't equal JAMA; why ?)
Sol. : (a) Demonstrate : nA = – DAB ∇ρA + wA (nA + nB)

Multily each term by MA and assume c is constant :
NAMA = – DAB ∇CA MA + yA (NA + NB) MB
NAMA = nA
CAMA = ρA
ρA cAMA yAMA yAMA
wA = = c M +c M =y M +y M = M
ρA + ρB A A B B A A B B avg
yAMA = wAMavg
yAMA (NA + NB) = wAMavg (NA + NB) = wA (nA + nB)
Therefore,
nA = – DAB ∇ρA + wA (nA + nB) (Ans.)
(b) Demonstrate : JA = – DAB ∇cA
Assume constant c : NA = – DAB ∇cA + yA (NA + NB)
cA
cAvA = – DAB ∇cA + c + c (cAvA + cBvB)
A B
cAvA = – DAB ∇cA + cAV
cA (vA – V) = – DAB ∇cA = JA (Ans.)
(c) Demonstrate : jA = – ρDAB ∇wA
From (a) : nA = – DAB ∇ρA + wA (nA + nB)
ρA
ρAvA = – ρDAB ∇wA + (ρAvA + ρBvB)
ρ
ρAvA = – ρDAB ∇wA + ρAv
ρA (vA – v) = – ρDAB ∇wA = jA
jA ≠ JAMA because they are measured with respect to different average velocities.
(Ans.)
(67) Starting with Fick's equation for the diffusion of A through a binary mixture of A and
B. Prove :
(a) DAB = DBA
(b) JA + JB = 0
(c) NA + NB = cV
Sol. : (a) Prove that DAB = DBA
JA = – DAB ∇CA = – cDAB ∇xA
JB = – DBA ∇CB = – cDBA ∇xB
However, JA + JB = 0, as will be proven in 2.b.
Therefore, JA = – JB and – DAB ∇xA = DBA ∇xB.
Since, xB = (1 – xA) then dxB = – dxA and ∇xA = – ∇xB.
Consequently :
DAB ∇xA = DBA ∇xA ⇒ DAB = DBA (Ans.)
(b) Demonstrate : JA + JB = 0
cA (vA – V) + cB (vB – V) = 0
cA [vA – (xAvA + xBvB) + cB [vB – (xAvA + xBvB) = 0
cAvA + cBvB – xAvA (cA + cB) – xBvB (cA + cB) = 0
cAvA + cBvB – xAvAc – xBvBc = 0
cAvA + cBvB – cAvA – cBvB = 0
0 = 0,
i.e. JA + JB = 0 (Ans.)
(c) Demonstrate : NA + NB = cV
cAvA + cBvB
NA + NB = cAvA + cBvB = c c = cV (Ans.)
(68) A gas mixture at a total pressure of 1.5 × 105 Pa and 295 K contains 20% H2, 40% O2,
and 40% H2O by volume. The absolute velocities of each species are – 10 m/s, – 2 m/s,
and 12 m/s, respectively, all in the direction of the z-axis.
(a) Calculate the mass average velocity, v, and the molar average velocity, V, for the
mixture.
(b) Determine the four fluxes : jO2‚ z , nO2‚ z , JO2‚ z , NO2‚ z .
Sol. : (a)
Moles M Mass (g) Mass fraction
H2 0.20 2.0 0.4 0.020
O2 0.40 32.0 12.4 0.627
H 2O 0.40 18.0 7.2 0.353
Total 1.00 20.4 1.000
∑ ci vi
V = c = ∑ yi vi = (0.2) (– 10) + (0.4) (– 2) + (0.4) (12) = 2.0 m/s
∑ ρi vi
v = = ∑ wi vi = (0.02) (– 10) + (0.627) (– 2) + (0.353) (12)
ρ
= 2.783 m/s (Ans.)
(b) Mavg = (0.2) (2) + (0.4) (32) + (0.4) (18) = 20.4 g/mol
n P 1.5 × 105 Pa
c = V = RT = = 61.16 mol/m3
(8.314 Pa.m3/mol.K) (295 K)
ρ = c.Mavg = (61.16 mol/m3) (20.4 g/mol) = 1247.6 g/m3
jO2‚ z = ρO2‚ z (vO2 – v) = wO2 ρ (vO2 – v) = (0.627) (1247.6 g/m3)
(– 2 – 2.782 m/s)
= – 3740.7 g/m2 . s
JO2‚ z = cO2‚ z (vO2 – V) = yO2 c (vO2 – V) = (0.4) (61.16 mol/m3)
(– 2 – 2 m/s)
= – 97.86 g/m2 . s
nO2 = ρO2 vO2 = wO2 ρ vO2 = (0.627) (1247.6 g/m3)
(– 2 m/s) (kg/1000 g)
= – 1.561 kg/m2s
NO 2 = cO2 vO2 = yO2 cvO2 = (0.4) (61.16 mol/m3) (– 2 m/s)
= – 48.93 mol/m2 . s (Ans.)
(69) The diffusion coefficient of CO2 in N2 at 25°C and 1 atm is 1.67 × 10–5 m2/s. Use this
value to calculate the diffusivity for the system at 125°C and 10 atm using Fueller et.
al. correlation.
Sol. : Fuller et. al. correlation :
1 1/2
10–3 T1.75 M + M 
1
 A B T1.75
DAB = 1/3 1/3 ⇒ D∝ P
P [(∑ v) + (∑ v) ]2
A B
1.75 1.75
(DAB)2 = (DAB)1 T  P1 = 1.67 × 10–5 398
T2 1
 1 P2 298 10
= 2.77 × 10–6 m2/s (Ans.)
(70) An absorption tower has been proposed to remove selectively two pollutants,
hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, from an exhaust gas stream with molar
composition 2.0% H2S, 4.0% SO2 and 94.0% air. The gas mixture is 373 K and 1 atm.
using an appropriate empirical correlation, calculate the diffusivity of :
(a) Hydrogen sulfide in the gas mixture, (b) Sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture.
Sol. : Let A = H2S, B = SO2 and C = air. The correlation of Fuller et al. will be used to estimate
DAB. Fuller et. al. correlation is given by :
1 1/2
10–3 T1.75 M + M 
1
 A B
DAB = 1/3 1/3
P [(∑ v)A + (∑ v)B ]2
(∑v)A = 2 (1.98) + 17.0 = 20.96 MA = 34 g/mol
(∑v)B = 41.1 MB = 64 g/mol
(∑v)C = 20.1 MC = 29 g/mol
(a) The diffusivity of H2S in the gaseous mixture is given by :
1 – yA
DA, m = y yC
B
DAB + DAC
From Fuller et. al. equation, we can calculate as DAB = 0.174 cm2/s, DAC = 0.267 cm2/s
1 – 0.02
DA, m = 0.04 0.94 = 0.261 cm2/s (Ans.)
+
0.174 cm2/s 0.267 cm2/s
(b) The diffusivity of SO2 in the gaseous mixture is given by :
1 – yB
DB, m = yA yC
DAB + DBC
From Fuller et. al correlation as above we can calculate, DAB = 0.174 cm2/s,
DAC = 0.183 cm2/s.
1 – 0.04
DB‚ m = 0.02 0.94 = 0.183 cm2/s (Ans.)
+
0.174 cm2/s 0.183 cm2/s
(71) The solubility of a specific molecule in a polymeric membrane has been measured.
The experimental data were obtained by taking a piece of film 1.0 cm × 5.0 cm of
thickness 0.0127 cm and exposing it at 30°C to the pure vapour of this solute. The
weight gain, measured in equilibrium, was 4.76 × 10–3 g. The solute has a molecular
weight of 75.0 g/mol. At 30°C, the vapour pressure of the solute is 76.0 mm Hg. The
film weight, free of solute, is 0.0572 g. The film density, free of solute, is 0.9 g/cm3.
Sol. : (a) Find the solubility coefficient of the soute in the film.
At equilibrium, the solute concentration in the film is :
mA/MA (4.76 × 10–3 g)/(75 g/mol)
CA = = 3
V (1 cm) (5 cm) (0.0127 cm) = 0.001 gmol/cm
CA 0.001 gmol/cm3
S' = P = 0.1 atm = 0.01 gmol/cm3 atm (Ans.)
A
(b) The permeability of this polymeric film to the solute is

3
PM = 7.6 × 10–5 cmSTP / (cm2.s.atm/cm) at 30°C. Calculate DAB at 30°C.
3
cmSTP
7.6 × 10–5
PM PM cm2s atm/cm
DAB = S = 3 = 3
 cm   cm 
2.24 × 104 STP × S' 2.24 × 104 STP 0.01 gmol 
 gmol   gmol   cm3 atm
= 3.4 × 10–7 cm2/s (Ans.)
(c) The solute sits at the bottom of a glass tube at 30°C. To retard evapouration, a
polymeric membrane is placed on top of the tube. If the thickness of the polymer
membrane is 0.0254 cm and the cross-sectional area is 0.2 cm2, what is the time
required for 10 mg of the solute to pass through the barrier ?
DABS' ∆P (3.4 × 10–7 cm2/s) (0.01 gmol/cm3atm) (0.1 atm)
NA = – = 0.0254 cm
∆z
= 1.34 × 10–8 gmol/cm2s
Rate = MA ANA = (75 g/mol) (0.2 cm2) (1.34 × 10–8 gmol/cm2s) = 2.7 × 10–7 g/s
0.01 g
t = = 5 × 104 s = 13.9 h (Ans.)
2 × 10–7 g/s
(72) A 0.15-m-long, 0.015-m-diameter test tube containing ethanol is left open in the
laboratory. The level of ethanol is initially 0.1 m below the top. The temperature in the
laboratory is 26°C and the atmospheric pressure is 0.987 atm. The vapour pressure of
ethanol is 0.08 atm. If the concentration of ethanol in the air outside the test tube is
negligible and the concentration of ethanol near the liquid surface can be calculated
using Dalton's law, determine :
(a) An expression for the concentration profile of ethanol in air inside the test tube if
the liquid level is held constant.
(b) An expression for the instantaneous molar flux of ethanol.
(c) The time required for the level of ethanol to decrease by 0.005 m if the
evapouration rate does not change with time. Remember that the decrease in
ethanol level will be equal to its rate of transfer to the gas phase :
dz
NA | = CAvA = CA dt
interface
Data : Density of ethanol = 784 kg/m3
Sol. :
0.15m
0.1m
0.15m
Ethanol is evaporating
Fig. 2.28 : Evaporation of Ethanol from test tube
T = 26°C
z
P = 0.987 atm
v
PEtoh = 0.08 atm
x
(a) Writing balance in the gas phase,
Assume Air (B) is not soluble in ethanol (A). y
dyA Fig. 2.29
∴ NA, Z = – C DAB dz + yA (NAz + NBz )
C · DAB dyA
NAZ = – 1 – y dz … (2)
A
∂cA
+
∂NA‚ x + ∂NA‚ y + ∂NA‚ z = R … (3)
∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z  A
Steady state, no reaction, diffusion in z-direction only,

dNA‚ z
dz = 0 … (4)
NA‚ z = k1 … (5)
∴ Equation (2) becomes,
C · DAB dyA
– 1–y · dz = k1 … (6)
A
dyA k1 (1 – yA)
∴ – dz = C · DAB
dyA k1 '
or 1 – yA = –C·D · dz = k1 dz
AB
'
∴ – ln (1 – yA) = k1 z + k1
Boundry Conditions :
v
PA 0.08
(1) Z = 0, yA = v = 0.08 + 0.987 = 0.075
PA + Pair
∴ – ln (1 – 0.075) = k2
∴ K2 = 0.0779
(2) z = 0.1, yA = 0
'
∴ – ln (1) = k1 (0.1) + 0.0779
'
∴ k1 = – 0.779
Therefore,
– ln (1 – yA) = 0.779z + 0.0779
∴ 1 – yA = exp (0.779z – 0.0779)
= 0.925 e0.779z
∴ yA = 1 – 0.925 e– 0.779z (Ans.)
(b) The instantaneous molar flux of ethanol at the gas/liquid interface can be obtained
as :
C · DAB dyA
NA | = – 1–y · dz
z=0 A z=0
dyA
dz z = 0 = – (0.925) (0.779)0.779z |
z=0
= – 0.7206
P (0.08 + 0.987)
∴ C = RT = (0.08206) (26 + 273) = 0.044 kgmole/m3
DAB = 1.36 × 10–5 m2/s
– (0.044) (1.36 × 10–5)
Therefore, NA | = 1 – 0.075 (– 0.7206)
z=0
= 4.662 × 10 kgmole/m2 · s
–7 (Ans.)
(c) yB2 = 1 – yA2 = 1; yB1 = 1 – yA1 = 0.925
PA 784
CAL = M = 46 = 17.04 kgmole/m3
A
0.105 t
⌠ – –
= 2.738 × 10–9 ⌠
∴ ⌡ z dz ⌡ dt
0.1 0
Solving for t, we get, t = 1.87 × 105 seconds ≅ 52 hours (Ans.)
(73) A 0.20-m-long test tube was used to study the diffusion process in which liquid A
diffuses into gas B. In one study the level of liquid A was initially 0.1 m below the top
of the tube. The temperature was 25°C and the total pressure was maintained at 1 atm.
The molar flux of component A at the top of the test tube was found to be
1.6 × 10–3 kgmol/m2.h. Find the diffusion coefficient for A into gas B. Assume that gas
B is insoluble in liquid A. The partial pressure of A at the surface of the liquid was
0.06 atm.
Sol. : Data given :
T = 25°C
P = 1 atm
NA |z = 1.6 × 10–3 kgmole/m2.hr
2
DAB = ?
B is insoluble in A
PA |z = 0.06 atm
1
B (g)
0.1m
0.2m
A(l)
Fig. 2.30 : Test tube to study diffusion process

This problem is analogous to problem 61.

'
∴ – ln (1 – yA) = k1 z + k2
Solving for the generic boundary conditions,
yA = yA1 @ z = z1
yA = yA2 @ z = z2
One obtains :
1 – yA z – z1 1 – yA2
ln 1 – y = z – z ln 1 – y
A1 2 1 A1
For our problem,

PA 0.06
@ z = z1 = 0, yA1 = P = 1 = 0.06
@ z = z2 = 0.01, yA2 = 0
Therefore,
1 – yA z 1–0
ln 1 – 0.06 = 0.1 ln 1 – 0.06
∴ yA = 1 – exp (0.6187z – 0.0619)
= 1 – 0.94 e0.6187z
C · DAB dyA
Since, NA‚ z = – 1 – y · dz
A
dyA
dz = – (0.94) (0.6187) e(0.6187) (0.1)
z = 0.1
= – 0.6187
P (1)
C = RT = (0.08206) (25 + 273) = 0.041 kgmole/m3
– (0.041) · DAB
∴ 1.6 × 10–3 = 1–0 (– 0.6187)
∴ DAB = 0.063 m2/hr (Ans.)
(74) Gas A diffuses through two immiscible liquids contained in a capaillary tube as
shown below. The concentration of A at the bottom of the capillary tube is maintained
at a constant value. The partial pressure of A in the gas is 0.05 atm. The equilibrium
relationships for A in the two liquids are :
CA, I = 200 PA
CA, I = 2 CA, II
where, PA has units of atm and CA has units of kgmol/m3. The concentration of A at Z2
is 3.0 kgmol/m3. The diffusivities of A in liquids I and II are 1.5 × 10–9 m2/s and
7.5 × 10–9 m2/s respectively. The thickness of the liquid I layer (Z0 – Z1) is 0.02 m.
Assume that convective effects at the bottom of the capillary tube are negligible and
that liquid I has a very low pressure. Calculate the molar flux A dissolving into liquid
II and plot the concentration of A in liquids I and II as a function of Z.
Gas
Z
Liquid I
Z1
Liquid II
Z2
Fig. 2.31 : Diffusion of gas from capaillary tube

Sol. : Molar balance in Liquid I :
∂CA ∂NAx ∂NAy ∂NAz
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = RA
dNAz
dz = 0
dyA
NAz = – C DAB dz + yA (NAz +NBz) (stagnant B)
C DAB dyA dyA

NAz = – 1 – y dz – C DAB dz
A
Assuming 1 – yA – 1 ⇒ yA << 1 (gas in liquid solution)

Therefore,
d  dyA
dz – C DAB dz  = 0
I
d 2 CA
dz = 0, Since C can be considered constant.
Integrating twice :
I
CA = k1 z + k2
I
@ z = 0, CA = 200 PA = 200 (0.05) = 10 kgmol/m3
I
Therefore, CA = 10 + k1 z
k1 cannot be calculated yet because the concentration of A at z1 is not known.
Balance for liquid II :
II
d 2C A
= 0
dz2
II
CA = k3 z + k4
II
@ z = z2, CA = 3.0 kmol/m3
I II
@ z = z 1, C A = 2 C A
Therefore,
3 = 0.07 k3 + k4
I
CA
2 = 0.02 k3 + k4
There are 2 equations and 3 unknowns. The missing equation is obtained by noticing that,
at the interface the fluxes of A must be equal :
NAI = NAII @ z = z1
I II
DAI dCA dCA
dz = DAII dz
DAI (k1) = DAII (k3)
DAII
k1 = D k3 = 5 k3
AI
Therefore, k1, k3 and k4 are obtained by solving the system of equations :

I
CA = 10 + k1 z = 10 + 0.02 k1
3 = 0.07 k3 + k4
I
CA
2 = 0.02 k3 + k4
k1 = 5 k3
To obtain k1 = – 100
k3 = – 20
k4 = 4.4
II
Therefore, CA = – 20 z + 4.4
Molar flux of A dissolving in II
II
dCA
NA = – DAII dz
z = 0.02
= – (7.5 × 10–9) (– 20) = 1.5 × 10–7 kgmol/m2 . s (Ans.)
12
10
C A (I )
CA (kgmol/m^3)
4 CA (II)
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
z (m)
Fig. 2.32 : Concentration profile for Ex. 62
(75) Gas A is diffusing from a gas stream at point 1 to a catalyst surface at point 2 and
reacts instantaneously and irreversible as follows :
2A → B
Gas B diffuses back to the gas stream. Derive the final equation for NA at constant
pressure P and steady-state in terms of partial pressure.
DAB P dx
Sol. : NA = RT dz + xA (NA + NB)
From stoichiometry : – NA = 2NB
NA = – RT dz + xA NA – 2 
DAB P dxA NA
∴
 
DAB P dxA NA
NA = – RT dz + xA 2
1 – xA N = – DAB P dxA

 2 A RT dz
Z2
xA
2
DAB P
NA ⌠ ⌠ dxA
⌡ dz = – RT ⌡  xA
Z1 xA 1 – 2 
1
xA2
2D P
1 – 2 
 x 
AB
∴ NA (z2 – z1) = RT ln
A1
1 – 2 
PA1 PA2
. . xA1 = ; x =
. P A2 P
PA2
2DAB P
1 – 2P 
NA (z2 – z1) = RT ln  P 
A1
 1 – 2P

PA2
2DAB P
1 – 2P 
NA = RT (z
2 –z ) 
1
ln P 
A1
(Ans.)
 1 – 2P

(76) An inert fluid B occupies the space between concentric spheres with radii r1 and r2.
The inner sphere is porous and is supplied with fluid A at a rate of Q moles/sec. Fluid
A diffuses through B to the outer sphere, which is catalytic and which catalyzes the
instantaneous reaction A = 2C.
Sol. : (a) Derive a relationship for the steady-state concentration, xA1 , of A at the surface of
the inner sphere. Be sure to state all assumptions.
(b) What is the rate of production of C ?
(c) Show that the result of the molar flux of A is the same as that for diffusion
between two flat parallel plates separated by a distance δ = r2 – r1, if the transport
area is based on the geometric mean radius, rGM, where,
rGM = r1 r2
Assumptions :
(1) Steady-state;
(2) No homogeneous reaction;
(3) Spherical symmetry – radial transport only.
A → 2C
NC = – 2NA, NB = 0; N = NA + NB + NC = – NA
(4) Mixture is mostly B. Therefore, use DAB even though not a binary system.
∂xA
NA = – CDAB ∂r + xA (NA + NB + NC)
∂xA
∂xA – CDAB ∂r
∴ NA = – CDAB ∂r – xA NA ⇒ NA = 1 + x
A
∂CA 1 ∂ (r2 NA)
∂t = – 2 ∂r + RA
r
∂CA
At steady-state, ∂t = 0;
RA = 0 because there is no homogeneous reaction in gap
1 ∂ (r2 NA‚ r)
∴ 0 = – 2 ∂r
r
∂xA
– CDAB r2 ∂r
2 Q
r2 NA‚ r = 1 + xA = r1 NA‚ r =
1 4π
Recall that we're at steady-state and flux at (r) = Flux at surface
0 r2
∂xA Q
⌠ ⌠ ∂r
⌡ 1 + xA = – 4πCDAB ⌡ r2
xA‚ 1 r1
Note here at xA‚ 2 = 0 since catalytic reaction is instantaneous.
ln (1 + xA‚ 1) =
Q 1 – 1 (Ans.)
4πCDAB r1 r 2
Production of C = 2Q (Ans.)
Using the flat plate geometry
∂xA
– CDAB ∂z
NA = 1 + xA ;
As before, steady-state, no homogeneous reaction
∂NA‚ z
∂z = 0
∴ NA‚ z = constant
0 r2
∂xA NA
⌠ ⌠ ∂z;
⌡ 1 + xA = – CD
AB ⌡
xA‚ 1 r1
Remember here that we are looking at a separation δ = r2 – r1.
NA‚ z
ln (1 + xA‚ 1) = CD (r2 – r1)
AB
Now in the spherical case, we can define a mean flux as
Q Q
NAm = A = 2
M 4πr M
Remember – in the spherical case, we said that (r2 NA‚ r) was constant
2
4πrM NAM
∴  1 – 1  = ln (1 + xA‚ 1) = NA‚ z (r2 – r1)
4πCDAB r1 r2 CDAB
2
rM
= NA‚ z ⇒ CD r – r  = CD (r2 – r1)
1 1 1
For NAM
AB  1 2 AB
2
rM r2 – r1 = (r – r )
 r 1r 2  2 1
∴ rM = r1r2 = rGM (Ans.)

(77) A rubber basketball is initially filled with helium and left in the middle of the air
business centre. Assuming the size of the basketball does not charge and neglecting
the flux of air into the basketball, how long will it take for the pressure inside the
basketball to decrease to 75% of its initial value ? Show all calculations and clearly
state all assumptions necessary to solve this problem.
DHe/rubber = 22 × 10–6 cm2/s at 25°C
Radius of basketball = 20 cm
Thickness of basketball wall = 0.5 cm
Sol. : This could be considered an instantaneous mass flux problem but even though the
concentration gradient through the basketball is linear as for steady-state diffusion, the
concentration inside will change over time as the pressure decreases. The problem should
be set up first as an instantaneous mass flux problem that is then integrated over pressure
on one side and over time on the other side.
dC
J = – D dx
Using the ideal gas law PV = nRT
n P dC 1
C = V = RT ⇒ dP = RT
dC dC dP 1 dP
∴ J = – D dx = – D dP dx = – D RT dx
dn
We also know that JA = – dt i.e. the flux of helium out of the basketball
dn 1 dP
– dt = – D RT dx · A, where A is the surface area of the
basketball
dn
D dP
∴ = – RT dx (4πr2)
– dt
dP PHe – outside – PHe – inside
Now let's assume we can represent dx =
∆x
and that PHe – outside ≈ 0 i.e. very low concentration of He in air
dn D dP 2
D (– PHe – inside)
∴ dt = – RT dx (4πr = – RT (4πr2)
∆x
dn D (4πr2)
∴ –P = RT dt
He – inside ∆x
PV V
From the ideal gas law n = RT ⇒ dn = RT dP
V dP D (4πr2)
∴ – RT (P = RT dt
He – inside) ∆x
dP D (4πr2) dP D (4πr2)
∴ – (P = v dt ⇒ – (P = dt
He –inside) ∆x He – inside) 4 πr3 ∆x
3 
dP 3D
∴ – (P = dt
He – inside) r∆x
0.75 PHe – inside t
⌠ dP 3D ⌠ dt
– ⌡ (PHe – inside) =
r∆x ⌡
PHe – inside 0
0.75PHe – inside
– ln  P
3D 3 (22 × 10–6)
∴  = t ⇒ – ln (0.75) = (20) (0.5) t
 He – inside  r∆x
∴ t = 43588s = 12.1 hrs.
Note that here we assumed that the OUTER radius of the basketball was 20 cm. If you
interpreted the question as that was the INNER radius, then the time increases to
12.4 hrs. (Ans.)
(78) Two large storage tanks containing natural gas mixtures, each maintained at a
pressure of 10 atmosphere and 298 K. They are connected by a pipeline 1 inch in
diameter and 5 feet. In one tank, it cntains mainly H2S separate from the natural gas :
90% H2S and 10% CH4 by volume. The second tank contains clean natural gas : 100%
CH4. Accidently, the valve is left open by an operator. At the initial tank conditions,
DH2 S–CH4 = 2.02 × 10–6 m2/s. Assume the mixtures behave like ideal gases. Find.
(a) What is the steady rate of transfer (pseudo-steady state initially) of Methane,
–
NCH4 , between the two tanks ?
(b) What is the mass velocity of Methane with respect to a stationary co-ordinate ?
(c) What is the molar velocity of Methane with respect to Hydrogen Sulfide ?
(d) What are the mass concentrations in the two tanks ?
Sol. : Equimolar counter diffusion : N = 0
Let A = CH4; B = H2S.
* dyA yA2 – yA1

∴ NA = JA = – C · DAB dz = – C · DAB ·
∆z
– yA1 – yA2
N A = A · NA = A · C · DAB
∆z
10 atm 10 atm
298 K 298 K
Storage Tank 1 Storage Tank 2

Fig. 2.33 : Storage task containing natural gas
– π 10 0.1 – 0
(a) NCH4= 4 (2.54 × 10–2)2 ⋅ × 2.02 × 10–6 ·
0.08206 × 298 5 × 0.3048
= – 2.472 × 10–10 kmol/sec.
= – 2.472 × 10–7 mole/sec. (Ans.)
· mole 16.04 gm/mole
(b) m A = – 2.472 × 10–7 sec ·
π –2 2 2
4 (2.54 × 10 ) m
= – 7.826 × 10–6 kg/(m2 · sec) (Ans.)
Negative sign indicating flux transfer from tank 2 to tank 1.
(c) NA – NB ⇒ NA + NB = 0 = N
– 2.472 × 10-7 mole/sec.
∴ NA – NB = 2NA = 2 ×
π –2 2 2
4 (2.54 × 10 ) m
mole
= – 9.757 × 10–4 2
m . sec
(d) ρA = MA · CA = MA yA · C
. .
P 10 kmol kmol
. C = RT = 3 = 0.40895
0.08206 × 298 m m3
MA = 16.04 kg/kmol;
MB = 2 × 1.0079 + 32.06 kg/kmol
= 34.08 kg/kmol
Tank – 1 :
ρA1 = 16.04 × 0.40895 × 0.1 = 0.65596 kg/m3
ρB 1 = 34.08 × 0.40895 × 0.9 = 12.543 kg/m3
Tank – 2 :
ρA2 = 16.04 × 0.40895 × 1 = 6.5596 kg/m3
ρB2 = 0 (Ans.)
(79) Water lost due to evaporation : A large water storage tank is filled with water. The
tank has a vent line open to the atmosphere. The vent line is 1 m long and 1 inch ID
How many kg of water are lost per hour if the atmosphere is dry air at 40°C ? Assume
that the liquid level remains constant. The vapour pressure of water at 40°C is
55.3 kPa. Dwater-air = 2.77 × 10–4 m2/s.
Sol. : A schematic diagram of the problem is as shown in figure.
Air
2 : Vent line tip A = Water vapor
Air B = Dry air
L z
1 : Liquid water surface
Water
Water Water
Water
Fig. 2.34 : Water storage tank

Total molecular flux moving upward (z-direction) inside the ventral is given by :
N = NA + NB
Since the liquid level is not changing (assumption in the problem), the dry air remains
stationary inside the ventral line, thus,
NB = 0
The general diffusion equations :
N = NA + NB
*
NA = NyA + JA
* C · dyA
and Fick's law : JA = – DAB · dz
CA DAB dyA
or NA = C N – C · dz
P, T = constant
pA DAB dpA
∴ NA = P · NA – RT · dz
NA 1 – P  = – RT dz
pA DAB dpA
∴
 
dpA RT
pA = – DAB · NA dz
1– P
P – pA1 RT NA
⇒ ln P – p = – P · D · ∆z
A2 AB
P · ∆z P – pA1
⇒ NA = – RT · DAB · ln P – p
A2
pA1 = 55.3 kPa, pA2 = 0

P = 101.325 kPa
101.325 × 103 × 1 101.325 – 55.3
∴ NA = × 2.77 × 10–4 × ln 101.325 – 0
8314 × (273.15 + 40)
kmol
= 8.5073 × 10–6 2
m · sec
Kg of water lost per hour is given by :
–
G A = M A · NA · A
π
= 18.015 × 8.5073 × 10–6 × 4 (2.54 × 10–2) 2
= 7.7658 × 10–8 kg/sec.
= 2.7957 × 10–4kg/hr (Ans.)
(80) Transport of A in a binary system is given by
CA dCA
NA = C (NA + NB) – DAB dz
where, C is the total concentration.
(a) Write down the counter-part of the above eqution for component B.
(b) Show that
DAB = DBA
(c) It is generally true for a binary system that NA = k NB with k being a constant
(independent of location and concentration). Show that
NA CA2
NA + NB C –
NA CDAB
NA = N + N ln CA1
A B ∆ z NA
NA + NB C –
CA dCA
Sol. : NA = C (NA + NB) – DAB · dz
CB dCB
(a) NB = C (NA + NB) – DBA · dz (Ans.)
CA + CB dCA dCB
(b) NA + NB = C (NA + NB) – DAB · dz – DBA dz
dCA dCB
⇒ DAB dz + dBA dz = 0
dC dCA dCB
. .
. C = CA + CB ⇒ dz = 0 = dz + dz
i.e. DAB dz + DBA – dz  = 0

dCA dCA
 
dCA
∴ dz ≠0
i.e. DAB – DBA = 0
∴ DAB = DBA (Ans.)
CA dCA
(c) NA = C (NA + NB) – DAB dz (Ans.)
(NA + NB) · N + N – C  = – DAB dz

NA CA dCA
⇒
 A B 
dCA (NA + NB)
NA CA = – DAB dz
NA + NB – C
⇒ Integrate ; z = 0 ∆z
CA = CA1 CA2
CA2 ∆z
dCA NA + NB
⌠ ⌠
⌡ NA CA = ⌡ – DAB dz
CA1 –
NA + NB C
0
NA CA2
N +N – C
A B NA + NB
⇒ C ln CA1 = – DAB ∆z
NA
–
NA + NB C
NA CA2
–
NA + NB C
1 CDAB
∴ 1 = N +N ln CA1
A B ∆z NA
N +N – C
A B
NA CA2
–
NA + NB C
NA CDAB
NA = N + N ln CA1 (Ans.)
A B ∆z NA
N +N – C
A B
(81) A crystal of copper sulphate CuSO4 · 5H2O falls through a large tank of pure water at
20°C. Estimate the rate at which the crystal dissolves by calculating the flux of CuSO4
from the crystal surface to the bulk solution. Repeat by calculating the flux of water.
Data and assumptions : Molecular diffusion occurs through a film of water uniformly
0.0305 mm thick, surrounding the crystal. At the inner side of the film, adjacent to the
crystal surface, the concentration of copper sulphate is its solubility value, 0.0229 mole
fraction CuSO4 (solution density = 1193 kg/m3). The outer surface of the film is pure
water. The diffusivity of CuSO4 in water is 7.29 × 10–10 m2/s.
Sol. : We can set this up a straight forward flux expression for diffusion through a thin film :
m2
7.29 × 10–10 s
D
N = k∆C = ∆C = (Csat – 0)
∆z 0.0305 × 10–3 m
Here we note that the surface concentration = Csat and that the concentration on the other
side of the film (i.e. across the diffusion pathway) = 0.
m
N = 2.4 × 10–5 s (Csat)
Csat can be calculated from the fact that it is equal to 0.0229 mole fraction of CuSO4 mole
1
fraction of CuSO4in CuSO4 · 5H2O = 6 ≈ 0.17.
MWCuSO4 159.6
Mass fraction of CuSO4 in CuSO4 · 5kH2O = MW = 249.6 = 0.64
CuSO4 · 5H2O
(Assuming 1 mole of CuSO4 · 5H2O).

kg
1193
kg m3 mol
. . Solution density . . [CuSO · 5H O] =
= 1193 3
. m. 4 2 g = 4.8 m3
249.6 mol
mol mol
[CuSO4] = 0.17 × 4.8 3 = 0.8 3
m m
mol mol
[CuSO4]solubility = 0.0229 × 0.8 3 = 0.018 3
m m
∴ N = 2.4 × 10–5 s 0.018 3  = 4.4 × 10–7 2

m mol mol
(Ans.)
 m  m ·s
(82) Derive the differential equation describing the concentration (in the convenient
units - mole fraction, mass fraction, molar concentration, mass concentration) of
species A as a function of position z from the continuity equations in the following
situations. Ensure that you define the applicable boundary conditions. Assume
steady-state and that, T, P and DAB are constants.
A horizontal solid surface of A is sublimating slowly into a stagnant air film of
thickness L. Air is completely insoluble in the solid. Let z = L be located at the
interface between the gas and solid. At z = 0, yA = yA0
Sol. : From continuity (mass balance) equations :
From continuity (mass balance)
dNAZ dNBZ
dz = 0 and dz = 0
∴ NAZ and NBZ are both constants for 0 < z < L.
. . NBZ = 0 at z = L. ∴ NBZ = 0 for 0 < z < L.
.
From Fick's law,
dxA
NAZ – xA (NAZ + NBZ) = – DAB C dz
. . NBZ = 0 for 0 < z < L
.
dxA
NAZ – xA (NAZ) = – DAB C dz
DABC dxA
NAZ = – (1 – x ) dz
A
dNAZ d  DABC dxA
∴ dz = dz – (1 – xA) dz  = 0
d  1 dxA
∴ dz (1 – xA) dz  = 0 (Ans.)
(83) The gas hydrogen at 17°C and 0.010 atm partial pressure is diffusing through a
membrane of vulcanized neoprene rubber 0.5 mm thick. The pressure of H2 on the
other side of the neoprene is 0. Calculate the steady-state flux, assuming that the only
resistance of diffusion is in the membrane. The solubility S of H2 gas in neoprene

at 17°C is 0.051 m3/m3 solid – atm, and the diffusivity DAB is 1.03 × 10–10 m2/s.
Sol. : The key to solving this problem is to convert all our units to concentration terms
S (0.051) (0.010)
cA = 22.414 PA = 22.414 = 2.28 × 10–5 kgmol H2/m3 solid
Here, the solubility is that of gas A in a solid and is defined in terms of m3/m3 solid/atm.
partial pressure of A.
The 22.414 arises from an ideal gas concentration.
DAB (CA‚ 2 – CA‚ 1) 1.03 × 10–10 (2.28 × 10–5 kgmol H2/m3 solid – 0)
∴ NA = z2 – z1 = (0.5 – 0)
1000
∴ NA = 4.69 × 10–12 kgmol H2/s-m2 (Ans.)
(84) Water evaporating from a pond does so as if it were diffusing across an air film
0.12 cm thick. The diffusion coefficient of water in 20°C air is about 0.25 cm2/s. If the
air out of the film is 50% saturated, how fast will the water level drop in one day ?
Sol. : Since this is a diffusion question, we can use Fick's law as follows :
dCH2O
JH2 O = – DH2 O dz – in this cases, we can tacitly assuming
that we are using a one-dimensional model, and as such, diffusion only occurs in the
z-direction.
Known information :
Path length (z) = 0.12 cm; DH2 O = 0.25 cm2/s
CH2 O in order to get this value, we have to resort to literature references, so from the
literature and partial pressure values.
At the stated temperature of 20°C, PH2 O = 2.34 kPa.
We are also told that the air is 50% saturated on the other side of the stagnant film.
∴ PH2 O |z = 0 = 2.34 kPa; PH2 O |z = 0.12 cm = 1.17 kPa;
dCH2O – DH2O dPH2O
JH2 O = – DH2 O dz =RT dz
– 0.25 cm2/s (1.17 – 2.34) kPa
= (8.314 J/mol · K) (293.15 K) 0.12 cm
mol · cm L
JH2 O = 1 × 10–3 L · s × (be careful here - look at units)
1000 cm3
mol
JH2 O = 1 × 10–6
cm2 · s
Now to calculate the rate at which the pond level drops, we simply convert the
molar flux rate into a volumetric flux rate, using the density of water.
g cm3 cm3
ρH2 O = 18 mol × 1 g = 18 mol
mol cm3 cm cm
JH2 O = 1 × 10–6 2 × 18 mol = 1.8 × 10–6 s = 1.8 × 10–6 s
cm · s
3600 × 24 s
× day
cm
JH2 O = 1.56 day (Ans.)
(85) A conical vulcanized rubber plug is used to close an opening of a container. The gas
CO2 at 25°C and 2.0 atm is inside the container. The solubility of CO2 in the rubber is
0.90 Nm3/(m3-rubber atm-CO2). The plug is 30 mm thick and has a cross-sesctional area
of 3.00 × 10–4 m2 facing inside the container and 4.00 × 10–4 m2 exposing outside. The
CO2 content in the atmosphere is negligible. The diffusivity of CO2 in the rubber is
0.11 × 10–9 m2/s.
Calculate the total leakage of CO2 through the rubber in kmol/s.
Sol. :
2
30 mm
1 Z
Fig. 2.35 : Conical Valcanized rubber plug

This is the case of steady state diffusion through solids.
A1 = 3.00 × 10–4 m2, A2 = 4.00 × 10–4 m2
A = αZ2, A1 = αZ2, A2 = α (Z1 + 0.03)2
0.03
⇒ Z1 = 1/2 m = 0.193923 m, Z2 = 0.223923 m
  –1
4
3
α = 7.97742 × 10–3
dCA – dCA
NAZ = – D dZ , N AZ = A · NAZ = – A · D dZ
Z2 CA2
– –
NAZ = constant ⇒ N AZ ⌠ dZ = ⌠ – D dCA
⌡ A ⌡
Z1 CA1
NAZ · – Z – Z 
– 1 1 1
∴ = –D (CA2 – CA1 )
α  2 1
– Dα (CA1 – CA 2)
∴ NA, Z = Z2 – Z1 Z1 Z2 , CA = SPA/VA0
Dα S (pA1 – pA2)
= V (Z – Z )
A0 2 1
0.11 × 10–9 × 7.97742 × 10–3 × 0.9 × (2.0 – 0)

=
22.414 × 0.03
× 0.193923 × 0.223923 kmol/s
–
NA, Z = 1.02003 × 10–13 kmol/s (Ans.)
(86) Mass transfer is occuring to a spherical water droplet having a radius of 1 mm. The
droplet is falling in the sky toward the ground. Along the path, the air is saturated
with water vapour and the water droplet is assumed not to grow on the water vapour.
It takes 10 seconds to pass through a layer of still air containing 1% (in volume
fraction) acid gas (SO2) at 5°C and 0.8 atm before reaching the ground. Assume that the
acid gas reacts very fast with water droplet in the liquid phase. Thus, the vapour
pressure of the
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
acid gas may be assumed zero on the water droplet. Furthermore, assume that the
water droplet is isolated, i.e. only one in the sky. The diffusivity of air in sulfur
dioxide is 1.4 × 10–5 m2/s at 20°C and atmospheric conditions.
(a) Estimate the diffusivity of SO2 in air at 5°C and 0.8 atmosphere.
(b) Calculate the diffusion flux of SO2 to the water droplet surface in kmol/(m2 · s).
(c) What is the concentration of H2SO3 in the rain water ?
'
(d) What is the mass transfer coefficient, kc , based on your calculations ?
(e) What is percentage of mass transfer resistance in the liquid film ?
T1.75
Sol. : (a) DAB ∝ P , DAB, Z 0 °C and 1 atm = 1.4 × 10–5 m2/s
(2.73.5 + 5)1.75 1
∴ DAB = (273.15 + 20) × 0.8 × 10–5 m2/s = 1.596 × 10–5 m2/s
(b)
r
dr
NAr
Fig. 2.36 : Illustration of spherical water droplet in Ex. 74

dyA
NAr = (NAr + NBr) yA – C DAB dr
C DAB dyA
⇒ NAr = 1 – y dr
A
– –
NAr NAr C DAB
NAr = ⇒ dr = 1 – y dyA
4πr2 4πr2 A
r = r0, yA = 0 = y
A0
r → ∞, yA = 0.9 = y
A∞
– ∞ y
A∞
NAr
∴ – = – C DAB ln (1 – yA)
4πr y
r0 A0
–
NAr 1 – yA0
= C DArs ln 1 – y
4πr0 A∞
–
NAr C DAB 1 – yA0
NAr0 = 2 = r0 ln 1 – yA∞
4πr0
P DAB 1 – yA0 0.8 × 101325 × 1.596 × 10–5

NAr0 = RT r ln 1 – y =
0 A∞ 8314 × 278.15 × 10–3
(1 – 0) kmol
× ln (1 – 0.9) 2
m · sec.
= – 5.6225 × 10–6 kmol/m2 · s (Ans.)
– 2
(c) NAr = 4πr0 ⋅ NAr0 = 4 × 3.141592654 × (10–3)2
× (– 5.6225 × 10–6) kmol/s
= – 7.0654 × 10–11kmol/s
–
nA = – N Ar · t = 7.0654 × 10–10 kmol
nA nA 7.0654 × 10–10 kmol
CA = V = 4 = 4
3
–3)3
m3
3 π r 0 3 × π × (10
= 0.16867 kmol/m3 = 0.16867 M (Ans.)
(d) – NAr0 = kc (CA∞– CA0 ) = kc C (yA∞– yA0 )
' 1 – yA0
= kc · Cln 1 – y
A∞
DAB
' 1.596 × 10–5
∴ kc =
= m/s = 0.01596 m/s (Ans.)
r0 10–3
(e) The percentage of mass transfer resistance in the liquid film = 0. (Ans.)
(87) A binary gas mixture containing 50% A and 50% B (by volume) at 388 K and 1 atm is
present in the bulk to which a narrow pore is opened. The pore is cylindrical in shape
and the bottom is restrictive. On the bottom of the pore, reaction :
A → 2B
takes place. The reaction rate is given by – rA = k' CA with k' = 0.1 m/s. Assume that the
pore is 10 µm in diameter and 0.2 mm deep. The diffusion coefficient measured at
25°C and 1 atmosphere is DBA = 2.0 × 10–5 m/s. Find.
(a) What is the value of diffusivity DAB at 388 K and 1 atm ?
NA + NB
(b) What is the molar flux ratio, NB , inside the pore ? Is it constant
everywhere ?
(c) What is the mole fraction of A at the bottom of the pore ?
(d) What is the molar transfer rate of A into the pore ?
(e) What is the molar rate of B coming out of the pore ?
Sol. :
Z2
Z Z1
b
a
Fig. 2.37 : Diffusion of binary gas mixture

Ac = a · b
o
pA1 = PA = 2.487 kPa
o 1
pA2 = 0.25 PA = 4 PA1
Let A = Water vapour, B = Air

T = 21°C = 294.15 K,
P = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa,
PL = 918.0 kg/m3,
NBZ = 0, Z2 – Z1 = 0.02 m,
DAB ℑ = 2.60 × 10–5 m2/s.
25°C
T1.75
(a) We know, DAB ∝ P
T 1.75 1.75
DAB = T  · DAB, 1 = 274.15 × 2.60 × 10–5 m2/s = 2.539 × 10–5 m2/s
∴
 1 298.15
(Ans.)
(b) NBZ = 0 (Ans.)
(c) AC = ab = 10 km × 0.3 m = 3000 m2
(d) General diffusion equation :
dyA
NAZ = yA (NAZ + NBZ) – C DAB dZ
AC = Constant ⇒ NAZ = Constant
dyA
⇒ NAZ (1 – yA) = – C DAB dZ
Z2 yA2
⌠ ⌠ C DAB dyA; C and DAB = Constants

⌡ NAZ dZ = – ⌡ 1 – yA
Z1 yA1
1 – yA2
∴ NAZ (Z2 – Z1) = C DAB ln 1 – y
A1
Ideal gas law : PV = nRT

P pA1 pA2 1 pA1
C = RT , yA1 = P , P = 4 P = yA2
P DAB P – pA2
∴ NAZ = (Z – Z ) RT ln P – p (Ans.)
2 1 A1
– P DAB AC P – pA2
(e) N AZ = NAZ · AC = (Z – Z ) RT ln P – p
2 1 A1
1
101325 – 4 × 2.487
101325 × 2.539 × 10–5
× 3000 kmol
= ⋅ ln 101.325 – 2.487 s
0.02 × 8314 × 294.15
= 2.9501 × 10–3 kmol/s

· –
m A = MA N AZ = 2.9501 × 10–3 kmol/s × 18.015 kg/kmol
= 0.053146 kg/s = 4591.82 kg/day
·
mA 4591.81885
QA = = 998.0 m3/day = 4.601 m3/day (Ans.)
ρL
(88) Mass Transfer from a Naphthalene Sphere to Air :
Mass transfer is occuring from a sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 10 mm. The
sphere is in a large volume of still air at 52.6°C and 1 atm abs pressure. The vapour
pressure of naphthalene at 52.6°C is 1.0 mm Hg. The diffusivity of naphthalene in air
at 0°C is 5.16 × 10–6 m2/s.
Calculate the flux of sublimation of naphthalene from the surface in mol/(s·m2).
Note : The diffusivity can be corrected for temperature using the temperature-correction
factor from the Fuller et al. equation.
1
Sol. : KA1 = 760 = 1.316 × 10–3 atm kA2 = 0
T = 52.6 + 273 = 325.6 K
P = 1.00 atm = 1.0132 × 105 Pa
DAB = 5.16 × 10–6 m2/k at 52.6°C and 1.0 atm
r1 = 10 mm = 0.010 m
pB2 – pB1
kBM = ln (p /p )
B2 B1
325.6 1.75
DAB = 5.16 × 10–6  273 
–
pB1 = 1.00 – 1.316 × 10–3 = 0.9987 atm.
 
–
pB2 = 1.00 – 0 = 1.00 atm DAB = 7.024 × 10–6 m2/s
– 1.00 – 0.9987
PB, M = ln 1.00/0.9987 = 0.9993 atm
We know,
DAB P (k1 – pA2)
NA1 = –
RT r1 PBM
(7.024 × 10–6) (1.0132 × 10–5) (1.316 × 10–3) (1.0132 × 105)
=
(8314) (325.6) (0.010) (0.9993 × 1.0132 × 105)
NA1 = 3.46 × 10–8 kgmol/s · m2 (Ans.)
(89) A flat plug 30 mm thick having an area of 4.0 × 10–4 m2 and made of vulcanized rubber
is used for closing an opening in a container. The gas CO2 at 25°C and 2.0 atm pressure
is inside the container. Calculate the total leakage or diffusion of CO2 through the
plug to the outside in kmol/s at steady state. Assume that the partial pressure of CO2
outside is zero. The solubility of CO2 gas is 0.90 m3-STP/(m3-rubber · atm-CO2). The
diffusivity = DAB = 0.11 × 10–9 m2/s.
Sol. : L = 30/1000 = 0.030 m A = 4.0 × 10–4 m2

T = 25°C kA1 = 2.0 atm
0.90 m3 (STP)
S= DAB = 0.11 × 10–9 m2/s
m3 rubber · atm
Concentration in solids :
S kA1 0.90 (2.0)
cA1 = 22.414 = 22.414
= 8.031 × 10–2 kgmol/m3 rubber
Diffusion through solids :
DAB (CA1 – CA2)
NA = z2 – z1
A DAB (CA1 – CA2)
NAA = z2 – z1
L
cA1
CO2
kA1
cA2 kA1 = 0
x
z1 z2
Fig. 2.38 : Concentration profile for diffusion of CO2 through plug

4 × 10–4 (0.11 × 10–9) (8.031 × 10–2 – 0)
= (0.030 – 0)
–13
NAA = 1.178 × 10 kgmol/sec. (Ans.)
(90) Due to valve leakage, water has spilled on the floor on an industrial complex.
Determine the period the water will take to evapourate out in the adjacent stagnant air
of the surroundings.
Data : The water layer = 1.25 mm thick
The temperature of water = 297 K
The surrounding air temperature = 297 K
The surrounding air pressure = 1 std. atm.
Absolute humidity of air = 2 × 10–3 kg of water/kg of dry air.
Assume steady-state molecular diffusion taking place through a still air film
5 mm thick during evapouration process. You can take diffusivity of water in
air = 2.6 × 10–5 m2/s at 298 K and 1 std. atm.
Sol. : Basis : 1 m2 of evapourative surface area considered.
∴ Volume of water evapourated = Area × thickness of film
= 1 × 1.25 × 10–3
= 1.25 × 10–3 m3
So, mass of water evapourated = 1.25 × 10–3 × 1000

= 1.25 kg
2 2
Stagnant Air 5mm

Z-direction
1 1
Water film
1.25mm
Fig. 2.39 : Water molecule diffusing into the stagnant air above the water film
1.25
∴ Kilomoles of water evapourated = 18
= 0.0694 kmoles.
Next, molar rate of evapouration of water is given by :
DAB · Pt YA1 – YA2
NA, Z = ZRT  Y  ; kmol/m2 · s
 B‚ M 
Let A = water; B = Air
Now, diffusivity of water in air at 298 K.
DAB, T1 = 298 K = 2.6 × 10–5 m2/s at 1 std. atm.
T2 3/2 P1
DAB, T2 = DAB, T1 T  · P
= 297 K
 1  2
297 3/2 1
= 2.6 × 10–5 298 1
   
= 2.587 × 10–5 m2/s at 297 K and 1 std. atm.
At (1) – (1) surface, air is saturated with water.
At (2) – (2) surface, air is partly saturated with water.
Therefore, the molecular diffusion of water will take place from (1) – (1) plane to
(2) – (2) plane.
kg water
At 297 K, the saturated humidity is 1.89 × 10–3 kg · dry air .
H = 1.89 × 10–3 kg · dry air · 18 kg · dry air ·  kmol dry air 
kg · water kmol · water 29 kg dry air
     
kmol · water
= 30.45 × 10–3 kmol · dry air
i.e. 1 kmol dry air is associated with 30.45 × 10–3 kmol water.
30.45 × 10–3
∴ YA1 = = 0.0295
(1 + 30.45 × 10–3)
The humidity in the bulk air stream is given by
kg · water
2 × 10–3 kg · dry air
1
18 kmol water
= [2 × 10–3 ] 1 
 29 kmol air

= 0.00322 kmol water
i.e. 1 kmol of dry air is associated with 0.00322 kmol of water vapour.
0.00322
∴ YA2 = (1 + 0.00322) = 0.003211
∴ YB1 = 1 – YA1 = 1 – 0.0295 = 0.970
and YB2 = 1 – YA2 = 1 – 0.003211 = 0.9968
YB1 – YB2 0.970 – 0.9968
∴ YB, M = ln (Y /Y ) = = 0.9835
ln 0.9968
B1 B2 0.970
 
2.5869 × 10 –5 101325 (0.02955 – 0.003211)
∴ NA, Z = (5/1000) × 8314 × 297 × 0.9835
–6
NA, Z = 5.685 × 10 kmol/m · s 2
We have 0.06944 kmol H2O/m2 of water surface to be evapourated.

0.06944 kmol H2O/m2
∴ Required time =
5.685 × 10 kmol H2O/m2 · s
–6
= 12213.8 s
= 3.39 hours (Ans.)
(91) The diffusion coefficient relative to the volume average velocity is defined by
– j1 = D∇ ∇ c1
That relative to the molar average velocity is defined by
*
– j1 = D* c∇
∇y1
Show that the diffusion coefficients in these two definitions are equal, even if the
molar concentration c is not constant.
Sol. : Use the definition of the volume-based diffusion flux j1
j1 = c1 (v1 – v0) = – D∇c1 … (1)
*
Use the definition of the molar-based diffusion flux j1
*
j1 = c1 (v1 – v*) = – D* c∇y1 … (2)
Assuming subscript 1 for the solute and 2 for the solvent and volume-based flux :
1
(v1 – v0) = – c D∇c1 = – D∇ln c1 … (3)
1
1
(v2 – v0) = – c D∇c2 = – D∇ ln c2 … (4)
2
And from 3 and 4 :
c1 c · y1 y1
(v1 – v2) = – D∇ ln c = – D∇ ln c · y = – D∇ ln y … (5)
2 2 2
Similarly, for the molar-based flux :
1 1 1
(v1 – v*) = – c D* c∇y1 = – (c /c) D* ∇y1 = – y D* ∇y1 = – D* ∇ ln y1
1 1 1
… (6)
1
(v2 – v*) = – c D* c∇y2 = D*∇ ln y2 … (7)
2
And from 6 and 7 :
y1
(v1 – v2) = – D* ∇ ln y … (8)
2
Comparing equations 5 and 8 we see that D = D*
(92) The following irreversible and very fast cracking reaction
A → 2B
is taking place on the surface of a spherical catalyst particle (radius Rcat = 0.2 mm).
Both species (A and B) behave like ideal gases. The temperature in the reactor is 573 K
and the total pressure is 2 bar. Very far from the surface (at r/Rcat → infinity), the
partial pressure of species A is 0.5 bar. The diffusion coefficient DAB at the given
conditions is approximately 0.2 cm2/sec.
Calculate the total molar flux of species A at the surface of the catalyst particle.
Hint : Use that the total molar flow rate (moles/sec.) moving towards the catalyst is
constant.
Sol. :
yA,¥ r
Catalyst
A
yA,0
R
Reaction 2B
A 2B
Fig. 2.40 : Illustration cracking reaction on spherical catalyst particle
From the general mass balance equation for spherical co-ordinates (see Appendix K).
∂cA 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂nA‚ θ
∂t = – r2 ∂r (r nA, r) – r sin θ ∂θ (nA, θ sin θ) – r sin θ ∂φ + rA
Assumption :
∂cA
(i) Steady state : ∂t = 0
∂ ∂nA‚ θ
(ii) Symmetry with respect to θ and φ = (nA, θ sin θ) = =0
∂θ ∂φ
(iii) No chemical reaction in the diffusion path : rA = 0.
Then, you can get the simplified governing equation as follows :
1 ∂
– 2 ∂r (r2 nA, r) = 0 → r2 · nA = constant … (1)
r
The total molar flux,
dyA
nA = – Dc dr = cA · v*
where the molar average velocity, v* is defined as follows :
nA + nB
v* = c
The mass flux of species B is always 2 times of species A because one mole of A produces
2 moles of B on the catalyst surface.
nB = – 2nA
Therefore,
dyA
nA = – Dc dr – yAnA
dyA
(1 + yA) nA = – Dc dr
Dc dyA
nA = – (1 + y ) dr … (2)
A
According to equation (1), the total molar flow rate [r2 · nA, mol/s] at any r-position is
constant. Let us refer to the molar flux [mol/(m2s] at the catalyst surface (r = R) as NA.
Then, we get the following relation from the equation (1).
2
r2nA = Rcat · NA … (3)
Substitute the equation (2) into (3).
Dc dyA 2
– (1 + y ) r2 dr = Rcat · NA … (4)
A
Boundary conditions
At r = R, yA = 0 (because A disappears fast by the chemical reaction)
r= ∞ yA = yA, ∞ = 0.5/2 = 1/4
The solution of equation (4) is given by the following :
2
Rcat NA 1
ln (1 + yA) = D · c r + b
By the boundary condition at r = Rcat
Rcat NA
b = – D·c
2
Rcat NA 1
ln (1 + yA) = D · c  r – R 
1
… (5)
 cat
By the boundary condition at r = ∞
2
Rcat NA
ln (1 + yA, ∞) = D · c – R 
1
 cat
D·c
NA = – R ln (1 + yA, ∞) … (6)
cat
where, D = 0.2 × 10–4 m2/sec
P 2 · 105 (Pa)
c = RT = = 42 moles/m3
m3 · Pa
8.314 mol · K 573 K
Rcat = 0.0002 m
y∞ = 0.25
Total molar flux of species A at the surface
NA = – 0.937 moles/m2-sec
(The negative sign is because the diffusion of species A is taken place toward the surface
of catalyst).
(93) A vessel filled with the water stands in a hood where dry air is circulating. To reduce
evapouration, it is covered with a sponge that is floating on the water surfae (Fig. 2.41).
The cavities of the sponge can be modeled as cylindrical capillaries. The capillaries are
partially filled with water, with a length h above the water level. The temperature of
air and water are constant and identical. The diffusion coefficient and saturation
pressure of water vapour in air are given below.
(1) Calculate the ratio of the total flux at 60°C to the total flux at 10°C in steady state.
(2) How large (in percent) is the contribution of convection to the total flux at 60°C.
(a) at the water surface.
(b) halfway up the capillary (z = h/2)
(c) at the top of the capillary ?
Data :
At 60°C : D = 0.305 cm2/s, vapour pressure of water = 0.199 bar
At 10°C : D = 0.240 cm2/s, vapour pressure of water = 0.0123 bar
1 atm = 1.013 bar
Dry air
Dry air
ch
h
z
csat
Water
Water
Fig. 2.41 : Water vessel covered with a sponge

nH2O (60°C)
Sol. : (1) Wanted : n (10°C)
H2 O
We now rename the species : 1 = H2O, 2 = air

The concentration profile within such a capillary was already is given by :
z
1 – y1  1 – y1l  l
= 1 – y  … (1)
1 – y10  10
The air that is blown over the top of the tube has a water vapour content of
y1l = 0 … (2)
So we can rearrange equation (1) and get for the concentration profile :
z
1–
l
y1 = 1 – (1 – y10) … (3)
The total flux of H2O within the capillary is independent of z. The total flux was also
calculated by equation :
Dc  1 – y1l  Dc
n1 = l ln 1 – y  = l ln 1 – y 
1
… (4)
 10  10
At 60°C, D = 0.305 cm2/s, y10 = 0.199/1.013 = 0.196, c = p/R (273.15 + 60) = p/(333.15R)
At 10°C, D = 0.240 cm2/s, y10 = 0.0123/1.013 = 0.0121, c = p/R (273.15 + 10) = p/(283.15R)
Therefore,
D (60°C) c (60°C) 
ln 1 – y (60°C)
1
D (60°C) 333.15 R ln (1 – y (60°C))
p
n (60°C) l  10    10
n1 (10°C) = D (10°C) c (10°C)  1 
=
 p  ln (1 – y10 (10°C))
ln 1 – y (10°C) D (10°C) 283.15 R
l  10   
= 0.240 333.15 ln (1 – 0.0121) = 19.4
0.305 283.15 ln (1 – 0.196)
   
(2) The total fux was calculated above (Equation 4).
It is also given by :
n1 = j1 + c1 v* … (5)
The diffusive flux (Fick's 1st law), that is part of the flux, is depending on z.
z
Dc  1 – y1l  l  1 – y1l 
j1 = l (1 – y10) 1 – y  ln 1 – y  … (6)
 10  10
With this, the contribution of convection to the total flux can be obtained :
z
c1 v* j1  1 – y1l  l
= 1 – n = 1 – (1 – y10) 1 – y  … (7)
n1 1  10
This allows to calculate the contribution of convection at 60°C at the three positions :
(a) At z = 0 :
c1 v*
n1 = 1 – (1 – y10) = y10
= 0.196 = 19.6%
1
c1 v*
= 1 – (1 – y10) 1 – y  = 1 – (1 – y10)1/2
1 2
(b) At z = h/2 : n1  10
= 0.103 = 10.3 %
c1 v*
(c) At z = h : n1 = 0
(94) Ammonia gas (A) and nitrogen (B) are stored in 2 large storage tanks respectively. The
tanks are maintained at constant pressure of 1.0132 × 105 Pa pressure and temperature
of 298 K. A uniform tube 0.1 m long connects the 2 tanks, as shown below :
Ammonia Nitrogen
Tank (A) Tank (B)
(Z2 – Z1)
1 2
Fig. 2.42
The partial pressure of A at point 1 is pA1 = 1.013 × 104 Pa and at point 2, pA2 = 0.507 ×
104 Pa. The diffusivity DAB = 0.230 × 10−4 m2/s. R = 8314 m3.Pa/kg-mole.K.
(a) Calculate the flux JA at steady state.
(b) Repeat for JB.
Comments on your results.
Sol. : Given : Total pressure PT = 1.0132 × 105 Pa (constant)
Temperature = 298 K
DAB = 0.230 × 10−4 m2/s
R = 8314 m3.Pa/kg-mole.K
At point 1, pA1 = 1.013 × 104 Pa
At point 2, pA2 = 0.507 × 104 Pa
Diffusion path = (z2 − z1) = 0.1 m
We can use the following equation for flux of A in a binary mixture with B :
DAB (pA1 − pA2)
JA = RT (z2 − z1)
Component – A is diffusing from point 1 to point 2, as its partial pressure is higher at
point 1.
Putting in the number and check for the appropriate units :
0.230 × 10−4 m  (1.013 × 104 − 0.507 × 104 Pa)

2
 s
JA =
8314 m2 ⋅ Pa ⋅ 298 K (0.1 m)
 kg-mole.K 
JA = 4.697 × 10−7 kg-mole/m2.s
We can use the Dalton’s Law of partial pressures to determine the partial pressures of
component-B at points 1 and 2 :
pT = pA + pB
At point 1 :
pB1 = PT − pA1
PB1 = 1.0132 × 105 − 1.013 × 104 = 91,190 Pa
At point 2 :
pB2 = PT − pA2
PB2 = 1.0132 × 105 − 0.507 × 104 = 96,250 Pa
Component-B is diffusing in the opposite direction to component-A : from point 2 to
point 1, as the partial pressure B at point 1 is higher.
We can calculate the flux of B in A using :
DAB (pB1 − pB2)
JB = RT (z2 − z1)
0.230 × 10−4 m  (91‚190 − 96‚25 Pa)

2
 s
JB =
8314 m 
3.Pa
 kg-mole.K ⋅ 298 K (0.1)

Thus, JB = 4.697 × 10−7 kg-mole/m2.s (Ans.)
The flux for component-B is the same as the flux for component-A, but with a negative
sign, indicating that it is in the opposite direction. The 2 components are diffusing in
opposite direction. This is the concept of Equimolar Counter-Diffusion.
(95) One Component Diffusing in another Stagnant Component :
Oxygen (A) is diffusing through carbon dioxide (B) under steady-state conditions,
with the CO2 non-diffusing. The total pressure is 1 × 105 N/m2, and the temperature
0°°C. The diffusion path is 2.0 mm. The partial pressures of oxygen at the 2 ends are
13,000 and 6,500 N/m2 respectively. The diffusivity of the mixture is 1.87 × 10−5 m2/s.
Calculate the molar flux of O2 in the mixture. Given : R = 8314 (m3.Pa)/(kg-mole.K).
Sol. : This is a case of component-A diffusing in another non-diffusing component-B. The
equation to be used is :
NA = RT (z − z ) ln P − p 
DAB P P − pA2
2 1  A1
Given : P = 1 × 105 N/m2 (i.e. Pa)
T = 0°C = 273 K
DAB = 1.87 × 10−5 m2/s
R = 8314 m3.Pa/kg-mole.K
(z2 − z1) = 2.0 mm = 2 × 10−3 m
pA2 = 6,500 N/m2 (i.e. Pa)
pA2 = 13,500 N/m2 (i.e. Pa)
Putting in all the numbers and simplifying the units :
1.87 × 10−5 m  (1.0 × 105 Pa)

2
 s  1.0 × 105 − 6‚500 

NA = ln
8314 m .Pa  (273 K) (2 × 10−3 m) 1.0 × 105 − 13‚500
3
 kg-mole.K
kg-mole
NA = 2.97 × 10−5 (Ans.)
m 2⋅ s
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE

(1) Ammonia gas (A) and nitrogen gas (B) are diffusing in counter diffusion through a
straight glass tube 0.61 m long with an ID of 24.4 mm at 298 k and 101.32 kPa. Both the
ends of tube are connected to large mixed chambers at 101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of
NH3 in one chamber is constant at 20 kPa and 6.666 kPa in the other chamber. The
diffusivity at 298 k and 101.32 kPa is 2.3 × 10–5 m2/sec.
(a) Calculate the diffusion of NH3 in kg mole/sec.
(b) Calculate the diffusion of N2.
(c) Calculate the partial pressures at a point 0.305 m in the tube.
–
(Ans. : (a) Diffusion of NH = 9.48 × 10
3
–11
kg mole/sec‚ (b) PA = 1.333 × 104 Pa )
(2) NH3 gas is diffusing through N2 under steady-state conditions with N2 non-diffusing
since it is insoluble in one boundary. The total pressure is 1.013 × 105 Pa and the
temperature is 298 k. The partial pressure of NH3 at one point is 1.333 × 104 Pa and other
point 20 mm away it is 6.666 × 103 pa. The DAB for the mixture at 1.013 × 105 Pa and 298 K
is 2.30 × 10–5 m2/s. Calculate the flux of NH3 is kg mole/s.m2.
(Ans. : NA = 3.44 × 10–6 kg mole/s.m2)
(3) An ethanol (A) – water (B) solution in the form of a stagnant film 2 mm thick at 293 K is
in constant at one surface with an organic solvent in which ethanol is soluble and water is
insoluble. (Hence NB = 0). At point 1, the concentration of ethanol is 16.8 weight % and
solution density. ρ1 = 972.8 kg/m3. At point 2, the concentration of ethanol is 6.8 weight
% and ρ2 = 988.1 kg/m3. The diffusivity of ethanol is 0.740 × 10–9 m2/sec. Calculate the
steady-state flux NA.
(Ans. : NA = 8.99 × 10–7 kg mole/s.m2)
(4) The gas hydrogen at 17o C and 0.010 atm. pressure is diffusing through a membrane of
vulcanised neoprene rubber 0.5 mm thick. The pressure of H2 on the other side of the
neoprene is zero. Calculate the steady-state flux, assuming that the only resistance to
diffusion is in the membrane. The solubility S of H2 gas in neoprene at 17o C is 0.051 m3
(at STP of 0o C and 1 atm)/m3. solid.atm. and diffusivity DAB = 1.03 × 10–10 m2/s at 17o C.
(Ans. : NA = 4.69 × 10–12 kg mole H2/s.m2)
(5) Predict the diffusion coefficient of acetone [CH3 CO CH3] in water at 25 o C and 50 oC
using Wilke-Chang equation. The experimental value is 1.28 × 10–9 m2/S at 25o C.
Data : Viscosity of water at 25 o C = µB = 0.893 × 10–3 Pa·sand at 50 oC = 0.5494 × 10–3 Pas.
VA = 0.0740 m3/kg mole
φ = 2.6
MB = 18
(Ans. : DAB50oC = 2.251 × 10–9 m2/sec‚ DAB = 1.277 × 10–9 m2/sec )

25oC
(6) A gas of carbon dioxide and air is contained in a tube at 101.32 kPa pressure and 44°C. At
one point the partial pressure of CO2 is PA1 = 58.21 kPa and at a point 0.035 m distance
away, PA2 = 18.76 kPa. If the total pressure is constant throughout the tube, calculate the
–6 2
flux of CO2 at steady state. (Ans : flux of CO2 = 7.57 × 10 k mole/m .s)
(7) Gaseous ammonia and air are diffusing in counter diffusion through a straight glass tube
0.6096 m long with an inside diameter of 25.4 mm at 0oC and 101.32 kPa. Both ends of the
tube are connected to large mixed chambers at 101.32 kPa. The partial pressures of NH3
are kept constant at 22.1 kPa in one chamber and 7.52 kPa in the other.
(a) Calculate the diffusion of ammonia in k mole/s.
(b) Calculate the diffusion of air.
(c) Calculate the partial pressures halfway along the tube and plot PA, PB and P against
distance z.
–8
(Ans. : (a) Diffusion of ammonia = 1.06 × 10 k mole/s; (b) Diffusion of air = –1.65 ×
–6
10 k mole/s; (c) Partial pressure of ammonia halfway along the tube = 14.81 kPa)
(8) Oxygen is diffusing in a straight tube 0.2 m long containing helium at 298 K and a total
pressure of 101 320 Pa. The partial pressure of O2 at one end is 11 500 Pa and 1215 Pa at
the other. Helium is insoluble in one boundary, and hence is non-diffusing or stagnant.
Calculate the steady state flux of oxygen.
–4 2
(Ans. : Steady state flux of O2 = 7.04 × 10 k mole/m s)
(9) For a mixture of methane gas and ethanol vapour, predict the diffusivity :
(a) At atmospheric pressure and 15 and 200 oC;
(b) At 3.0 atmospheres and 100 oC.
–5 2 –6 2
(Ans. : (a) DAB = 3.20 × 10 m /s; (b) DAB = 7.04 × 10 m /s)
(10) A tube 11 cm long contains carbon monoxide and nitrogen gases at a total pressure of
101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of N2 is 80 torr at one end and 10 torr at the other. Using
experimental data as much as possible, calculate the steady state Equimolal counter
diffusion flux of nitrogen :
(a) At 15°C; (b) At 200°C; (c) At 47°C and a total pressure of 200 kPa, with the same N2
partial pressures as before.
–7 2 –6 2 –6 2
(Ans : (a) 7.35 × 10 k mole/m s; (b) 1.04 × 10 k mole/m s; (c) 3.93 × 10 k mole/m s)
(11) Mass transfer is occurring from a sphere of naphthalene having a radius of 10 mm. The
sphere is in a large volume of still air at 325.6 K and 101 325 Pascals absolute pressure.
The vapour pressure of naphthalene at 325.6 K is 1.0 torr. The diffusivity of naphthalene
–6 2
in air at 0°C is 5.16 × 10 m /s. Calculate the rate at which the naphthalene is currently
evapourating.
–6 2
(Ans. : Rate of the naphthalene evapourating = NA = 3.46 × 10 k mole/m .s)
(12) Oxygen diffuses through a solution of bovine serum albumin (BSA) at 18°C, to which it is
shown that oxygen does not bind. Predict the diffusivity of oxygen through a protein
solution containing 0.96 g protein/10 ml solution.
–9 2
(Ans. : Diffusivity = 1.64 × 10 m /s)
(13) Hydrogen gas at 1.4 atmospheres absolute pressure and 27°C flows inside a 6 foot long
vulcanized neoprene tube with a 0.5 inch outer and 0.25 inch inner diameter. Calculate
the diffusion rate through the tube walls, assuming no resistance to diffusion outside the
slab and zero partial pressure of H2 on the outside. (Conversion factors : 1 foot = 0.3048
meters, 12 inches = 1 foot).
–12
(Ans. : NA = 5.43 × 10 k mole H2 per second)
(14) Oxygen gas at 2.0 atm and 27°C is flowing in a vulcanized rubber tube 4.5 mm inside
diameter and 9.5 mm outside diameter. Calculate the leakage of O2 to the atmosphere
through the walls of tube 5.0 meters long.
–11
(Ans. : Leakage of O2 = 5.13 × 10 k mole O2 per second)
(15) Hydrogen gas diffuses through a 2 mm thick polyethylene sheet at 25°C. The partial
pressure of H2 inside is 1.2 atm. and zero outside. Calculate the steady state flux of H2.
–10 2
(Ans. : Steady state flux of H2 = 1.748 × 10 k mole/m s)
(16) Oxygen gas at 1.75 atm and 30°C diffuses through 1.5 mm nylon and a 6.5 mm
vulcanized rubber membrane in series to the atmosphere. Assuming that there are no
other resistances to diffusion, calculate the steady state flux of O2.
-14 2
(Ans. : Steady state flux of O2 = 7.004 × 10 k mole/m s)
(17) The diffusivity of methanol in air at 298 K and 1 atm. was measured to be 0.16 cm2/s in
an Arnold diffusion cell. The cell has a 0.8 cm2 cross-sectional area and a 20 cm height.
The initial liquid height is 16 cm. At 298 K, the vapour pressure of methanol is
1.7 × 10–4 Pa and its density is 0.7914 g/cm3. Calculate the liquid height after 10 hours.
(18) Determine the time for one mole of ethanol to diffuse through a 4 µm thick stagnant film
of water if the concentrations at the two planes of the film are 0.1 and
0 kg mole/m3, respectively. The area for mass transfer is 100 cm2 and the diffusivity of
ethanol in water is 0.84 × 10–5 cm2/s.
(19) Ammonia, NH3 is selectively removed from an air NH3 mixture by absorption into water.
In this steady-state process, ammonia is transferred by molecular diffusion through a
stagnant gas layer 2 cm thick and then through a stagnant water layer 1 cm thick. The
concentration of ammonia at the outer boundary of the gas layer is 3.42 mole percent and
the concentration at the lower boundary of the water layer is essentially zero. The
temperature of the system is 15 oC and the total pressure is 1 atm. At 15 oC, the diffusivity
of ammonia in air is 0.215 cm2/s and in liquid water it is 1.77 × 10–5 cm2/s. The
concentration at the interface between the gas and the liquid phases is given by the
following equilibrium data :
Ammonia Partial Pressure (mm Hg) Ammonia Concentration (mole/cm3) × 106
5 6.1
10 11.9
15 20.0
20 32.1
25 53.6
30 84.8
(a) Calculate the mole fractions of ammonia at the gas-liquid interface.
(b) Determine the total flux of ammonia.
(20) A 2 mm deep pool of ethyl alcohol is exposed to air at 23 oC and 1 atm. This pool is
evapourating through a resistance equivalent to a 2 mm thick layer of stagnant air.
Ethanol properties at 23 oC are as follows : Density 0.79 g/cm3, diffusivity in air
0.132 cm2/sec, vapour pressure 53 mm Hg.
(a) Calculate the time required for complete evapouration of the alcohol pool.
(b) For the above calculation you presumably took the alcohol surface temperature to be
23 oC. What may cause it to be different ? How ?
(c) If air is moving over the surface of the pool, approximately how would you expect
the evapouration time to change with air velocity ? Why ?
(d) Would you expect the alcohol surface temperature to depend on air velocity ? Yes ?
No ? Are both answers possible ? Explain.
(21) Ammonia gas (A) and nitrogen (B) are stored in 2 large storage tanks respectively. The
tanks are maintained at constant pressure of 1.0132 × 105 Pa pressure and temperature of
298 K. A uniform tube 0.1 m long connects the 2 tanks. The partial pressure of A at point
1 is pA1 = 1.013 × 104 Pa and at point 2, pA2 = 0.507 × 104 Pa. The diffusivity
DAB = 0.0230 × 10–4 m2/s. R = 8314 m3.Pa/kg-mole.K.
(a) Calculate the flux JA at steady state.
(b) Repeat for JB.
Comments on your results.
(Ans. : JA = 4.697 × 10–7 kg moles/m2.s, JB = – 4.697 × 10–7 kg moles/m2.s, both fluxes JA
and JB are same, but with negative sign, indicating that it is in the opposite direction).
(22) The gas CO2 (MW = 44) is diffusing at steady state through a tube 20 cm long having a
diameter of 1.0 cm and containing N2 (MW = 28) at 298 K. The total pressure is constant
at 101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of CO2 at one end is 456 mm Hg and 76 mm Hg at the
other end. The diffusivity DAB is 0.167 cm2/s at 298 K. Calculate the flux of CO2 in N2.
Repeat your calculations in the diffusion is between (a) H2 (MW = 2) and N2, where
the diffusivity DAB is 0.784 cm2/s at 298 K, and (b) NH3 (MW = 17) and N2, where the
diffusivity DAB is 0.230 cm2/s at 298 K. Discuss your results.
(Ans. : 1.707 × 10–6 kg-mole/m2.s)
(23) What equation would you use to estimate the diffusivity of O2 in liquid water at 25°C ?
Which of the necessary constants do you know (can you calculate) ? What are their values
? You do not need to solve the equation.
(24) A method for separating He from natural gas was proposed. It had been reported that
Pyrex glass is impermeable to all gases except for He. The diffusion coefficient for He is
about 25 times that for H2. Assuming you have a Pyrex tub with an inner diameter of R1
and an outer diameter of R2. Obtain an expression for the rate of He leakage through the
tube in terms of the diffusivity of He in Pyrex (DHe/Pyrex), the interfacial concentration of
He in the Pyrex and the tube dimensions.
(25) A small quantity of water (component – A, MW = 18) is located at the bottom of a narrow
metal tube. The tube is exposed to dry air (component – B, MW = 29). The total air
pressure is 1.01325 × 105 Pa and the temperature is 293 K. The water is held at a constant
temperature of 293 K and it slowly evapourates and diffuses through the air in the tube.
The diffusion path (from the surface of water to the open end of the tube) is 0.1524 m
long. Make a sketch of the above system.
Given that R = 8314 m3.Pa/kg-mole.K and that the system can be assumed isothermal,
calculate the rate of evapouration of water at steady-state in kg-mole/s.m2. The
diffusivity of water vapour at 293 K and 1 atm pressure is 0.250 × 10–4 m2/s. Vapour
pressure of water at 293 K is 0.0231 atm.
Repeat your calculations if component – A is (a) Benzene, MW = 78, (b) Ethanol,
MW = 46. The diffusivities of benzene and ethanol are 9.62 × 10–6 m2/s and
1.35 × 10–5 m2/s respectively.
The vapour pressure of pure component can be estimated from the following Antoine
Equations : (where Pvp is in kPa, T is in K).
2948.78
Benzene : ln (Pvp) = 14.1603 – T – 44.5633
3423.53
Ethanol : ln (Pvp) = 16.1963 – T – 55.7152
(Ans. : NA = 1.595 × 10–7 kg-mole/s.m2)

(26) The solute HCl (component–A) is diffusing through a thin film of water (component-B) of
thickness 2.0 mm at 298 K. The concentration of HCl at point 1 at the boundary of the film
is 12.0 wt% HCl (density = 1060.7 kg/m3), and at the other boundary at point 2 it is
6.0 wt% HCl (density = 1030.3 kg/m3). The diffusion coefficient of HCl in water DAB is
2.5 × 10–9 m2/s. Assuming steady-state and that water is non-diffusing, calculate the flux
of HCl in kg-mole/m2.s.
(Ans. : 2.372 × 10–6 kmol/m2.s)
(27) An ethanol-water solution in the form of a stagnant film 2.0 mm thick at 293 K is in
contact with an organic solvent in which ethanol is soluble and water is not. Hence,
ethanol is diffusing through the solution into the solvent.
At point 1 in the solution the concentration of ethanol is 16.8 wt% and the solution
density is 972.8 kg/m3. At point 2 the concentration of ethanol is 6.8 wt% and
988.1 kg/m3. The diffusivity of ethanol in water DAB = 0.740 × 10–9 m2/s at 293 K. Also
given MW of ethanol = 46, MW of water = 18.
Determine the steady-state flux NA (in kg-mole/m2.s) between point 1 and point 2 using
the following equation :
DAB Cavg 1 – XA2
NA = (z – z ) ln 1 – X 
2 1  A1
where,
Cave is the average total concentration (ethanol and water) in the solution
(kg-mole/m3).
Cave = (C1 + C2)/2; CA1 is the total concentration in point 1 and C2 is the total
concentration in point 2.
xA1 is the mole fraction of A in point 1.
(Ans. : 8.967 × 10–7 kg-mole/m2.s)
(28) Using the general equation for molecular flux given below :
NA = DAB  dz  + C (NA +NB)

dCA CA
 
Derive the following equation for the case of diffusion in liquid whereby one component
is diffusing another component is stagnant :
DAB C C – CA2
NA = Z – Z ln C – C 
2 1  A1
The symbols have their usual meanings.

(29) A flat plug 30 mm thick having an area of 4.0 × 10–4 m2 and made of vulcanized rubber is
used for closing an opening in a container. The gas CO2 at 25°C and 2.0 atm pressures is
inside the container. Calculate the total leakage or diffusion of CO2 through the plug to
the outside in kmol/s at steady state. Assume that the partial pressure of CO2 outside is
zero. The solubility of CO2 is 0.90 m3 STP/(m3-rubber·atm-CO2). The diffusivity is 0.11 ×
10–9 m2/s.
(Ans. : NA = 1.44 × 10–10 kgmole/m2.s)
(30) An absorption tower has been proposed to selectively remove the pollutant sulfur
dioxide (SO2) from an exhaust gas stream. One of the design parameters, the Schmidt
number, requires a value of the gas diffusivity of the diffusing species in the surrounding
air. Estimate the diffusivity of SO2 in air at 1 atm and 200°C using the correlation of Fuller
et al. How well do your estimates compared with the experimental value measured at
273 K : DAB = 0.122 cm2/s ?
(Ans. : 0.282 cm3/s, to compare with the experimental result, correct it to 474 K assuming
the temperature dependency given by Fuller et al.
(473)1.75
(DAB)473 = (DAB)273 = (0.122 cm2/s) (2.617) = 0.319 cm2/s. Therefore, Fuller et.
(273)1.75
al. correlation differs from the extrapolated experimental value by approximately 10%)).
(31) Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide : CO2) is placed in the bottom of a capillary tube (see
schematic below) of height L. Pure air (CO2 free) is blown across the top of the tube. The
capillary tube is axisymmetric with circular cross-sections. The radius of the capillary
tube at the top is rL, while at the bottom r0 and at any location
z : r = (r0 + B ⋅ z) = r0 + L ⋅ z.
rL − r0
 
(a) Calculate the molar flux (mol/s/m2) of gaseous carbon dioxide, at z = L/2 at
steady-state, assuming slow sublimation of dry ice (no convection effects).
(c) Using the above results, what percentage of the CO2 molar concentration at z = 0 is
the molar concentration of CO2 at z = L/2 at steady state if r0 = 1.5 rL ?
rL
z L
ro
r
Fig. 2.43
(32) The bottom of a deep cylindrical vessel (30 cm diameter) is covered with a thin slab of
salt. At time t = 0, the vessel is filled with pure water. The salt dissolves in the water,
maintaining a fixed molar concentration (mol/m3) at the water-salt interface.
If the molar concentration of the solid salt in solution at the water-salt interface is
approximately 7 Kmol/m3 what is the mass of salt dissolved into water after 5 h ? Justify
your approach.
Additional Information : The salt-water diffusion coefficient is approximately 10−9 m2/s,
while the salt’s molecular weight is MWA = 58 g/mol.
(33) A cylindrical 10 cm long glass tube with 0.5 cm in diameter contains 1 mm deep water.
Air at 10% relative humidity gently flows outside the tube, (a) calculate the water
concentration profile at steady state inside the tube and (b) how long will it take to dry up
the test tube ? Take any physical properties you need from problem 31).
(34) Water evaporates from an open tank into absolutely still air at 20°C and fifty percent
saturated. How much will the water drop in a day (a) when the diffusion film thickness is
l = 20 mm and (b) when there is no such film (l = ∞) ?
Data : Saturation pressure of water vapour, Psat (H2O : 20°C) = 2.34 kPa.
Gas constant, R = 8.314 J/(mol.K)
Diffusivity of water, d = 0.25 cm2/sec.
(35) In many catalytic chemical process, the mass transfer of reactant or product controls the
reaction rate. Here, we consider an infinitely fast and irreversible chemical reaction at
steady state.
2A → B
that is taking place on a flat catalyst surface. Both species (A) and (B) behave like ideal
gases. Close to the surface, they are diffusing through a thin unstirred film of thickness
l = 0.1 mm. Outside of this film, the gases are ideally mixed and the partial pressures of
both species are constant (partial pressure of (A) outside the film : 1 bar).
The temperature in the reactor is 600 K and the total pressure 4 bar. The diffusion
coefficient DAB = D at these conditions is about 0.3 cm2/sec.
(a) Calculate the total flux of species (A).
(b) Derive the concentration profile of species (A) in the thin film. (1 bar = 105 Pa).
(c) What is the molar fraction of species (B) at z = 0 (catalyst surface) if at z = l
yB1 = 0.5 ?
(36) Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide : CO2) is placed in the bottom of a capillary tube
(see schematic below) of height L. Pure air (CO2 free) is blown across the top of the tube.
The capillary tube is axisymmetric with circular cross-sections. The radius of the capillary
tube at the top is rL, while at the bottom r0.
(a) What is the profile of the molar fraction of CO2 along the capillary tube assuming
fast sublimation (concentrated solution) of dry ice, ideal gases, isothermal conditions
and constant total pressure ?
(b) What is the molar fraction of CO2 at z = L/2 if r0 = 2 rL and yCO2 (z = 0) = yAo = 0.4 ?
rL
z L
ro
r
Fig. 2.44
(37) In some laboratory plant, polymer tubes are used as ducts for hydrogen (H2) gas. In total,
the plant contains 10 meters of tubes, with an inner radius Ri = 1.0 cm and an outer radius
Ro = 1.3 cm. The tubes are slightly permeable for H2 at 25°C, the partition coefficient in
the wall is 4 ⋅ 10−6 mol H2/cm3⋅atm and the diffusion coefficient in the wall is
2.5⋅10−6 cm2/sec. The environment around the plant is well ventilated and practically free
of H2. The hydrogen pressure in the tubes is 1.2 atm. everywhere, the temperatures is
25°C.
How much H2 is diffusing out of the tubes during 1 day ?
(38) During a summer thunderstorms, a house owner forgets to close the skylight. When the
thunderstorm is over, a 1.235 m2 water slop6 of uniform thickness of 0.3 cm spreads over
the floor. Water evaporating from this slop does so as if it were diffusing across an air
film, which is 0.1 cm thick. The diffusion coefficient of water in 30°C air is about
0.28 cm2/sec. If the air outside the film is 55% saturated, how long will it take until the
floor is dry again ?
Additional data :
Gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol⋅K)
Vapour pressure of water at 30°C : pH2O = 4.35 kPa
Molar mass of water MW = 18 g/mol
Density of water pH2O = 1000 kg/m3
(39) The gas CO2 (MW = 44) is diffusing at steady state through a tube 20 cm long having a
diameter of 1.0 cm and containing N2 (MW = 28) at 298 K. The total pressure is constant
at 101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of CO2 at one end is 456 mm-Hg and 76 mm-Hg at the
other end. The diffusivity DAB is 0.167 cm2/s at 298 K. Calculate the flux of CO2 in N2.
Repeat your calculations in the diffusion is between (a) H2 (MW = 2) and N2, where the
diffusivity DAB is 0.784 cm2/s at 298 K, and (b) NH3 (MW = 17) and N2, where the
diffusivity DAB is 0.230 cm2/s at 298 K. Discuss your results.
(Ans. : 1.707 × 10−6 kg-mole/m2⋅s)
(40) Ammonia gas (component-A) and nitrogen (component-B) are diffusing in counter-
diffusion through a straight glass tube 0.610 m long with an inside diameter of 24.4 mm
at 298 K and 101.32 kPa. Both ends of the tube are connected to a large mixed chambers
at 101.32 kPa. The partial pressure of NH3 in one chamber is constant at 20.0 kPa and
6.666 kPa in the other chamber. The diffusivity at 298 K and 101.32 kPa is 2.30 ×10−5 m2/s.
(a) Calculate the diffusion of NH3 in kg-mole/s.
(b) Calculate the diffusion of N2 in kg-mole/s.
(c) Calculate the partial pressures at a point 0.305 m in the tube.
(Ans. : (a) 9.48 × 10−11 kg-mole/s; (c) pNH3 = 1.333 × 104 Pa)
(41) A small quantity of water (component-A, MW = 18) in located at the bottom of a narrow
metal tube. The tube is exposed to dry air (component-B, MW = 29). The total air pressure
is 1.01325 × 105 Pa and the temperature is 293 K. The water is held at a constant
temperature of 293 K and it slowly evaporates and diffuses through the air in the tube.
The diffusion path (from the surface of water to the open end of the tube) is 0.1524 m
long.
Make a sketch of the above system.
Given that R = 8314 m2.Pa/kg-mole.K and that the system can be assumed isothermal,
calculate the rate of evaporation of water at steady-state in kg-mole/s.m2. The diffusivity
of water vapor at 293 K and 1 atm pressure is 0.250 × 10−4 m2/s. Vapor pressure of water
at 293 K is 0.0231 atm.
Repeat your calculations if component-A is (a) Benzene, MW = 78, (b) Ethanol, MW = 46.
The diffusivities of benzene and ethanol are 9.62 × 10−6 m2/s and 1.35 × 10−5 m2/s
respectively.
The vapor pressure of pure component can be estimated from the following Antoine
equations : (where PVP is in kPa, T is in K).
2948.78
Benzene : ln (PVP) = 14.1603 − T − 44.5633
3423.53
Ethanol : ln (PVP) = 16.1962 − T − 55.7152
(Ans. NA = 1.595 × 10−1 kg-mole/sm2)
(42) Using the general equation for molecular flux given below :
NA = −DAB  dz  + C (NA + NB)
dCA CA
 
Derive the following equation for the case of diffusion in liquid whereby one component
is diffusing while another component is stagnant :
NA = z − z ln C − C 
DAB C C − CA2
2 1  A1
The symbols have their usual meanings.
Analyze the situation below :
The solute HCl (component-A) is diffusing through a thin film of water (component-B) of
thickness 2.0 mm at 298 K. The concentration of HCl at point 1 at the boundary of the film
is 12.0 wt.% HCl (density = 1060.7 kg/m3), and at the boundary at point 2 it is 6.0 wt.%
HCl (density = 1030.3 kg/m3).
The diffusion coefficient of HCl in water DAB is 2.5 × 10−9 m2/s. Assuming steady-state
and that water is non-diffusing, calculate the flux of HCl in kg-mole/m2.s.
(43) An ethanol-water solution in the form of a stagnant film 2.0 mm thick at 293 K is in
contact with an organic solvent in which ethanol is soluble and water is not. Hence,
ethanol is diffusing through the solution into the solvent.
At point 1 in the solution the concentration of ethanol is 16.8 wt% and the solution
density is 972.8 kg/m3. At point 2 the concentration of ethanol is 6.8 wt% and
988.1 kg/m3. The diffusivity of ethanol in water DAB is 0.740 × 10−9 m2/s at 293 K. Also
given MW of ethanol = 46, MW of water = 18.
Determine the steady-state flux NA (in kg-mole/m2.s) between point 1 and point 2 using
the following equation :
NA = (z − z ) ln 1 − x 
DAB Cave 1 − xA2
2 1  A1
where,
Cave is the average total concentration (ethanol and water) in the solution (kg-mole/m3)
Cave = (C1 + C2)/2; CA1 is the total concentration in point 1 and C2 is the total
concentration in point 1.
(Ans. : 8.967 × 10−7 kg-mole/m2.s)
NOMENCLAUTRE
Any consistent set of units may be used, except as noted.
Symbols Meaning
a One-half thickness; radius, m
b One-half width, m
c Concentration, mole/volume, mole L3
d Differential operator, also pore diameter, m
D Diffusivity or diffusivity coefficient, m2/s; Dff, effective diffusivity; DK,
Knudsen diffusivity.
Do Diffusivity for a solute at infinite dilution, m2/s.
E Fraction of solute removal, dimensionless.
f, f', f'' Functions
HD Energy of activation,
J Flux of diffusion relative to the molar average velocity, mole/m2s
k Constant
ln Natural logarithm
M Molecular weight, M/mole
n Number of moles, dimensionless
N Molar flux relative to a fixed surface, mole/m2. s
p Vapour pressure, kN/m2
–
p Partial pressure, kN/m2
P Permeability, [cm2 gas (STP)/cm2. s.(cm Hg/cm)]
Symbols Meaning
Pt 2
Total Pressure, kN/m
R Universal gas law constant
s Solubility coefficient or Henry's law constant [cm3 gas (STP) ×
cm3 . (cm Hg)
S Cross-sectional area, m2
T Absolute temperature, K
Tb Normal boiling point, K
u Linear velocity m/s
– Mean molecular velocity, m/s
u
v Liquid molar volume, m3/kmol
V Volume, m3
w Rate of diffusion
x (with no subscript) in the x-direction, m
xi Mole fraction concentration of component i in a liquid.
y (with no subscript) Distance in the y-direction, m
yi Mole-fraction concentration of component i, in a gas
y'i Mole-fraction concentration of component i, diffusing-solute-free basis
z Distance in z-direction, m; also thickness of membrane or pellet, m; also
distance in direction of diffusion, m
Greek Letters :
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s
∂ Partial differential operator
∆ Difference
θ Time, sec
λ Mean free path of a molecule, m
µ Viscosity, kg/m.s
γ Kinematics viscosity or momentum diffusivity = µ/ρ , m2/s
ρ Density, kg/m3
φ Dissociation factor for a solvent, dimensionless
π 3.1416
Subscripts :
A Component A
B Component B
i Component i
n The last of n components
M Mean
x In the x-direction
y In the y-direction
z In the z-direction
1 Beginning of diffusion path
2 End of diffusion path
av. Average
0 Initial (at time zero)
∞ At time ∞; at equilibrium
REFERENCES
1. R.E. Treybal, "Mass-Transfer Operations", Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1981.
2. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering” Volume 1, Third Edition,
Pergamon Press, 1986.
3. E.L. Cussler, “Diffusion : Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems”, Second Edition, Cambridge
University Press, 1998.
4. P. Chattopadhya, “Unit Operations “(Vol-I), Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1996.
5. G.K.Roy, “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, Second Edition, Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, 1990
6. A.S. Foust, L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus and L.B. Andersen, "Principles of Unit
Operations", Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
7. W.L. McCabe and J.C. smith, “Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering”, Fifth Edition,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1993.
8. A.H.P.Skelland, “Diffusional Mass Transfer”, Kriegar, Malbar FL, 1985.
9. C.J. Geankoplis, "Transport Processes and Unit Operations", Fourth Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2003
10. R.B. Bird et al, “Transport Phenomena”, John Wiley and Sons, 1960.
11. C.J. Geankoplis, “Mass Transport Phenomena”, Columbus, Chio, 1972
12. R.H. Perry and D. Green, "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook", Seventh Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
13. T.K.Shrewood and R.L. Pigford, “Mass Transfer”, McGraw Hill, 1975.
14. C.R. Wilke and J. Crank, “The Mathematics of Diffusion”, Oxford University Press, 1956.
15. J. Crank and G. Park, “Diffusion in Polymers”, Academic Press, 1968.
,,,
3
CHAPTER
MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Mass Transfer Coefficients
3.2.1 Definition of Mass Transfer Coefficient
3.2.2 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Equimolar Counter Diffusion
3.2.3 Mass transfer Coefficient for A diffusing through stagnant, non-diffusing B
3.3 Local Mass Transfer Coefficient
3.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient in Turbulent Flow
3.5 Eddy/Turbulent Diffusion
3.6 Theories of Mass Transfer
3.7 Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer
3.8 Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient
3.9 Significant Parameters in Convective Mass Transfer
3.10 Application of Dimensionless Analysis to Mass Transfer
3.10.1 Transfer into a stream flowing under forced convection
3.10.2 Transfer into a phase whose motion is due to natural convection
3.11 Analogies Among Mass, Heat and Momentum Transfer
3.11.1 Reynolds Analogy
3.11.2 Chilton – Colburn Analogy
3.11.3 Taylor – Prandtl Analogy
3.12 Convective Mass Transfer Correlations
3.12.1 For Flow Around Flat Plat
3.12.2 For Flow Around Single Sphere
3.12.3 For Flow Around Single Cylinder
3.12.4 For Flow Through Pipes
3.12.5 Mass Transfer to Suspension of Small Particles
3.12.6 Mass Transfer in Packed Beds
3.12.7 Mass Transfer in Boundary Layer
3.13 Mass Transfer between Phases
3.14 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer
3.14.1 Condensation of Vapour on Cold Surface
3.14.2 Wet Bulb Thermometer
Solved Problems
Nomenclature
References
(3.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 3.2 Mass Transfer Coefficients
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Imagine we are interested in transfer of mass from some interface into a well mixed
solution. We expect that the amount of mass transferred is directly proportional to the
concentration difference and the interfacial area.
Thus,
(Rate of mass transfer) = k (Interfacial area) (Concentration difference) … (3.1)
where the proportional constant is denoted by k and is called as mass transfer coefficient. If
we divide both sides of equation (3.1) by the area, we can write the equation in more convenient
form as :
N1 = k (C1, i – C1) … (3.2)
where, N1 = Flux at interface
C1, i = Concentration at the interface
C1 = Concentration at bulk of the solution.
Remarks :
(i) The flux N1 includes both diffusion and convection, it is like total flux n1, except that it is
located at the interface.
(ii) The concentration C1, i is at interface but in the same fluid as the bulk concentration C1.
(iii) The flux equation (3.2) makes some practical sense. It says that concentration is doubled,
the flux also doubles.
(iv) It also suggests that if the area is doubled, the total amount of mass transfer will also
double but flux per unit area will not change.
3.2 TYPES OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
3.2.1 Definition of Mass Transfer Coefficient
Since our understanding of turbulent flow is incomplete, we write the equations for turbulent
diffusion in a manner similar to that for molecular diffusion. For turbulent mass transfer we can
write,
dC
* A
JA = – (DAB + EM) dz … (3.3)
where, DAB = Molecular diffusivity in m2/sec.

EM = Mass eddy diffusivity in m2/sec.
The value of EM is a variable and is near zero at interface or surface and increases as the
–
distance from the wall increases. We use an average value E M since the variation of EM is not
generally known. Integrating equation (3.3) between points 1 and 2,
–
* DAB + EM
JA1 = z –z (CA – CA ) … (3.4)
2 1 1 2
*
The flux JA1 is based on the surface area A1 since the cross-sectional area may vary. The value
of z2 – z1, the distance of the path, is often not known. Hence equation (3.4) is written using a
'
convective mass transfer coefficient kC as :
* '
JA1 = kC (CA – CA ) … (3.5)
1 2
' '
where JA is the flux of A from the surface A1 relative to the whole bulk phase, kC is
1
(DAB + EM)
(z2 – z1) an experimental mass transfer coefficient in m/s and CA2 is the concentration at point
2 in kg mole A/m3.
'
Note : This definition of a convective mass transfer coefficient kC is similar to the convective
heat-transfer coefficient h.
3.2.2 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Equimolar Counter Diffusion
The flux of A relative to stationary co-ordinates is given by :
dxA
NA = – C (DAB + EM) dz + xA (NA + NB) … (3.6)
For the case of equimolar counter diffusion, where,
NA = – NB
so integrating equation (3.6) and calling,
' (DAB + EM)
kC = (z – z )
2 1
We get, NA = kC' (CA – CA ) … (3.7)
1 2
Equation (3.7) is the defining equation for the mass transfer coefficient. Often, we define the
concentration in terms of mole fraction if a liquid or gas or in terms of partial pressure of gas.
Thus, we can define the mass transfer coefficient is several ways as :
' ' '
Gases : NA = kc (CA – CA ) = kG (pA – pA ) = ky (yA – yA ) … (3.8)
1 2 1 2 1 2
' ' '
Liquids : NA = kc (CA – CA ) = kL (CA – CA ) = kx (xA – xA ) … (3.9)
1 2 1 2 1 2
where, yA = Mole fraction in gas phase
xA = Mole fraction in liquid phase
3.2.3 Mass Transfer Coefficient for a Diffusing Through Stagnant,
Non-diffusing B
For A diffusing through stagnant, non-diffusing B where NB = 0, equation (3.6) gives for
'
kc
steady state, NA = x (CA – CA ) = kC (CA – CA ) … (3.10)
BM 1 2 1 2
'
where, kC = mass transfer coefficient for A diffusing through stagnant B.
xB – xB
2 1
xB, M = … (3.11)
x  B2
ln x 
 B1
Expressing equation (3.10) using other units :
Gases : NA = kc (CA – CA ) = kG (pA – pA ) = ky (yA – yA ) … (3.12)
1 2 1 2 1 2
Liquids : NA = kc (CA – CA ) = kL (CA – CA ) = kx (xA – xA ) … (3.13)

1 2 1 2 1 2
The relations among mass transfer coefficients and the various flux equations, are given in
Table (3.1).
Flux equations for equimolar counter diffusion :

' ' '
Gases : NA = kc (cA – cA ) = kG (pA – pA ) = ky (yA – yA )
1 2 1 2 1 2
' ' '
Liquids : NA = kc (cA – cA ) = kL (cA – cA ) = kkx (xA – xA )
1 2 1 2 1 2
Flux equations for A diffusing through stagnant, non-diffusing B :
Gases : NA = kc (cA – cA ) = kG (pA – pA ) = ky (yA – yA )
1 2 1 2 1 2
Liquids : NA = kc (cA – cA ) = kL (cA – cA ) = kx (xA – xA )
1 2 1 2 1 2
Conversions between mass transfer coefficients :
P PBM
Gases : kC' = kC' RT = kc RT = kG' P = kG pPM = ky yBM = k'y = kc yBM c = kG yBM P
Liquids : kC' c = kL' c = kL xB, M c = kL' ρ/M = k'x = kx xB, M

(where ρ is density of liquid and M is molecular weight)
Table 3.1 : Units of mass transfer coefficients
Types of MTC SI Units CGS Units English Units
kc, kL, k'c , kL' m/s cm/s ft/h
kx, ky, k'x , k'y kg mol g mol lb mol
s·m2·mol frac 2
s·cm ·mol fract h·ft2·mol frac
kG, kG' kg mol kg mol g mol lb mol
s·m2·Pa s·m2·atm s·cm2·atm h·ft2·atm
(preferred)
3.3 LOCAL MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
z=Z
z
Gas CA1 (in gas)
x
Evaporating liquid
Fig. 3.1 : Mass Transfer to a Confined Liquid

For a fluid flowing past a solid surface or gas flowing over a liquid surface, the rate of mass
transfer through the phase interface (or phase boundary) is given by,
NA NA/(NA + NB) – CA /C
2 2
NA = N + N · F N /(N + N ) – C /C (k mole/m .sec.) … (3.14)
A B A A B A 1
where, A and B are two components. A is the solute diffusing. i.e. it enters or leaves the
phase.
CA = Concentration of A at the beginning of transfer path, (k mole/m3).
1
CA = Concentration of A at the end of transfer path (k mole/m3).
2
The local mass transfer coefficient (F) for the process is defined as :
C
∴ F = DAB · Z k mole/m2. sec. … (3.15)
Note :
(i) "F" is defined for a particular location at the phase boundary.
(ii) It may vary along this interface depending on the nature of fluid motion.
(iii) Flux = (Coefficient) × (Concentration difference).
3.4 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN TURBULENT FLOW
(i) In case of most practically useful situations involving turbulent flow, it is not possible to
compute the mass transfer coefficient, because the flow cannot be described
mathematically.
(ii) Instead, we depend principally on experimental data, which are limited in scope w.r.t.
the circumstances, situations as well as fluid properties.
(iii) Hence, it is important to be able to extend their application to situations not covered
experimentally and to draw upon the knowledge about other transport properties.
(e.g. Heat transfer or fluid mechanics) for help.
3.5 EDDY/TURBULENT DIFFUSION
Turbulence :
(1) ux + Dux, CA+ DCA, t + Dt

u'z
l
z (2) ux, CA, t
Fig. 3.2 : Eddy Diffusion

It is characterized by motion of the fluid particles, which is irregular w.r.t. both direction and
time. For fluid flowing turbulently in a duct, the flow is in the net, in the axial (X) direction. At
any location (2) within the content region of the cross section, the time average of the velocity
may be 4x, but at any instant the velocity will actually be 4x + 4x where uix is deviating or
fluctuating velocity. The values of u’is will vary with time through a range of (+ve) and (–ve)
value, the time average being zero, through
Ux1 = (uix1) 2 will be finite. … (3.16)

Although, the time average of u Z = 0, since the net flow is axially directed, the deviating
1
velocity in the Z – direction (i.e. ui Z) is non-zero at any instant. In case of fluid in turbulence,
eddy diffusion takes place in addition to molecular diffusion and overall rate is given by :
∂C
A
NA = – (DB + ED) ∂Z … (3.17)
where, DB = Molecular diffusivity.
ED = Eddy Diffusivity.
Note :
(i) The eddy diffusivity depends on flow pattern and the position (Z) in addition to physical
properties of the fluid.
(ii) For this reason, simplified methods have been developed to evaluate mass transfer rates
in case of turbulent flow.
(iii) Analogy between momentum, mass and heat also provides an alternative method for
estimation of mass transfer coefficient and their by the transfer rate in case of turbulent
condition.
3.6 MODELS FOR MASS TRANSFER AT A FLUID-FLUID INTERFACE (THEORIES
OF MASS TRANSFER)
The mechanism of transfer can be explained by various theories, important one are as under :
(a) Whitman’s two-film theory (1923)
(b) Higbie’s penetration theory (1935)
(c) Danckwert’s surface renewal theory (1951)
(d) Toor and Marchello’s film penetration theory (1958)
Theories of Mass Transfer :
Of greater interest in separation processes is mass transfer across an interface between a gas
and a liquid or between two liquid phases. Such interfaces exist in absorption, distillation,
extraction and stripping.
pA Bulk Liquid pA
Liquid
film
cAi cAi Well-mixed

bulk region
Gas Gas
cAb at cAb
cAb
Interfacial
region
z=0 z = dL
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.3 : Theories for mass transfer from a fluid-fluid interface into a liquid : (a) Film theory;
(b) Penetration and surface-renewal theories
At fluid-fluid interfaces, turbulence may persist to the interface. The following theoretical
models have been developed to describe mass transfer from a fluid to such an interface.
1. Film Theory :
A simple theoretical model for turbulent mass transfer to or from a fluid-phase boundary was
suggested in 1904 by Nernst, who postulated that the entire resistance to mass transfer in a given
turbulent phase is in a thin, stagnant region of that phase at the interface, called a film. This is
shown schematically in Fig. 3.3 (a) for the case of a gas-liquid interface, where the gas is pure
component A, which diffuses into non-volatile liquid B. Thus, a process of absorption of A into
liquid B takes place, without desorption of B into gaseous A. Because the gas is pure A at total
pressure P = pA, there is no resistance to mass transfer in the gas phase. At the gas-liquid
interface, equilibrium is assumed so the concentration of A, cA, is related to the partial pressure of
A, pA, by some form of Henry's law, for example, cAi = HApA. In the thin, stagnant liquid film of
thickness δ, molecular diffusion only occurs with a driving force of cAi – cAb . Since the film is
assumed to be very thin, all of the diffusing A passes through the film and into the bulk liquid. If,
in addition, bulk flow of A is neglected, the concentration gradient is linear as in Fig. 3.3 (a).
Accordingly, Fick's first law, for the diffusion flux integrates to
DAB cDAB
JA = (cAi – cAb) = (xAi – xAb) … (3.18)
δ δ
If the liquid phase is dilute in A, the bulk-flow effect can be neglected and (3.18) applies to
the total flux :
DAB cDAB
NA = (cAi – cAb) = (xAi – xAb) … (3.19)
δ δ
If the bulk-flow effect is not negligible, then, we have,
cDAB 1 – xAb cDAB
NA = ln  1 – x  = (x – xAb) … (3.20)
δ  Ai  δ (1 – xA)LM Ai
xAi – xAb
(1 – xA)LM = ln [(1 – x )/(1 – x )] = (xB)LM … (3.21)
Ab Ai
In practice, the ratios DAB/δ in (3.19) and DAB/δ(1 – xA)LM in (3.20) are replaced by mass
'
transfer coefficients kc and kc , respectively, because the film thickness, δ, which depends on the
flow conditions, is not known.
The film theory, which is easy to understand and apply, is often criticized because it appears
to predict that the rate of mass transfer is directly proportional to the molecular diffusivity. This
dependency is at odds with experimental data, which indicate a dependency of Dn, where n ranges from
about 0.5 to 0.75. However, if DAB/δ is replaced with kc, which is then estimated from the
2/3
Chilton-Colburn analogy, we obtain kc proportional to DA/B , which is in better agreement with
experimental data. The theory has been and continues to be widely used in the design of mass
transfer separation equipment.
2. Penetration Theory – (Higbie, 1935) :
A more realistic physical model of mass transfer from a fluid-fluid interface into a bulk liquid
stream is provided by the penetration theory of Higbie, shown schematically in Fig. 3.3 (b). The
stagnant-film concept is replaced by Boussinesq eddies that, during a cycle, (1) move from the
bulk to the interface; (2) stay at the interface for a short, fixed period of time during which they
remain static so that molecular diffusion takes place in a directional normal to the interface; and
(3) leave the interface to mix with the bulk stream. When an eddy moves to the interface, it
replaces another static eddy. Thus, the eddies are intermittenty static and moving. Turbulence
extends to the interface.
In the penetration theory, unsteady-state diffusion takes place at the interface during the time
eddy is static. This process is governed by Fick's second law, with boundary conditions.
cA = cAb at t = 0 for 0 ≤ z ≤ ×; cA = cAi at z = 0 for t > 0; and cA = cAb at z = × for t > 0.
These are the same boundary conditions as in unsteady-state diffusion in a semi-infinite

medium. Thus, the solution can be written as
cAi – cA
 z 
cAi – cAb = erf 2 DAB tc … (3.22)
 
where, tc = "contact time" of the static eddy at the interface during one cycle. The
corresponding average mass transfer flux of A in the absence of bulk flow is given by the
following form of equation :
DAB
NA = 2 (cAi – cAb) … (3.23)
πtc
or NA = kc (cAi – cAb ) … (3.24)
Thus, the penetration theory gives
DAB
kc = 2 πtc … (3.25)
which predicts that kc is proportional to the square root of the molecular diffusivity, which is at the
lower limit of experimental data. The penetration theory is most useful when mass transfer involves
bubbles or droplets, or flow over random packing. For bubbles, the contact time, tc, of the liquid
surrounding the bubble is taken as the ratio of bubble diameter to bubble rise velocity. For
example, an air bubble of 0.4 cm diameter rises through water at a velocity of about 20 cm/s.
Thus, the estimated contact time, tc, is 0.4/20 = 0.02s.
3. Surface Renewal Theory (Danckwerts, 1951) :
The penetration theory is not satisfying because the assumption of a constant contact time for
all eddies that temporarily reside at the surface is not reasonable, especially for stirred tanks,
contactors with random packings, and bubble and spray columns where the bubbles and droplets
cover a wide range of sizes. In 1951, Danckwerts suggested an improvement to the penetration
theory that involves the replacement of the constant eddy contact time with the assumption of a
residence-time distribution, wherein the probability of an eddy at the surface being replaced by a
fresh eddy is independent of the age of the surface eddy.
The instantaneous mass transfer rate for an eddy with an age t is given by (3.23) for the
penetration theory in flux form as,
DAB
NAt = (cAi – cAb) … (3.26)
πt
The integrated average is
∞
(NA)avg = ⌠ φ {t} NA dt … (3.27)

⌡ t
0
Danckwerts selected the model for his surface renewal theory, using the corresponding φ {t}
function :
φ {t} = se–st … (3.28)
1
where, s = t = fractional rate of surface renewal
Combining (3.26), (3.27) and (3.28) and integrating :
(NA)avg = DABs (cAi – cAb) … (3.29)
Thus, kc = DABs … (3.30)

4. Film-Penetration Theory (Toor and Marchello, 1958) :

Toor and Marchello in 1958, combined features of the film, penetration and surface renewal
theories to develop a film-penetration model, which predicts a dependency of the mass transfer
coefficient kc, on the diffusivity, that varies from DAB to DAB. Their theory assumes that the
entire resistance to mass transfer resides in a film of fixed thickness δ. Eddies move to and from
the bulk fluid and this film. Age distributions for time spent in the film are of the Higbie or
Danckwerts type.
Fick's second law, still applies, but the boundary conditions are now
cA = cAb at t = 0 for 0 ≤ z ≤ ×.
cA = cAi at z = 0 for t > 0; and cA = cAb at z = δ for t > 0
Infinite-series solutions are obtained by the method of Laplace transforms. The rate of mass
transfer is then obtained in the usual manner by applying Fick's first law at the fluid-fluid
interface. For small t, the solution, given as,
DAB1/2 1 + 2 ∑ exp – n2δ2 
x
At = (cAi – cAb ) … (3.31)
 πt   n=1  DABt
converges rapidly. For large t,
DAB  x
DABt 
NAt = (cAi – cAb )  1 + 2 ∑ exp – n2π2 2  … (3.32)
 δ  n=1  δ 
Equation with φ {t} from (3.28) can then be used to obtain average rates of mass transfer.
Again, we can write two equivalent series solutions, which converage at different rates. Equations
(3.29) and (3.30) become, respectively,
 x
 s 
NAavg = kc (cAi – cAb ) = (cAi – cAb ) 1 + 2
(sDAB)1/2 ∑ exp – 2nδ DAB … (3.33)
 n=1  
DAB  ∞ 
– cAb ) 
1
NAavg = kc (cAi – cAb ) = (cAi 
 δ  1+2 ∑ D  … (3.34)
n = 1 1 + n2π2 AB
 sδ2 
In the limit, for a high rate of surface renewal, sδ2/DAB, (3.33) reduces to the surface renewal
theory, (3.29). For low rates of renewal, (3.34) reduces to the film theory, (3.29). At conditions in
n
between, kc is proportional to DAB , where n is in the range of 0.5 to 1.0. The application of the
film-penetration theory is difficult because of lack of data on δ and s, but the predicted effect of
the molecular diffusivity brackets experimental data.
Salient Features :
(a) Two Film Theory :
Salient points relating to the two-film theory are :
(i) Resistance to transfer in the two phases on both sides of the interface is replaced by the
two fictitious films one on each side close to the interface.
(ii) The transfer in these films is by a steady process of molecular diffusion.
(iii) The concentration gradient is assumed to be linear in these films and zero outside.
(iv) The time taken for concentration gradient to establish is small compared to the time of
transfer or in other words, the film capacity is negligible.
(v) The theory assumes that the turbulence in the bulk fluids dies at the interface.
(vi) According to this theory, the mass transfer coefficients for different solvents transferred
under identical fluid flow conditions are proportional to their diffusivities.
(b) Penetration Theory :
Main features of this theory are :
(i) The time of exposure of a fluid to mass transfer is generally being short, establishment of
concentration gradient of film theory, characteristics of steady state, is not possible.
(ii) The transfer is largely due to fresh material brought to the interface by the eddies.
(iii) A process of unsteady transfer takes place for a fixed period at the freshly exposed
surface.
(iv) Each fluid element (eddy) resides for the same time interval at the surface.
(v) The mass transfer coefficient is proportional to the square root of diffusivity according to
this theory.
(c) Surface Renewal Theory :
This theory states that :
(i) Eddies of the fluid at the surface do not have constant exposure time, but are exposed to
varying lengths of time.
(ii) On the basis of exposure history, an age distribution for the surface elements is
calculated.
(iii) Mass transfer is proportional to the square root of the product of diffusivity and surface
renewal rate, is generally defined as the rate of production of fresh surface per unit total
area of surface.
(d) Film Penetration Theory :
This theory incorporates some salient features of both the two-film theory and the penetration
theory. The outlines of the theory are :
(i) Complete resistance to transfer is regarded as lying within a finite laminar film at the
interface.
(ii) The transfer process is regarded as an unsteady process.
(iii) Fresh surface is formed at the intervals from the fluid, which is brought to the interface
from the bulk by the eddies.
(iv) The transfer then takes place as in the penetration theory and material traversing the film
mixes with the bulk of the fluid immediately.
(v) For short exposure time, the process is identical to the postulation made in case of
penetration theory, whereas for long exposure time with a steady state concentration
gradient, conditions similar to two-film theory exist.
3.7 INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER
Our discussion of mass transfer in the previous chapter was limited to molecular diffusion,
which is a process resulting from a concentration gradient. In system involving liquids or gases,
however, it is very difficult to eliminate convection from the overall mass transfer process. Mass
transfer by convection involves the transport of material between a boundary surface (such as
solid or liquid surface) and a moving fluid or between two relatively immiscible, moving fluids.
There are two different cases of convective mass transfer :
(1) Mass transfer takes place only in a single phase either to or from a phase boundary, as in
sublimation of naphthalene (solid form) into the moving air.
(2) Mass transfer takes place in the two contacting phases as in extraction and absorption.
In the first few section we will see equation governing convective mass transfer in a single
fluid phase.
3.8 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
In the study of convective heat transfer, the heat flux is connected to heat transfer coefficient
as,
Q
A = q = h (ts – tm) … (3.35)
The analogous situation in mass transfer is handled by an equation of the form
NA = kc (CAs – CA) … (3.36)
The molar flux NA is measured relative to a set of axis fixed in space. The driving force is the
difference between the concentration at the phase boundary, CAS (a solid surface or a fluid
interface) and the concentration at some arbitrarily defined point in the fluid medium, CA. The
convective mass transfer coefficient kC is a function of geometry of the system and the velocity
and properties of the fluid similar to the heat transfer coefficient, h.
3.9 SIGNIFICANT PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER
Dimensionless parameters are often used to correlate convective transfer data. In momentum
transfer Reynolds number and friction factor play a major role. In the correlation of convective
heat transfer data, Prandtl and Nusselt numbers are important. Some of the same parameters,
along with some newly defined dimensionless numbers, will be useful in the correlation of
convective mass transfer data. The molecular diffusivities of the three-transport process
(momentum, heat and mass) have been defined as :
µ
Momentum diffusivity, v = … (3.37)
ρ
k
Thermal diffusivity, α = … (3.38)
ρ Cp
and Mass diffusivity DAB … (3.39)
2
It can be shown that each of the diffusivities has the dimensions of L / t, hence, a ratio of any
of the two of these must be dimensionless. The ratio of the molecular diffusivity of momentum to
the molecular diffusivity of heat (thermal diffusivity) is designated as the Prandtl Number,
Momentum Diffusivity v Cp µ
Thermal Diffusivity = Pr = = K … (3.40)
α
The analogous number in mass transfer is Schmidt number given as,
Momentum diffusivity v µ
Mass diffusivity = Sc = D = … (3.41)
AB ρDAB
The ratio of the molecular diffusivity of heat to the molecular diffusivity of mass is
designated the Lewis Number, and is given by,
Thermal diffusivity α k
Mass diffusivity = Le = DAB = ρ Cp DAB … (3.42)
Lewis number is encountered in processes involving simultaneous convective transfer of

mass and energy.
n¥ cAS – cA¥
y
cAS – cA = [cAS – cA] (y)
n = n(y)
Fig. 3.4 : Concentration and Velocity Profiles for a Fluid Flowing Past a Solid Surface
Let us consider the mass transfer of solute A from a solid to a fluid flowing past the surface of
the solid. The concentration and velocity profile is depicted in Fig. (3.3). For such a case, the mass
transfer between the solid surface and the fluid may be written as,
NA = kc (CAs – CA∞) … (3.43)
Since the mass transfer at the surface is by molecular diffusion, the mass transfer may also
described by,
dCA
NA = – DAB dy … (3.44)
y=0
When the boundary concentration, CAs is constant, equation (3.44) may be written as,
d (CA – CAs)
NA = – DAB dy … (3.45)
y=0
Equation (3.43) and (3.44) may be equated, since they define the same flux of component A
leaving the surface and entering the fluid
d
kc (CAs – CA∞) = – DAB dy (CA – CAs) … (3.46)
y=0
This relation may be rearranged into the following form :
kc d (CA – CAs)/dy
DAB = – … (3.47)
(CA – CA∞)
y=0
Multiplying both sides of equation (3.47) by a characteristic length, L we obtain the following
dimensionless expression :
d (CA – CAs)/dy
kc L y=0
DAB = – (CAS – CA∞)/L … (3.48)
The right hand side of equation (3.48) is the ratio of the concentration gradient at the surface
to an overall or reference concentration gradient; accordingly, it may be considered as the ratio of
molecular mass transport resistance to the convective mass transport resistance of the fluid. This
ratio is generally known as the Sherwood number, Sh and analogous to the Nusselt number Nu,
in heat transfer.
3.10 APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONLESS ANALYSIS TO MASS TRANSFER
One of the method of obtaining equations for predicting mass transfer coefficients is the use
of dimensionless analysis. Dimensional analysis predicts the various dimensionless parameters,
which are helpful in correlating experimental data. There are two important mass transfer
processes, which we shall consider, the transfer of mass into a steam flowing under forced
convection and the transfer of mass into a phase which is moving as the result of natural
convection associated with density gradients.
3.10.1 Transfer Into a Stream Flowing Under Forced Convection
Consider the transfer of mass from the walls of a circular conduit to a fluid flowing through
the conduit. The mass transfer is due to the concentration driving force CAs – CA.
The important variables, their symbols and their dimensions are listed in the Table (3.2).
Table 3.2
Variable Symbol Dimensions
tube diameter D L
fluid density ρ M/L3
fluid viscosity µ M/Lt
fluid velocity v L/t

fluid diffusivity DAB L2/t
mass transfer coefficient kc L/t
These variables include terms descriptive of the system geometry, the flow and fluid
properties and the quantity of importance, kc.
Example 1 : Application of the Buckingham Pi Theorem :
By the Buckingham method of grouping the variables, the number of dimensionless π groups
is equal to the number of variables minus the number of fundamental dimensions. Hence the
number of dimensionless group for this problem will be three. With DAB, ρ and D as the core
variables, the three π groups to be formed are,
a
π1 = DAB ρb Dc kc … (3.49)
d
π2 = DAB ρe Df v … (3.50)
g
and π3 = DAB ρh Di µ … (3.51)
Substituting the dimensions for π,
a
π1 = DAB ρb Dc kc … (3.52)
2 a b
1 = L  M (L)c L … (3.53)
 t  L3 t
Equating the exponents of the fundamental dimensions on both sides of the equation, we
have,
L : 0 = 2a – 3b + c + 1
t : 0=–a–1
M : 0=b
Solving these equations, a = –1, b = 0 and c = 1
kc D
Thus, π1 = D which is the Sherwood number.
AB
The other two π groups could be determined in the same manner, yielding
Dv
π2 = D … (3.54)
AB
µ
and π3 = = Sc … (3.55)
ρ DAB
which is termed as Schmidt Number
 Dv 
π2 DAB Dv ρ
Dividing π2 by π3, we get, = µ = µ = Re … (3.56)
π3  
ρ D 
 AB
which is the Reynolds Number.
The result of the dimensional analysis of mass transfer by forced convection in a circular
conduit indicates that a correlating relation could be of the form,
Sh = f (Re, Sc) … (3.57)
Which is analogous to the heat transfer correlation
Nu = f (Re, Pr) … (3.58)
Example 2 : Application of the Buckingham π-Theorem :
To relate mass transfer coefficient to known variables :
kc = f (L, ρ µ, v, DAB)
The total number of variables, Nv (including kc) = 6.
In terms of basic dimensions M (mass), L (length), T (time) :
kc = L/T; ρ = M/L3; µ = M/L; v = L/T; DAB = L2/T
The total number of basic variables (M, L and T), Nb = 3.
Then according to the Buckingham Pi theorem on dimensional analysis, the number of
dimensionless groups are Nv – Nb = 6 – 3 = 3.
We choose the variables L, ρ and DAB to be the variables common and form the 3
dimensionless groups :
P1 = (DAB)a (ρ)b (L)c Kc
P2 = (DAB)a (ρ)b (L)c v
P3 = (DAB)a (ρ)b (L)c µ
In P1 (which has a dimension of 1), let us substitute the actual dimensionless as follows :
1 = (L2/T)a (M/L3)b (L)c (L/T)
Summing up each exponent,
L : 0 = 2a – 3b + c + 1
M : 0=b
T : 0=–a–1
Solving these : a = – 1, b = 0, c = 1. Thus,
P1 = kcL/DAB
Repeating these operations for P2 and P3, and rearranging the groups, we get :
Sh = f (Re, Sc)
which is the most common way mass transfer correlations are presented.
3.10.2 Transfer Into a Phase Whose Motion is Due to Natural Convection
Natural convection currents develop if there exists any variation in density within the fluid
phase. The density variation may be due to temperature differences or to relatively large
concentration differences. In the case of natural convection involving mass transfer from a
vertical plane wall to an adjacent fluid, the variables of importance are listed in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Variable Symbol Dimensions
characteristic length L L
fluid diffusivity DAB L2/t
fluid density ρ M/L3
fluid viscosity µ M/LT
byoyant force g ∆ρA M/L2t2
mass transfer coefficient kc L/t
According to Buckingham theorem, there will be three dimensionless groups. Choosing DAB,
L and µ as the core variables, the π groups to be formed are,
a
π1 = DAB Lb µc kc … (3.59)
d
π2 = DAB Le µf ρ … (3.60)
g
and π3 = DAB Lh µi g ∆ ρ A … (3.61)
Solving for the dimensionless groups, we obtain,
kc L
π1 = D = Nu, the Nusselt number … (3.62)
AB
ρ DAB 1
π2 = µ = S , the reciprocal of Schmidt number
c
L3 g ∆ ρ A
and π3 = µ DAB … (3.63)
With the multiplication of π2 and π3, we obtain a dimensionless parameter analogous to the
Grash of number in heat transfer by natural convection,
3
ρ DAB L g ∆ ρA
π2 π3 =  µ   µD 
   AB 
L3 ρ g ∆ ρ A
= = GrAB … (3.64)
µ2
The result of the dimensional analysis of mass transfer by natural convection indicates that a
correlating relation could be of the form,
Sh = f (GrAB, Sc) … (3.65)
3.11 ANALOGIES AMONG MASS, HEAT AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER

Analogies among mass, heat and momentum transfer have their origin either in the
mathematical description of the effects or in the physical parameters used for quantitative
description. To explore those analogies, it could be understood that the diffusion of mass and
conduction of heat obey very similar equations. In particular, the Fick’s Law as describes
diffusion in one dimension.
dCA
JA = – DAB dz … (3.66)
Similarly, Fourier's law as describes heat conduction

dT
q = – K dz … (3.67)
Where K is the thermal conductivity.

The similar equation describing momentum transfer as given by Newton's law is,
dv
τ = µ dz … (3.68)
Where τ is the momentum flux (or shear stress) and µ is the viscosity of fluid. At this point it
has become conventional to draw an analogy among mass, heat and momentum transfer. Each
process uses a simple law combined with a mass or energy or momentum balance. In this section,
we shall consider several analogies among transfer phenomenon, which has been proposed
because of the similarity in their mechanisms. The analogies are useful in understanding the
transfer phenomena and as a satisfactory means for predicting behaviour of systems for which
limited quantitative data are available. The similarity among the transfer phenomena and
accordingly the existence of the analogies require that the following five conditions exist within
the system.
(i) The physical properties are constant.
(ii) There is no mass or energy produced within the system. This implies that there is no
chemical reaction within the system.
(iii) There is no emission or absorption of radiant energy.
(iv) There is no viscous dissipation of energy.
(v) The mass transfer does not affect the velocity profile. This implies there should be a low
rate of mass transfer.
Heat, Mass and Momentum Transfer Analogies :
• The molecular diffusion equations are quite similar for fluid flow (Newton's law), for
heat conduction (Fourier's law) and for mass diffusion (Fick's law). Thus, we have
analogies (or similarities) among these three molecular transport processes.
• For convection, the analogies are not easily defined as turbulent flow is difficult to
analyse. Over the years several analogies have been proposed. Among the most obvious
being : the eddy diffusivities in heat, mass and momentum transfer are equal. However,
in practice this analogy does not work and in general none of the eddy diffusivities are
known.
• The most successful and most widely used analogy is the Chilton-Colburn J-factor
analogy. The analogy is based on experiment data for gases and liquids in both laminar
and turbulent flow and is given by :
f/2 = JH = JM
where, f = Fanning friction factor
JH = (StH) (Pr)2/3
JM = (StM) (Sc)2/3
where, StH = Stanton number for heat transfer = Nu/(Re.Pr)
Nu = Nusselt number, hL/k
Pr = Prandtl number, Cpµ/k
• The Chilton-Chilton analogy entirely satisfies the exact solution derived theoretically for
laminar flow over flat plate.
• The equation for transport analog is valuable in estimating convective mass transfer
coefficient when friction factor or heat transfer coefficient for a particular case is known
and vice-versa. Since instruments for concentration measurements are expensive, the
above method of using analogies to derive mass transfer correlation is widely used.
3.11.1 Reynolds Analogy
Osborne Reynolds reported the first recognition of the analogous behaviour of mass; heat and
momentum transfer in 1874. Although his analogy is limited in application, it served as the base
for seeking better analogies. Reynolds postulated that the mechanisms for transfer of momentum,
energy and mass are identical. Accordingly,
kc h f
v∞ = =2 … (3.69)
ρv∞ Cp
Here h is heat transfer coefficient, f is friction factor, v∞ is velocity of free stream.
The Reynolds analogy is interesting because it suggests a very simple relation between
different transport phenomena. This relation is found to be accurate when Prandtl and Schmidt
numbers are equal to one. This is applicable for mass transfer by means of turbulent eddies in
gases. In this situation, we can estimate mass transfer coefficients from heat transfer coefficients
or from friction factors.
3.11.2 Chilton – Colburn Analogy
Because the Reynold’s analogy was practically useful, many authors tried to extend it to
liquids. Chilton and Colburn, using experimental data, sought modifications to the Reynold’s
analogy that would not have the restrictions that Prandtl and Schmidt numbers must be equal to
one. They defined for the j factor for mass transfer as,
kc
jD = v (Sc) 2/3 … (3.70)
∞
The analogous factor for heat transfer is,

jH = St pr2/3 … (3.71)
Nu h
where, St is Stanton number = Re Pr =
ρ v∞ C p
Based on data collected in both laminar and turbulent flow regimes, they found
f
jD = jH = 2 … (3.72)
This analogy is valid for gases and liquids within the range of 0.6 < Sc < 2500 and
0.6 < Pr < 100. The Chilton-Colburn analogy has been observed to hold for many different
geometries for example, flow over flat plates, flow in pipes, and flow around cylinders.
3.11.3 Taylor – Prandtl Analogy
It is modification over Reynolds analogy and presence of the laminar sub-layer in the path of
transfer is considered. The expressions developed in this analogy are :
(i) For Heat-Transfer :
f
h 2
CP G (Stanton No.) = f
… (3.73)
1+ 2 (Pr – 1)
hD
(ii) For Mass Transfer : U = Stanaton number for mass transfer
f
2
= … (3.74)
f
1+ 2 (SC – 1)
3.12 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER CORRELATIONS

Extensive data have been obtained for the transfer of mass between a moving fluid and
certain shapes, such as flat plates, spheres and cylinders. The techniques include sublimation of a
solid, vapourization of a liquid into a moving stream of air and the dissolution of a solid into
water. These data have been correlated in terms of dimensionless parameters and the equations
obtained are used to estimate the mass transfer coefficients in other moving fluids and
geometrically similar surfaces.
3.12.1 Flat Plate
From the experimental measurements of rate of evapouration from a liquid surface or from
the sublimation rate of a volatile solid surface into a controlled air-stream, several correlations are
available. These correlation have been found to satisfy the equations obtained by theoretical
analysis on boundary layers,
1/2
Sh = 0.664 ReL Sc1/3 (laminar) ReL < 0.3 × 105 … (3.75)
0.8
Sh = 0.036 ReL Sc1/3 (turbulent) ReL > 3 × 105 … (3.76)
Using the definition of j factor for mass transfer on equation (3.75) and (3.76) we obtain,
–1/2
jD = 0.664 ReL (laminar) ReL < 3 × 105 … (3.77)
0.2
JD = 0.037 ReL (turbulent) ReL > 3 × 105 … (3.78)
These equations may be used if the Schmidt number in the range 0.6 < Sc < 2500.
3.12.2 For Flow Around Single Sphere
Correlations for mass transfer from single spheres are represented as addition of terms
representing transfer by purely molecular diffusion and transfer by forced convection, in the form
Sh = Sho + CRem + Scn … (3.79)
Where C, m and n are constants, the value of n is normally taken as 1/3.
For very low Reynold’s number, the Sherwood number should approach a value of 2. This
value has been derived in earlier sections by theoretical consideration of molecular diffusion from
a sphere into a large volume of stagnant fluid. Therefore the generalized equation becomes,
Sh = 2 + CRem Sc1/3 … (3.80)
For mass transfer into liquid streams, the equation given by Brain and Hales :
2/3 1/2
Sh = 4 + 1.21 Pe  … (3.81)
 AB 
Correlates the data that are obtained when the mass transfer Peclet number, PeAB is less than
10,000. This Peclet number is equal to the product of Reynolds and Schmidt numbers,
PeAB = Re Sc … (3.82)
For Peclet numbers greater than 10,000, the relation given by Levich is useful,
1/3
Sh = 1.01 PeAB … (3.83)
The relation given by Froessling,
Sh = 2 + 0.552 Re1/2 Sc1/3 … (3.84)
Correlates the data for mass transfer into gases for at Reynold’s numbers ranging from 2 to
800 and Schmidt number ranging 0.6 to 2.7.
For natural convection mass transfer the relation given by Schutz :
Sh = 2 + 0.59 (GrAB Sc) 1/4 … (3.85)
8 10
is useful over the range 2 × 10 < Gr AB Sc < 1.5 × 10
3.12.3 For Flow Around Single Cylinder
Several investigators have studied the rate of sublimation from a solid cylinder into air
flowing normal to its axis. Bedingfield and Drew correlated the available data in the form,
kG P·Sc0.56
Gm = 0.281 (Re')–0.4
Which is valid for 400 < Re' < 25000 … (3.86)
and 0.6 < Sc < 2.6
Where Re' is the Reynold’s number in terms of the diameter of the cylinder, Gm is the molar
mass velocity of gas and P is the pressure.
3.12.4 Flow Through Pipes
Mass transfer from the inner wall of a tube to a moving fluid has been studied extensively.
Gilliland and Sherwood, based on the study of rate of vapourization of nine different liquids into
air given the correlation,
pB‚ lm
Sh P = 0.023 Re0.83 Sc0.44 … (3.87)
Where pB, lm is the log mean composition of the carrier gas, evaluated between the surface
and bulk stream composition. P is the total pressure. This expression has been found to be valid
over the range, 2000 < Re < 35000, 0.6 < Sc < 2.5.
Linton and Sherwood modified the above relation making it suitable for large ranges of
Schmidt number. Their relation is given as,
Sh = 0.023 Re0.83 Sc1/3 … (3.88)
and found to be valid for 2000 < Re < 70000 and 1000 < Sc < 2260.
3.12.5 Mass Transfer to Suspension of Small Particles
Mass transfer from or to small suspended particles in an agitated solution occurs in number
of process applications.
For example,
(i) In liquid phase hydrogenation, H2 diffuses from the gas bubbles through an organic
liquid and then to small suspended particles.
(ii) In fermentation process O2 diffuse from small gas bubbles through the aqueous medium
and then to a small suspended micro-organisms. To predict mass transfer coefficient from small
gas bubbles such as O2/air to the liquid phase, or from liquid phase to the surface of small
catalyst particles, other solids or liquid drops, following correlation is used :
' 2 DAB –0.67 ∆ ρ µC g 0.33
kL = D + 0.31 NSC  2  … (3.89)
P
 C 
ρ
where, DAB = Diffusivity of A in solution, m2/s
DP = Diameter of gas bubble or solid particle, m
µC = Viscosity of solution, kg/m. sec.
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.80 m/s2
∆ρ = ρC – ρP or ρP – ρC, kg/m3
where, ρC = Density of continuous phase, kg/m3
ρP = Density of gas or solid particle, kg/m3
Note that ∆ρ is always positive.
3.12.6 Mass Transfer in Packed Beds
The mass transfer to and from packed beds occurs often in processing operations and many
other mass transfer operations of gases or liquids by solid particles such as charcoal and mass
transfer of gases and liquids to catalyst particles. Using a packed bed, a large amount of mass
transfer area can be contained in a relatively small volume.
The void fraction, ∈ in a packed bed is given by :
Volume of void m3
∈ = Total volume , 3
m
The value of ∈ varies from 0.3 to 0.5. For mass transfer of liquid in packed bed, the
correlation is given by :
Wilson–Geankoplis (1966) correlation :
1.09 –0.67
(i) JD = · NRe … (3.90)
∈
for NRe ⇒ 0.0016 – 55
NSC ⇒ 165 – 70,600
0.250 –0.31
(ii) JD = NRe … (3.91)
∈
for NRe ⇒ 55 – 1500

NSC ⇒ 165 – 10,690
kC'
(iii) JD = V (NSC) 0.67 … (3.92)
3.12.7 Mass Transfer in Boundry Layer
In a turbulent boundry layer zone, the velocity of flow is sufficiently large in which case
Reynolds number is, Rex > 3 × 106 … (3.93)
(i) Laminar boundry wall thickness at a distance x from leading edge of plate is given
(x)
by : δ = 4.64 … (3.94)
(Rex)0.5
(ii) Boundry layer wall thickness (δ) for turbulent flow at a distance x from leading edge of
(x)
plate is given by : δ = 0.376 … (3.95)
(Rex)0.5
3.13 MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN PHASES
Instead of a fluid in contact with a solid, suppose we now consider two immiscible fluids,
designated 1 and 2, in contact with each other. If fluid 1 has dissolved in it a substance A that is
also soluble in fluid 2, then as soon as the two fluids are brought together, substance A will begin
to diffuse into fluid 2. As long as the two phases remain in contact, the transport of A will
continue until a condition of equilibrium is reached. The situation discussed here occurs in a
variety of engineering processes such as gas absorption, stripping, and in liquid – liquid
extraction. In all these separation processes, two immiscible fluids are brought into contact and
one or more components are transferred from one fluid phase to the other. In the system of fluids
1 and 2 with A, the transported component, the concentration gradients in the region of the
interface between the two fluids are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
Fluid 1 Fluid 2
CA,i C A2
C A1
CA,i
C*A
Fig. 3.5 : Concentration gradients near the interface between immiscible fluids 1 and 2
Concentration CA1 and CA2 are the bulk phase concentrations.
in fluids 1 and 2, respectively, CAi is the concentration of A at the interface, and NA is the
molar flux of A. For steady state conditions, we can define the flux of A as,
NA = kC (CA – CA ) = kc (CA – CA ) = KC (CA – CA ) … (3.96)
1 1 i 2 i 2 i 2
where kC = Individual mass transfer coefficient defined in terms of the concentration
difference in a single phase.
KC = Overall mass transfer coefficient defined in terms of the overall difference in
composition.
Equation (3.96) is analogous to that in heat transfer, where the individual coefficients h are
related to the overall coefficient U. From equation (3.96),
1 1 1
kc + kc = K
C
… (3.97)
1 2
In equation (3.96), the potential for mass transfer is exposed in terms of composition.
However, this is not always the most convenient way to express it. For example, if fluid 1 is a gas
and fluid 2 a liquid, as in gas absorption, the potential in gas phase is often expressed in terms of
partial pressures, while that in the liquid phase may be expressed in terms of concentrations. The
expression for the molar flux is then written for the individual phases as :
NA = KP (PAG – PAi) = KC (CAi – CA ) … (3.98)
L
where, KP = Individual mass transfer coefficient for the gas phase with the
potential defined in terms of partial pressure.
,
PAG AC = Partial pressure and concentration of A in the bulk gas and liquid
L
phases, respectively.
PAi, CAi = Partial pressure and concentration of A, respectively, at the interface.
At interface, it is usually assumed that the two phases are in equilibrium and equilibrium
relationship is given by,
PAi = H · CAi … (3.99)
The flux NA can also be expressed in terms of overall mass transfer coefficient as :
NA = KP (PAG – PAE) = Kc (CAE – CAL) … (3.100)
where,
Kp = Overall mass transfer coefficient with the overall potential defined in terms of
partial pressures.
Kc = Overall mass transfer coefficient with the overall potential defined in terms of
concentrations.
PAE , CAE = Equilibrium composition.
PAE is related to the bulk liquid composition CAL AS
PAE = HCAL … (3.101)
PAG
Similarly, CAE = H … (3.102)
The relationship between the individual and overall coefficients is readily obtained through
the use of equations (3.98) to (3.102) as,
1 1 H H
Kp = k +k =K … (3.103)
p c c
In many system, mass transfer resistance is mainly in one phase. For example, gases such as
nitrogen and oxygen do not dissolve much in liquids. Their Henry’s law constant H is very large,
thus K c ≈ k c is a good approximation. In this case, the liquid phase controls the mass transfer
press since mass transfer is slowest there.
3.14 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Diffusional mass transfer is generally accompanied by the transport of energy, even with in
an isothermal system. Since each diffusing constituent carries its own individual enthalpy, the
heat flux at a given plane is expressed as :
∑ –
q = N i Hi … (3.104)
i
–
where q is the heat flux due to diffusion of mass past the given plane, and Hi is the partial
molar enthalpy of constituent i in the mixture. When there is a temperature difference, energy
transfer also occurs by one of the three heat transfer mechanisms (conduction, convection,
radiation); for example, the equation for energy transport by convection and molecular diffusion
becomes,
–
q = h ∆ T + ∑ N i Hi … (3.105)
i
If the heat transfer is by conduction, the first term on the right hand side of equation (3.105)
k ∆T
becomes L where L is the thickness of the phase through which conduction takes place. The
most common examples of processes involving heat and mass transfer are condensation of mist
on a cold surface and in wet bulb thermometer. There are a number of such processes involving
simultaneous heat and mass transfer such as in formation of fog, and in cooling towers.
3.14.1 Condensation of Vapour On Cold Surface
A process important in many engineering processes Condensate
liquid film
as well as in day-to-day events involve the condensation Boundary of
gas film
of a vapour upon a cold surface. Examples of this process
include "sweating" on cold water pipes and the
condensation of moist vapour on a cold surface. Figure
illustrates the process which involves a film of condensed
T = T(z) T1
liquid following down a cold surface and a film of gas
through which the condensate is transferred by molecular
T2
diffusion. This process involves the simultaneous transfer
of mass and energy. The heat flux passing through the T3 yA = yA (z) yA1
liquid film is given by,
q = h1 (T2 – T3) … (3.106) yA2
This flux is also equal to the total energy transported

by convection and molecular diffusion in the gas film, i.e.,
q = hc (T1 – T2) + NA MA (H1 – H2) … (3.107)
z3 z2 z1
where MA is the molecular weight of the diffusing
Fig. 3.6 : Vapour Condensation on a cold
constituent A. H 1 and H 2 are enthalpies of the vapour at
surface
plane 1 and liquid at plane 2.
From equation (3.87) and (3.88),
q = h1 (T2 – T3) = hc (T1 – T2) + NA MA (H1 – H2) … (3.108)
The molar flux NA is calculated by diffusion through stagnant gas model as,
– CDAB dyA
NA = 1 – y dZ
A
Substituting the appropriate limits, the integral form of equation is :

(CDAB)avg
(y A1 – yA
2 )
NA = (Z2 – Z1) yB‚ lm … (3.109)
3.14.2 The Wet Bulb Thermometer

The another example of simultaneous heat
and mass transfer is that taking place in wet bulb
thermometer. This convenient device for
measuring relative humidity of air consists of
two conventional thermometers, one of which is
clad in a cloth nick wet with water. The unclad
dry-bulb thermometer measures the air’s
temperature. The clad wet-bulb thermometer
measures the colder temperature caused by
evapouration of the water. Air
We want to use this measured temperature
difference to calculate the relative humidity in Flow
air. This relative humidity is defined as the Wick
amount of water actually in the air divided by
the amount at saturation at the dry-bulb
Liquid
temperature. To find this humidity, we can write Reservoir
equation for the mass and energy fluxes as :
NA = kc (CA – CA) = ky (yA – yA)
i i Fig. 3.7 : Concept of wet bulb thermometer
… (3.110)
and q = h (Ti – T) … (3.111)
where CA and CA are the concentrations of water vapour at the wet bulb’s surface and in the
i
bulk of air, yA and yA are the corresponding mole fractions; Ti is the wet-bulb temperature, and T
i
is the dry bulb temperature. It can be noted that yAi is the value at saturation at Ti. In the air-film
surroundings the wet bulb, the mass and energy fluxes are coupled as :
NA λ = – q … (3.112)
where λ is the latent heat of vapourization of water
Thus, ky (yA – yA) λ = h (T – Ti)
i
λky
Rearranging, Ti = T – h (yA – yA) … (3.113)
i
From Chilton – colburn analogy, jH = jD
h kc
or 2 (Pr) 2/3 = v (Sc) 2/3 … (3.114)
ρ v Cp α
For gas Pr ≈ 1 and Sc ≈ 1. Therefore equation (3.114) becomes,

kc 1
h = Cp (as ky C ≈ ky ρ = kc)

λ
Ti = T – C (yAi – yA)
p
Where Cp is the humid heat of air. By similar method, the other industrial processes of
importance involving simultaneous heat and mass transfer such as humidification and drying can
be analyzed.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) A stream of air at 100-kPa pressure and 300 K is flowing on the top surface of a thin
flat sheet of solid naphthalene of length 0.2 m with a velocity of 20 m/sec. The other
data are :
–6 2
Mass diffusivity of naphthalene vapour in air = 6 × 10 m /sec
–5 2
Kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 × 10 m .sc
Concentration of naphthalene at the air-solid naphthalene interface
–5 3
= 1 × 10 k mole/m
Calculate :
(a) The overage mass transfer coefficient over the flat plate.
(b) The rate of loss of naphthalene from the surface per unit width.
Note : For heat transfer over a flat plate, convective heat transfer coefficient for
laminar flow can be calculated by the equation.
1/2
Nu = 0.664 ReL Pr1/3
You may use analogy between mass and heat transfer.
Sol. : Given : Correlation for heat transfer.
1/2
Nu = 0.664 ReL Pr1/3
The analogous relation for mass transfer is,
1/2
Sh = 0.664 ReL Sc1/3 … (1)
where Sh = Sherwood number = kL/DAB
ReL = Reynolds number = Lvρ/µ
Sc = Schmidt number = µ / (ρDAB)
k = Overall mass transfer coefficient
L = Length of sheet
DAB = Diffusivity of A in B
v = Velocity of air
µ = Viscosity of air
ρ = Density of air, and
µ/ρ = Kinematic viscosity of air.
Substituting for the known quantities in equation (1)
1/2 –5
k (0.2) (0.2) (0.20)  1.5 × 10  1/3
= 0.664  6 × 10–6 
6 × 10–6  1.5 × 10–5   
k = 0.014 m/sec (Ans.)
Rate of loss of naphthalene = k (CAi – CA∞)
= 0.014 (1 × 10–5 – 0) = 1.4024 × 10–7 k mole/m2 sec

Rate of loss per meter width = (1.4024 × 10–7) (0.2) = 2.8048 × 10–8 k mole/m.sec
= 0.101 g mole/m. hr. (Ans.)
(2) If the local Nusselt number for the laminar boundary layer that is formed over a flat
1/2
plate is Nux = 0.332 Rex Sc1/3
Obtain an expression for the average film-transfer coefficient kc, when the Reynolds
number for the plate is :
(a) ReL = 100000, (b) ReL = 1500 000
5
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Rex = 3 × 10 .
L
⌠ kc dx
⌡
– 0
Sol. : (a) kc = L
⌠ dx
⌡
0
kc x xvρ µ
By definition : Nux = D ; Rex = µ ; Sc = and
AB ρDAB
For ReL = 100 000; (which is less than the Reynolds number corresponding to Transition
5
value of 3 × 10 )
L 1 1
DAB
⌠ 0.332  µ 2 (Sc)3 x dx
xvρ
⌡  
– 0
kc = L
1/2
0.332 (Sc)1/3 vρ L
µ dx
= DAB ⌠ 1/2
L ⌡ x
0
vρ 1/2
Sc1/3  µ 
0.332 L
= 1
  DAB [x1/2]0
2 L
–
kc L 1/2
DAB = 0.664 ReL Sc1/3 (Ans.)
(b) For ReL = 1500000 (> 3 × 105)

Lt L
x dx 4/5 dx
⌠ 0.332 Re1/2 Sc 1/3
x +
⌠ 0.0292 Rex Sc1/3 x
⌡ ⌡
– 0 Lt
kc = DAB L
where Lt is the distance from the leading edge of the plane to the transition point where
Rex = 3 × 105.
 1/2
Lt
4/5
L

0.332 Sc1/3 vρ ⌠ dx + 0.0292 Sc 1/3 vρ
⌠
dx 
  µ  ⌡ x1/2 µ ⌡ x1/5 
–  0 Lt 
k c = DAB L
–
kc L L Vρ 4/5
Sx1/3 + 4/5 Sc1/3 [x4/5]L  µ 
1/2 0.0292
= 0.664 Ret
DAB t  
1/2 4/5 4/5
= 0.664 Ret Sc1/3 + 0.0365 Sc1/3 ReL – Ret 

–
kc L 1/2 4/5 4/5
DAB = 0.664 Ret Sc1/3 + 0.0365 ReL Sc1/3 – 0.0365 Ret Sc1/3
where, Ret = 3 × 105 (Ans.)

(3) The mass flux from a 5 cm diameter naphthalene ball placed in stagnant air at 40°°C
–3 2
and atmospheric pressure, is 1.47 × 10 mol/m . sec. Assume the vapour pressure of
naphthalene to be 0.15 atm at 40οC and negligible bulk concentration of naphthalene
in air. If air starts blowing across the surface of naphthalene ball at 3 m/s by what
factor will the mass transfer rate increase, all other conditions remaining the same ?
0.5 0.33
For spheres : Sh = 2.0 + 0.6 (Re) (Sc)
Where Sh is the Sherwood number and Sc is the Schmidt number. The viscosity and
–5 3
density of air are 1.8 × 10 kg/m.s and 1.123 kg/m , respectively and the gas constant is
3
82.06 cm . atm/mole.K.
kc L
Sol. : Sh = D
AB
where L is the characteristic dimension for sphere L = Diameter.

µ
Sc =
ρ DAB
Dvρ
Rc = µ
Mass flux, NA = Kc ∆C … (1)
Sh = 2.0 + 0.6 (Re)0.5 (Sc)0.33
kc D µ  0.33
0.5 
DAB = 2.0 + 0.6 (DVρ)   … (2)
ρDAB
–
also N = KG ∆ p A
kc
Therefore RT = KG
mole Kc –
Given : N = 1.47 × 10–3 2 = RT ∆ p A
m .sec
kc
0.15 – 0 = 1.47 × 10–3 × 10–4 mole
RT  1  cm2.sec
1.47 × 10–7
kc = 0.15 × 82.06 × (273 + 40)
= 0.0252 cm/sec
kc = 2.517 × 10–4 m/sec. … (3)
Estimation of DAB : From equation (2),

2.517 × 10–4 × 5 × 10–2
DAB = 2 (since v = 0)
Therefore, DAB = 6.2925 × 10–6 m2/sec.

And
kc × 5 × 10–2 –2
5 × 10 × 3 × 1.1230.5  1.8 × 10 –5
0.33
= 2 + 0.6   1.123 × 6.2925 × 10–6
6.2925 × 10–6  1.8 × 10–5   
7946 kc = 2 + 0.6 × (96.74) × (1.361)
kc = 0.0102 m/sec. … (4)
NA
(4) 2 0.0102
⇒ = = 40.5
(3) NA
1
2.517 × 10–4
Therefore, rate of mass transfer increases by 40.5 times the initial conditions. (Ans.)
o
(4) A solid disc of benzoic acid 3 cm in diameter is spin at 20 rpm and 25 C. Calculate the
rate of dissolution in a large volume of water. Diffusivity of benzoic acid in water is
–5 2
1.0 × 10 cm /sec, and solubility is 0.003 g/cc. The following mass transfer correlation
is applicable :
_ 1/3
Sh = 0.62 Re1/2 Sc
D2 ω ρ
Where Re = µ and ω is the angular speed in radians/time.
Sol. : Dissolution rate = N A S … (1)
Where NA = mass flux, and
S = surface area for mass transfer
NA = kc (CAs – CA∞) … (2)
Where CAs is the concentration of benzoic and at in water at the surface of the dose.
CA∞ is the concentration benzoic acid in water for and from the surface of the disc.
_ 1/3
Given : Sh = 0.62 Re1/2 Sc
1 1
kc D D2 ω ρ 2
= 0.62  µ  
µ 3
 ρ DAB
(i.e.) … (3)
DAB 
1 rotation = 2 π radian
Therefore 20 rotation per minute = 20 × 2 π radian/min
20
= 60 × 2 π radian/sec
For water ρ = 1 g/cm3 µ = 1 centipoise = 0.01 g/cm. sec.

1 1
µ 3
= 0.62 DAB  µ  
ωρ 2
From equation (3), kc
  ρ DAB
1
= 0.62 × 1.0 × 10 × 
(40 π/60) × 12
5
 0.01 
1
 0.01 3
1 × 1.0 × 10 
–5
kc = 8.973 × 10–4 cm/sec.

From equation (2), NA = 8.973 × 10u–4 (0.003 – 0)
= 2.692 × 10–6 g/cm2. sec
From equation (1), NAS = NA × (2πr2)
= 2.692 × 10–6 × (2π × 1.52)
= 3.805 × 10–5 g/sec
= 0.137 g/hr. (Ans.)
(5) Air at 1 atm is blown past the bulb of a mercury thermometer. The bulb is covered
with a wick. The wick is immersed in an organic liquid (molecular weight = 58). The
reading of the thermometer is 7.6°°C. At this temperature, the vapour pressure of the
liquid is 5 kPa. Find the air temperature, given that the ratio for heat transfer
coefficient to the mass transfer coefficient (psychrometric ratio) is 2 kJ/kg. Assume
that the air, which is blown, is free from the organic vapour.
Sol. : For simultaneous mass and heat transfer, heat flux q and mass flux NA are related as :
q = NA λ … (1)
where λ is the latent heat of vapourization Mass Flux is given by,
'
NA = kY (Yω – Y') … (2)
where, kY = Mass transfer coefficient
Yω' = Mass ratio of vapour in surrounding air at saturation; and
Y' = Mass ratio of vapour in surrounding air.
Convective heat flux is given by,
q = h (T – Tω) … (3)
where, h = heat transfer coefficient;
Tω = wet bulb temperature of air; and
T = dry bulb temperature of air.
Substituting for NA and q from equation (2) and equation (3) in equation (1),
h (T – Tω' ) = ky (T' – Y') λ

ω
λ (Yω' – Y')
T – Tω = h/kY … (4)
Given : Y' = 0; λ = 360 kJ/kg; h/kY = 2 kJ/kg.K; and Tω = 7.6o C

kg organic vapour at saturation
Yω' = kg dry air
5 58
= 101.3 – 5 29 = 0.1038
(360) (0.1038 – 0)
T – 7.6 = 2 = 18.69
T = 18.69 + 7.6 = 26.29oC
Temperature of air = 26.29oC (Ans.)
(6) Imagine that water is evaporating into initially dry air in the closed vessel as shown in
Fig. 3.8.
Air
c1(t)
Water
Fig. 3.8 : Evaporation of water in closed vessel
The vessel is isothermal at 25o C, so the water's vapour pressure is 23.8 mm Hg. This
vessel has 0.8 liter of water with 150 cm2 of surface area in a total volume of 19.2 litres.
After 3 minutes, the air is five percent saturated.
(a) What is mass transfer coefficient ?
(b) How long will it take to reach ninety percent saturation ?
Sol. : (a) The flux N1 at 3 minutes can be found from following expression.
(Vapour Concentration) (Air Volume)
N1 = (Liquid Area) (Time)
23.8 1 mol 273
0.05  760   22.4 liter 298 (18.4 liters)
   
=
(150 cm2) (180 second)
N1 = 4.39 × 10–8 mol/cm2 sec.
The concentration difference is that at the water's surface minus that in the bulk solution.
That at the water's surface is the value at saturation, that in bulk at short times is
essentially zero. Thus, mass transfer coefficient (k) is calculated as :
N1 = k (C1i – C1)
In this case, C1 = 0, since at water surface, the concentration value at saturation = 0
23.8 1 mol 273
∴ 4.39 × 10–8 = k  760 × 3 × 298 – 0

 3
22.4 × 10 cm 
So, k = 3.427 × 10–2 cm/sec.
(b) The time required for 90% saturation can be determined from a simple mass balance,
Accumulation = (Rate of evaporation)
in gas phase 
d
dt VC1 = N1.A
∴ = A k [C1 (sat.) – C1]
It is given that the air is initially dry,
So, at t = 0, C1 = 0
We use this condition to integrate the mass balance,
d
dt VC1 = A. k [C1 (sat)]
VC
1
d ⌠ C (sat.) = A k ⌠ dt
⌡ 1 ⌡
or, VC ln C1 (sat.) = A. k. t
1
C1
or, C1 (sat.) = 1 – e–(kA/V). t
Rearranging above equation, we get,
V
t = – kA
 C1 
ln 1 – C (sat.)
 1 
18.4 × 103 cm3
= ln (1 – 0.90)
3.4 × 10–2 cm × (150 cm2)
 sec
= 8.3 × 103 seconds
= 2.3 hours (Ans.)
(7) A bubble of O2 originally 0.1 cm in diameter is injected into excess stirred water as
shown in figure 3.9. After 7 minutes, the bubble is 0.054 cm in diameter. What is the
mass transfer coefficient ?
Size = f(t)
Fig. 3.9 : Illustration gas bubble in Ex. 7

Data : O2 concentration = 1.5 × 10–3 mole/liter.
Sol. : We write mass balance equation not on surrounding solution but on bubble itself.
So, writing mass balance,
d  4 3
dt C1 3 π r  = A . N1 … (1)
Where, N1 = – k [C1 (sat.) – 0] … (2)
2
A = 4πr … (3)
Putting equation (2) and (3) in equation (1) we get,
d  4 3 2
dt C 1 . 3 πr  = – 4πr . k [C1 (sat.) – 0] … (4)
Where, C1 = O2 concentration in the bubble at standard condition
1 mole
= 22.4 lit
C1 (sat.) = O2 concentration at saturation in water
= 1.5 × 10–3 mole /lit. (given)
dr C1 (sat.)
So, dt = –k C
1
k (1.5 × 10–3)
= –
 1 
22.4
dr
dt = – 0.0336 k … (5)
Integrating equation (5) using following boundary condition, t = 0, r = 0.05 cm
r = 0.05 – 0.034 kt
0.054
To find mass transfer coefficient k, put t = 420 sec. and r = 2 = 0.027 cm
0.054
So, 2 = 0.05 – 0.034 kt × k (420)
k = 1.63 × 10 –3 cm/sec. (Ans.)
(8) Bromine is being rapidly dissolved in water as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Its concentration is about half saturated in 3 minutes. What is the mass transfer
coefficient ?
c1(t)
Fig. 3.10 : Illustration of Bromine Liquid Drops in Ex. 8

Sol. : Mass balance equation may be written as,
d
dt VC1 = AN1 = A.k [C1 (sat.) – C1] … (1)
Equation (1) may be written in terms of interfacial area as,
dC1
dt = ka [C1 (sat.) – C1] … (2)
A
Where, a = V = Interfacial area per unit volume of aqueous solution. (m2/m3)
If we assume water initially contains no bromine.
at t = 0, C1 = 0
Using this boundary condition and integrating equation (2), we get,
dC1
= k. a. dt
[C1 (sat.) – C1]
ln, (C1 (sat.) – C1) = k. a.t
C1 (sat.)
ln  C
or  = k.a.t
 1 
C1 (sat)
or C1 = ekat
C1
C1 (sat.) = 1 – e–kat … (3)
Rearranging equation (3) we get,
1  C1 
k.a = – t ln 1 – C (sat.)
 1 
1
= – 3 min. ln (1 – 0.5)
k.a = 3.9 × 10–3 sec –1 (Ans.)
(9) Assume that 0.2 cm. diameter spheres of benzoic acid are backed into a bed like that
shown in Fig. 3.11.
The spheres have 23 cm2 surface per 1 cm3 of bed. Pure water flowing at a superficial
velocity of 5 cm/sec. into the bed is 62 % saturated with benzoic acid after it has passed
through 100 cm of bed. Predict the mass transfer coefficient.
z z z + Dz
c1(Z)
Fig. 3.11 : Packed Bed of benzoic acid spheres in Ex. 9
Sol. : To solve this problem, we depends on concentration difference used in definition of mass
transfer coefficient. Another way is to use empirical equations to find out the mass transfer
coefficient.
We choose this difference as the value at the sphere's surface minus that in the solution.
However, we can define different mass transfer coefficient by choosing the concentration
difference at various position in the bed.
For example, we can choose the concentration difference at the entrance of packed bed.
The flux N1 is given by :
N1 = k (C1 (sat.) – 0) … (1)
0.62 C1 (sat.) (5 cm/sec.) A
=
(23 cm2/cm3) (100 cm) A
= k C1 (sat.) … (2)
Where 'A' is the bed's cross-section,
Thus, k = 1.3 × 10–3 cm2/sec.
Alternatively, we can choose as our concentration difference that at a position Z in the
bed and write a mass balance on a differential volume A ∆ Z at this position :
(accumulation) = (flow in – flow out) + dissolution
Amount of
 
0
0 = A C1νo – C1  (A ∆ Z) a N1
 Z Z + δZ

Where a is the sphere surface area per bed volume. Substituting for N1 as
N1 = k (C1i – C1) and dividing by A∆Z, and taking the limit as ∆Z goes to zero, we get
dC1 ka
dZ = νo [C1 (sat.) – C1]
This is subject to the initial condition that, Z = 0, C1 = 0
Integrating, we obtain an exponential of the form
C1
– (ka/νo) Z
C1 (sat.) = 1 – e
Rearranging the equation and putting the known values, we get,
νo  C1 
k = aZ ln 1 – C (sat.)
   1 
– 5 cm/sec.
= ln (1 – 0.62)
(23 cm2/cm3) (100 cm)
= 2.1 × 10–3 cm/sec. (Ans.)
(10) Sherwood Number for Eqimolar Counter Diffusion :

For equimolar counter-diffusion from a sphere to a surrounding stationary infinite
medium, the mass flux NAi of the diffusing component A at the interface is given by
NAi = DA (CAi − CAb)/R where DA is the diffusivity, R the radius of the sphere and CAi
and CAb the molar concentrations of A at the interface and at a point far away from the
sphere. Show that the Sherwood number, based on the diameter of the sphere, is
equal to 2.
kcD
Sol. : Sherwood number SH = D
A
Here, kc = DA/R (since, NAi = DA (CAi − CAb)/R = kc (CAi − CAb)). Therefore,
DA D
Sh = R D
A
D
= R
2R
= R =2
Hence proved.
(11) Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy :
A stream of air at 100 kPa pressure and 300 K is flowing on the top surface of a thin
flat sheet of solid naphthalene of length 0.2 m with a velocity of 20 m/sec.
The other data are :
Mass diffusivity of naphthalene vapor in air = 6 × 10−6 m2/sec.
Kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 × 10−5 m2/sec.
Concentration of naphthalene at the air-solid naphthalene interface
= 1 × 10−5 kmol/m3.
Calculate :
(a) The average mass transfer coefficient over the flat plate.
Note : For heat transfer over a flat plate, convective heat transfer coefficient for
laminar flow can be calculated by the equation :
1/2
Nu = 0.664 ReL Pr1/3
You may use analogy between mass and heat transfer.
Sol. : Given : Correlation for heat transfer
1/2
Nu = 0.664 ReL Pr1/3
The analogous relation for mass transfer is,
1/2
Sh = 0.664 ReL Sc1/3 … (1)
where,
Sh = Sherwood number = kL/DAB
ReL = Reynolds number = Lνρ/µ
Sc = Schmidt number = µ/(ρDAB)
DAB = Diffusivity of A in B
k = Overall mass transfer coefficient
L = Length of sheet
ν = Velocity of air
µ = Viscosity of air
ρ = Density o air, and
µ/ρ = Kinematic viscosity of air
Substituting for the known quantities in equation (1),

1/2 −5 1/3
k(0.2)
= 0.664  (0.2) (20)  1.5 × 10 
6 × 10−6 1.5 × 10−5  6 × 10−6 
Rate of loss of naphthalene = k (CAi − CA∞)
kmol
= 0.014 (1 × 10−5 − 0) = 1.4024 × 10−7 m2.sec
kmol
Rate of loss per meter width = (1.4024 × 10−7) (0.2) = 2.8048 × 10−8 m.sec.
gmol
= 0.101 m.hr.
(12) Liquid A evaporates and diffuses through a stagnant gas B as shown in Fig. 3.12.
Assume that process is carried out isothermally at 25oC and total pressure 1 atm.
Calculate the molar flux and convective mass transfer coefficient when the level of
liquid A is 0.05 m below the top of the container. Assume that DAB = 1 × 10–5 m2/sec.
The more fraction of component A at gas liquid interface is 0.2. At the top of the
container, the mole fraction is 0.001.
Gas B Z = Z, CA = CA
Gas B
Z = 0, CA = CA 1
Gas A
Fig. 3.12 : Evaporation of Single Component

Sol. : (i) Molar flux may be calculated as,
Pt. DAB
NA = – (P–A1
–
– PA2 )
RTZ (PB,M)
– –
PA = yA. Pt ; PB = yB Pt
–
PA1 = 0.2 atm
– –
PB1 = Pt – PA1 = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8 atm
–
PA2 = 1 × 10–3 atm
–
PB2 = 0.999 atm
– –
– PB2 – PB1 0.999 – 0.8
So, PB,M = =
–
PB2
0.999
ln 0.8 
ln  –   
P 
 B1
–
PB,M = 0.8958 atm
atm. m3
R = 0.08206 kg mole K
Z = 0.05 m.
1 × 1 × 10–5 (0.2 – 0.001)
∴ NA =
0.08206 × 298 × 0.05(0.8958)
kg mole
NA = 1.816 × 10–6 (Ans.)
m2sec
(ii) Convective mass transfer coefficient, kg is given by
Pt. DAB
kg = –
RTZ (PB,M)
1 × 1 × 10–5
=
0.08206 × 298 × 0.05 (0.8958)
kg mole
kg = 9.13 × 10–6 (Ans.)
m2 sec. atm
(13) Air containing water soluble vapour is flowing up and water is flowing down in a
experimental column as shown in Fig. 3.13.
The water flow in 0.07 cm thick film is Almost Pure Air
3 cm/sec. The column diameter is 10 cm and Pure Water
the air is essentially well mixed. The z
diffusing coefficient in water of absorbed Dz
vapour is 1.8 × 10–5 cm2/sec. How long a
column is required to reach a gas
concentration in water having 10%
saturation ? Air & Water
Soluble Vapor
Data : You may use following mass
transfer relation.
νo 0.5
k = 0.69  Z 
Dν
 
Gas Dissolved
in Water
Fig. 3.13 : Gas Scrubbing in a Wetted-Wall Column
Sol. : We have to write a mass balance as the water in a differential column of height ∆ Z
So, (Accumulation) = (Flow in – Flow out) + (Absorption)
0 = [π dl νo C1_] Z – [π dl νo C1] Z + ∆Z + πd∆zk [C1 (sat.) – C1] … (1)
Where, d = Column diameter = 10 cm.

l = Film thickness = 0.07 cm
νo = Velocity = 3 cm/sec.
C1 = Vapour concentration in water.
Therefore, equation (1), can be written as,
dC1
0 = l νo dZ + k [C1 (sat.) – C1] … (2)
k is given by
Dνo 0.5
k = 0.69  Z  … (3)
 
∴
dC1 Dνo 0.5
0 = – lν3o dZ + 0.69  Z  [C1 (sat.) – C1]
   
It is given that the entering water is pure so, Z = 0, C1 = 0
Therefore, integrating equation (3), we get,
dC1 = 0.69 Dνo 0.5 C (sat.) – C
lνo dZ
 Z  [ 1 1] OR
 
lνo⌠ dC1
⌡ Dνo 0/5
= 0.69  Z  ⌠
[C1 (sat.) – C1]   ⌡ dz
1 
l νo ln {C1 (sat.) – C1} = – 0.69 (Dν0)0.5 . OR
 Z3/2
C1 [0.069 (Dν0) 0.05/lν0]
C1 (sat.) = e
C1 – 1.38 (DZ l2 ν0)0.5
C1 (sat.) = 1–e
Inserting the known values, we get,
 l ν  ln 1 – C1 2
2
1.90 D   C1(sat.) 
Z =
2
 (0.07 cm) (3 cm/sec.)  [ln (1 – 0.1)]2
=  
(1.90) × 1.8 × 10–5cm2/sec.
Z = 4.182 cm. (Ans.)
(14) A solid disc of benzoic acid 2.5 cm in diameter is spinning at 20 r.p.m. and 25oC.
How fast will it dissolve in a large volume of water ? How fast will it dissolve in a
large volume of air ? The diffusion coefficients are 1 × 10–5 cm2/sec. in water and
0.233 cm/sec. in air. The solubility of water is 0.003 gm/cm3, its equilibrium vapour
pressure is 0.30 mm Hg.
You may use following correlation to find mass transfer coefficient :
ω 1/2 V 1/3
k = 0.62 D   D
ν   
Sol. : The dissolution rate is given by
N1 = kC1 (sat)
Where, C1 (sat) is the concentration at equilibrium
For water, the mass transfer coefficient is,
cm2 (20.60) (2π,/sec) 1/2
k = 0.62 1 × 10–5 sec  
   0.01 cm2/sec. 
2
 0.01 cm /sec  1/3
× 1 × 10–5 cm2/sec
 
k = 0.90 × 10–3 cm/sec
Thus, the flux is,

cm
N1 = (0.90 × 10–3) sec × (0.003) gm/cm3
= 2.7 × 10–6 gm / cm2. sec

For air, the mass transfer coefficient is,
cm2 2
(20/60) (2π/sec) 1/2 ×  0.15 cm /sec  1/3
k = 0.62 0.233 sec 
   0.15 cm2/sec  0.233 cm2/sec
k = 0.47 cm/ sec.
The flux is,
N1 = 0.47 cm    0.3 mm Hg   1 mol  × 273 122 gm

 sec.  760 mm Hg 22.4 ∞ 10 cm  298  mol 
3 3
N1 = 0.9 × 10–6 gm/cm2 sec.

1rd
The flux in air is about 3 of that in water even though the mass transfer coefficient in
air is about 500 times larger than that in the water. (Ans.)
(15) Calculate convective mass transfer coefficient in a wetted wall tower for the transfer of
benzene into CO2 at OoC. The gas velocity through the column is 1.25 m/s. The
diameter of the column is 0.16 m. Assume that benzene concentration in CO2 is very
low.
Date : ρCO = 1.966 kg /m3
2
µCO2 = 1.35 × 10–5 kg/m.sec.
DAB = 5.28 × 10–6m2/sec.
Sol. : It is given that benzene concentration in CO2 is very low, hence for dilute solution,
–
PB,M = P
–
kcd PB,M
So, Sherwood Number ShM = P
ShM = kC d
µ 1.35 × 10–5
ν = = 1.966
ρ
= 6.8 × 10–6 m2/sec
µ n 6.8 × 10–6
Schmidt Number, SC = =D =
ρDAB AB 5.28 × 10–6
= 1.2878 × 103
dνρ dν 0.16 × 1.25
Reynolds Number, Re = µ = = = 29.411 × 103
ν 6.8 × 10–6
So, ShM = 0.023 Re0.82 Sc0.44
0.82
= 0.023 (29.411 × 103) (1.2878)0.44
= 118.642
kcd
and, ShM = D
AB
118.642 × 5.28 × 10–6

∴ kC = 0.16
kC = 0.003915 m/s (Ans.)
(16) Air flow through cylindrical tube made of naphthalene at velocity of 5 m/s. The
diameter of tube is 0.1 m and temperature of air is 293 K. Using correlation proposed
by Gilliand and Sherwood, calculate the mass transfer coefficient for transfer of
naphthalene to air.
Data :
Viscosity of air = µ (air) = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/ms
Density of air = ρ(air) = 1.2 kg/m3
Diffusivity = DAB = 4.24 × 10–6m2/s
µ 1.8 × 10–5
Sol. : ν = = 1.2 = 1.5 × 10–5m2/sec
ρ
ν 1.5 × 10–5
SC = D = = 3.54
AB 4.24 × 10–6
DV 0.1 × 5
Re = = = 33.33 × 105
ν 1.5 × 10–5
So, we use Gilliland-Shrewood correlation,
ShM = 0.023 Re0.83 . SC0.44
0.83
= 0.23 (33.33 × 105) × (3.54)0.44
ShM = 198.10
ShM × DAB 198.10 × 4.24 × 10–6
So, kC = d = 0.1
kC = 8.39 × 10–3 m/sec. (Ans.)
(17) Pure water at 26.1oC flows at the rate of 5.514 × 10–7 m3 /sec through a packed bed of
benzoic acid spheres having a diameter of 6.375 mm. The total surface area of the
spheres in the bed is 0.01198 m2 and the void fraction is 0.436. The tower diameter is
kgmol
0.0667 m. The solubility of Benzonic acid in water at 2.498 × 10–2
m3
(a) Predict the mass transfer coefficient kC.
(b) Using the value of kC calculated in (a), predict the outlet concentration of
benzoic acid.
Data :
Physical properties of water at 26.1oC
Viscosity = µ = 0.8718 × 10–3 Pa. sec.
Density = ρ = 996.7 kg/m3
Diffusivity = DAB = 1.254 × 10–9 m2/sec.
Sol. :
π
(a) A = Tower cross-sectional area = 4 × D2
π 2
= 4 × (6.635 × 10–3) = 3.45 × 10–5 m2
Q 5.514 × 10–7
V = velocity in the tower= A = = 0.015 m/s
3.45 × 10–5
µ
SC =
ρ.DAB
0.8718 × 10–3
= = 697.52
996.7 × 1.254 × 10–9
ρVD
Re = µ
(996.7) (0.015) (6.635 × 10–3)
= = 113.78
(0.8718 × 10–3)
1.09
JD = (Re)–0.67
∈
1.09 –0.67
= 4.36 (113.78) = 0.4768
'
Assume kC = kC for dilute solution,
'
kC
Thus, JD = (NSc) 0.67
ν'
' JD.ν' 0.4768 × 0.015
kC = 0.67 =
(NSc) (697.52)0.67
'
kC = 4.447 × 10–6 m/s (Ans.)
(b) To calculate outlet concentration of benzoic acid in water, we may use of following
expressions.
(CAi – CA ) – (CAi – CA )
1 2
NA · A = AkC C –C  Ai A1
ln C 
 Ai – CA
2
Where, CAi = concentration at the surface of the solid (k mole/m3)

CA1 = Inlet bulk fluid concentration and CA2 is the outlet material balance equation for
the bulk stream
NA · A = V (CA – CA )
2 1
m3
where V = volumetric flow rate of above two fluid entering, sec
Thus, we can write from equations,
(CAi – CA ) – (CAi – CA )
1 2 V
A kC = (C – C )
 Ai A1
C – C A2 A1
ln C – C 
 Ai A2 
Here, CA = 2.948 × 10–2

1
CA = 0
1
A = 0.01198 m2
V = 5.514 × 10–7 m3/s
Putting all these values in above equation, we get,
0.01198 (4.665 × 10–6) (CA – 0)
2
= (5.514 × 10–7) (CA – 0)
 2.948 × 10–2 – 0  2
ln 
2.948 × 10–2– CA 
 2 
kg mole
Solving for CA , we get, CA = 2.842 × 10–3 (Ans.)
2 2 m3
(18) Ammonia is absorbed from an air stream into a water film flowing down an inclined
plane at 20o C and 1 atm. as shown in fig. The flow rate of the water is 5 × 10–3 kg/sec
per meter width of the plate. If the laminar flow is assumed, the thickness of the film
can be calculated from the expression :
δ =  2
Γ  1/3
3µΓ
ρ g cos β 
Where, Γ is the mass rate of flow per unit width of the plate.
Assuming that the film thickness calculated from above expression above is equal to
the thickness of the stagnant film for the film theory, estimate the mass transfer
coefficient for the absorption of ammonia into the water.
z
x
C A1
C A2
o
6 0
b=
Fig. 3.14 : Absorption of Ammonia

Data :
Physical properties at 20°°C
Viscosity of water = µH O
2
kg
= 10.5 × 10–4 –3
ms , Γ = 5 × 10 kg/sec
Density of water = ρH = 998 kg/m3
2O
D NH = 1.76 × 10–9 m2/sec.

3 – H2O
Sol. : δ =  3µΓ  1/3

ρ2g cos β
–4 –3
(3 × 10.5 × 10 ) × (5 × 10 )1/3
=  
 (998)2 (9.8) (cos 60) 
δ = 1.39 × 10–4 m
From the films theory,
DAB D NH
' 2 – H2O
kC = =
δ δ
1.76 × 10–9 m2/s
=
1.39 × 10–4m
= 1.27 × 10–5 m/s (Ans. )
(19) NH3 is absorbed at 1 bar from an NH3 air stream by passing it a vertical tube down
which dilute H2SO4 is flowing. The following laboratory test data are available :
Length of the tube = 825 mm
Diameter of tube = 15 mm
Partial pressure of NH3 at inlet = 7.5 kN/m2
Partial pressure of NH3 at outlet = 2 kN/m2
The amount of NH3 absorbed at this condition is 1.12 × 10–6 k mole/sec. Determine the
overall transfer coefficient kG based on gas phase.
Sol. : Driving force at inlet = 7500 N/m2
Driving force at outlet = 2000 N/m2
7500 – 2000
So, Mean driving force = 7500
ln 2000
 
= 4161 N/m2
Wetted surface = π D. L
= π × 5 × 10–3 × 825 × 10–3
= 0.038 m2
The overall transfer coefficient KG is given by
k mol
(NH3 absorbed) sec
KG =
(wetted surface) m2 × mean driving force N/m2
1.12 × 10–6
=
0.038 × 4161
KG = 6.93 × 10–9 k mole/N·sec. (Ans.)
(20) Pure water at 30°°C is flowing through a packed bed at the rate of 6.9 × 10 m3/sec –8
through a packed bed of β -napthol spheres having a diameter of 10 mm. The total
surface area of sphere in bed is 0.015 m2 and the void fraction is 0.35. The tower
diameter is 0.0950 m. The solubility of β -Napthol in water is 5.3 × 10–2 kg mol/m3.
Calculate the mass transfer coefficient kC.
Data : The physical properties of H2O at 30oC

Viscosity = µ = 1 × 10–3 Pa. sec
Density = ρ = 1000 kg / m3
Diffusivity = DAB = 2.60 × 10–10 m2/sec.
π
Sol. : Tower cross-sectional area A = 4 (D2)
π
= 4 (0.950) 2
= 7.0882 × 10–3 m2
Q 6.9 × 10–8
Velocity in tower = (V) = =
A 7.0882 × 10–3
= 9.734 × 10–6 m/s
µ
SC =
ρDAB
1 × 10–3
= = 3846.154
1000 × 2.60 × 10–10
ρVD 1000 × 9.734 × 10–6 × 10 × 10–3
Re = µ = 1 × 10–3
= 0.09734
1.09 1.09
JD = (Re) –0.67 = 0.35 (0.09734)–0.67
∈
JD = 14.886
'
kC
and, JD = V (Sc) –0.67
'
JD.V 14.866 × 9.734 × 10–6
kC = 0.67 =
(NSc) (3846.154)0.67
'
kC = 6 × 10–7 m/s (Ans.)
(21) Calculate the maximum rate of absorption of O2 in a fermenter from air bubbles at
1 atm having diameter of 100 µm at 37oC into water having a zero concentration of
dissolved oxygen. The solubility of O2 from an air in water at 37oC is equal to
2.26 × 10–4 kg mole O2/ m3.
Data : Diffusivity of O2 in H2O = 3.25 × 10–9 m2/s
Viscosity of water (µc) = 6.947 × 10–4 kg/ms
ρc) = 994 kg/m3
Density of Water (ρ
ρp) = 1.13 kg/m3
Density of air particle (ρ
Assume that agitation is used to produce air bubbles. Determine,
'
(a) Connective mass transfer coefficient, kL
(b) Mass transfer rate.
Sol. : (a) In this case, agitation is used to produce air bubbles, hence the mass transfer resistance
in gas bubble to outside interface of the bubble can be neglected.
µ 6.947 × 10–4
NSc = = = 215.044
ρDAB 994 × 3.25 × 10–9
∆ρ = ρc– ρp = 994 – 1.13 = 992.87 kg/m3

'
Here we use following correlation to find kL
–0.67 
' 2 DAB ∆ρ µc.g 1/3
kL = DP + 0.31 (N Sc )  2 
 (ρc) 
2 × 3.25 × 10–9 –4
992.87 × 6.947 × 10 × 9.81/3
= + 0.31 (215.044)–0.67  
100 × 10 –6
 (994) 2

'
kL = 2.25 × 10–4 m/s
(b) CA = 0 (Since O2 is consumed faster than it supplied so CA2 at interface is zero)
2
CA = 2.26 × 10–4 k mol/sec.
1
'
NA = kL (CA – CA ) = 2.25 × 10–4 (2.26 × 10–4 – 0)
1 2
k mol –8
NA = 5.08 × 10 (Ans.)
m2 sec
(22) Water at 293 K is flowing over a horizontal plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. Determine the
thickness of boundary layer at a distance of 50 mm from leading edge.
Data : Kinematic viscosity = 1 × 10–6 m2/s
x.V 50 × 10–3 × 3
Sol. : Rex = =
ν 1 × 10–6
= 1,50,000 < 3 × 105
The flow is laminar, over this length of plane. So we are have for laminar flow
4.64 (x) 4.64 (50 × 10–3)
δ = =
(Rex)0.5 1500000.5
δ = 6.008 × 10–4 mm = 0.6 mm (Ans.)
(23) A napthalene 75 mm diameter and 60 mm length is exposed to a stream of pure CO2
flowing perpendicular direction to the cylinder with gas velocity of 6 m/s. The
temperature of CO2 is 373 K and pressure of CO2 is 101.32 kN/m2.
Data : Viscosity of CO2 at 373 k = 19 × 10–6 pa. sec
Density of CO2 at 373 K = 1.449 kg/m3
kN
Vapour pressure of napthalene at 373 k = 1.33
m2
DNaphthalene – CO2 = 8.224 × 10–6 m2/sec.
–
(a) Determine mass transfer coefficient, F
(b) Determine the rate of sublimation.
–
You may use following correlation for estimation of mass transfer coefficient, F
––
Sh = 0.43 + 0.532 × Re0.5 × Sc0.3
–
––
F.dp
where , Sh = C.D
AB
dp = Diameter of naphthalene cylinder
C = Molar density at 373 K = 0.03267 kg/m3
ρVD 1.449 × 6 × 75 × 10–3
Sol. : (a) NRe = µ =
19 × 10–6
= 34.318 × 103
µ 19 × 10–6
NSc = =
ρ.DAB 1.449 × 8.224 × 10–6
= 1.5944
––
So, Sh = 0.43 + 0.532 (34.318 × 103)0.5 (1.5944)0.31
= 114.318
–
–– F. dp
So, Sh = C.D
AB
–
F × 75 × 10–3
360.649 =
0.03267 × 8.22 × 10–6
–
F = 409.529 × 10–6 k mol/m2 sec. (Ans.)
(b) Here, NB = 0
NA
∴ NA + NB = 1
∴
– (1 – CA2/C)
NA = F ln (1 – C /C)
 A1 
CA2
... CA2 = 0, C =0
CA1 P 1.33 × 103
and, = = = 0.0131
C Pt 101.32 × 103
1–0
NA = 409.529 × 10–6 ln 1 – 0.013
∴
 
= 5.411 × 10–6 k mole naphthalene/m2 sec
This is based on total area of cylinder which is equal to,
π × dp × h + 2 4 × d2 = π (0.075) (0.6) + 4 (0.075)2 = 0.1502 m2
π π
 
Hence, the rate of sublimation of naphthalene cylinder :
kg
= (5.411 × 10–6) (128) (0.1502) (3600) hr
= 0.3745 kg/hr (Ans.)
(24) Air at 75oC flows through a 0.05 m long packed tube of naphthalene spheres at an
interstitial velocity of 0.6 m/s as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Air Temp. = 75 C
o Î = 0.5 dp = 0.01 m
NA = ?
V = 0.6 m/s mass – transfer coefficient
= 0.057 m/s
CA
Z = 0.05 m
Fig. 3.15 : Convection mass transfer coefficient for packed tube of napthalene spheres
The convective mass transfer coefficient for this process was found to be 0.057 m/s.
(a) Calculate the bulk concentration of naphthalene in air at the exist of the tube.
(b) Determine the percent saturation of the exiting air assuming the entering air is free of
naphthalene.
The vapour pressure of naphthalene at 75oC is 7.47 × 102 N/m2
Sol. :
(a) A shell balance over a differential section of the packed bed is given by
dNA *
dZ = kCa (CAi – CA) … (1)
Where, CAi = Solute concentration at the solid interface.
CA = Solute concentration in the bulk fluid at any position in the tube.
Since, mass transfer in the axial direction is due to bulk flow, the molar flux can be
written as :
NA ≅ CAU … (2)
If we assume plug flow in the packed bed and U is constant, then
dCA *
U dz = kC a (CA‚i – CA) … (3)
Where, a = Interfacial area (m2/m3)

Separating the variables and integrating over the tube length gives,
CA2 Z *
dCA kC. a
⌠ C – C = ⌠ U dZ … (4)
⌡ Ai A ⌡
CA1 0
CA2 *
kC . a
[ln (CAi– CA)]CA = U .Z
1
*
CAi – CA1 kC a.Z
or, ln C – C  = … (5)
 Ai A2 U
Where, U = ∈ × Interstitial Velocity
= 0.5 × 0.6 = 0.3 m/s
6 (1 – ∈)
a = Interfacial area = dp
6 (1 – 0.5) 2 3
a = 0.01 = 300 m /m
CA1 = 0 (... CO2 entering air free from naphthalene)

PAi 7.5 × 102
CAi = RT =
8314 × 348
= 2.59 × 10-4 k mol. m3
Put all these values in equation (5)
–4
 2.59 × 10 – 0 
ln 
0.057 × 300 × 0.05
 =
2.59 × 10 – CA2
–4 0.3
Solving for CA2 gives,

CA2 = 2.44 × 10–4 kg mole/m3 (Ans.)
(b) % saturation is related to the concentration at the solid interface. Thus,
CA2
% Saturation = C × 100
Ai
2.44 × 10–3
= × 100
2.59 × 10–4
= 94 % (Ans.)
(25) A wetted wall column of diameter 50 mm is used to strip CO2 from an aqueous
solution flowing in a thin wall while an air stream is flowing up through the column.
The concentration of CO2 in the air stream is 1.5 mole % while at that same point, the
concentration of CO2 in water is 0.5 mole %. Calculate the gas mass transfer coefficient
and molar flux at this point in the column. The operating pressure and temperature of
column are 10 atm and 298 K. At 298 K, Henry's law constant for CO2 in the water is
equal to 1.6 × 10–2 per mole of CO2 in the solution.
Data : DCO2 air at 298 K = 1.55 × 10–6 m2/sec
Viscosity = µ = 18.3 × 10–6 kg/m.sec
Density of air = ρair = 11.86 kg/m3
You may use the following expression to find at the mass transfer coefficient.
––
Sh = 0.02 (Re)0.83 (Sc)0.44
–
–– kc PBM
Where, Sh = D . D. P
AB
µ 18.3 × 10–6
Sol. : SC = =
ρ. DAB 11.86 × 1.55 × 10–6
= 0.995
ρVD 11.86 × 15 × 10–3 × 75 × 10–2
Re = µ =
18.3 × 10–6
= 2430. 27
Partial pressure at interface : Let A = CO2, B = Air
*
PA*
Henry's law, yA = P = H. xA
*
Where, yA = Mole fraction of solute gas (A) in gas phase in solution.
*
PA = Equilibrium partial pressure (A)
P = Total pressure
XA = Mole fraction of solute (A) in solution
*
So, PCO = H. xA
2
0.5
= 100 × 1.64 × 10–2
*
PCO = 0.82 atm.
2
1 std. atm. → 0.82

*
∴ 10 std atm. → 8.2 = PCO
2
*
P*Air = 10 – PCO
2
= 10 – 8.2
= 1.8 atm
Sh = 0.023 (Re)0.33 (Sc)0.44
= 0.023 (2430.27)0.33 (0.995)0.44
= 100
Log mean partial pressure of non-diffusing air :
Position Partial Pressure of CO2 Partial Pressure of Air
Interface PA,1 = 8.2 atm – –
PB1 = Pt – PA1
= 10 – 8.2
= 1.8 atm.
Bulk gas PA,2 = yA,2 × P – –
PB2 = Pt – PA2
1.5
= 100 × 100 = 1 – 0.15
= 9.85 atm.
= 0.15 atm
– –
– PB2 – PB1 9.85 – 1.8
So, PB,M = – – = 9.85
ln (PB2/PB1 ) ln  1.8 
 
–
PB,M = 4.736 atm
–
–– kC PB‚M
So, Sh = D .D P
AB
100 × 1.55 × 10–6 × 10
kC =
50 × 10–3 × 4.736
kC = 6.56 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
Molar Flux,
NA = kC (CA,i – CA, ∞)
kc
= RT (PA,i – PA, ∞)
Where, PA,i = Partial pressure of CO2 at the interface = 8.2 atm
PA, ∈ = Partial pressure of CO2 at the bulk stream = 0.15 atm
6.562 × 10–3 (m/s)
So, NA = (8.2 – 0.15) (atm)
atm.m3
0.08205  k mol.k × 298 (k)
 
k mol
NA = 2.1604 × 10–3 2 (Ans.)
m sec
(26) H2O containing dissolved air is to be deoxygenated by contact with N2 in an agitated

vessel 1 m in diameter. The H2O will enter counter currently at bottom of the vessel
and flow through an overflow pipe set in air side of vessel at an appropriate height.
Neglecting gas density, estimate, mass transfer coefficient on liquid side if
temperature is 298 K.
Use the following equations to solve this problem :
ShL = 2.0 + 0.31 Ra1/3
FL dp
Where, ShL = C. D
L
and Ra = Rayleigh Number and is given by :
dp3 (ρ
ρL– ρo)g
Ra = DLµL
Where,
dp = Average bubble diameter in m
ρL = Density of liquid in kg/m3
ρg = Density of gas in kg/m3
DL = Diffusivity of N2 in water in m2/sec.
µL = Viscosity in kg/m. sec
The value of dp may be calculated by :
0.4
d p = 2.88 × 10–3 φ G
Where φG = Gas hold up and is given by relation :
7.067 × 10–3
φG =
Vt0.833
Where, Vt = Terminal settling velocity of bubble.
Data at 298 K : Vt = 0.25 m/s
DL = 1.9 × 10–9 m2/s
µL = 8.9 × 10–4 kg/m.s
ρL = 1000 kg/m3
FL.dp
Sol. : ShL = C.D
L
Where, FL = Mass transfer coefficient on liquid side, k mol/m2 sec

ShL = Sherewood Number for liquid
dp = Average bubble diameter in m
1000
C = Concentration of liquid = 18 = 55.5 k mol/m3
DL = Diffusitivity of N2 in water
= 1.9 × 10–9 m2/s
φG = 0.0224
So, dp = 2.88 × 10–3 (φG)0.4
= 2.88 × 10–3 (0.0224)0.4
dp = 6.302 × 10–4 m
dp3 (ρL – ρo) g
and, Ra = DL µL
(6.302 × 10–4)3 (1000) (9.81)
=
1.9 × 10–9 × 8.9 × 10–4
Ra = 1.452 × 106
So,
ShL = 2.0 + 0.31 (Ra)1/3
= 2.0 + 0.31 (1.452 × 106)1/3
ShL = 37.103
FL. dp
Hence, Sh = C. D
L
FL × 6.302 × 10–4
37.103 =
1.9 × 10–9 × 55.5
k mol
∴ FL = 6.208 × 10–3 2 (Ans.)
m sec
(27) Benzene vapours from a dilute mixture with inert gas is to be absorbed in packed bed
with Berl Saddles. The circumstances are as follows :
(i) For gas side :
Average Mol. Weight = 11
Viscosity = 10 × 10–5 kg/m. sec.
Temperature = 270C
Pressure = 107 kN/m2
Diffusivity = DG = 1.3 × 10–5m2/s
Flow rate = GL = 0.716 kg/m3 sec.
(ii) For liquid side :
Average Mol. Weight = 2 6 0
Viscosity = 2 × 10–3 kg/m. sec
Density = 840 kg/m3
Diffisivity = DL = 4.71 × 10–10 m2/sec
Flow Rate = LL = 2.71 kg/m3. sec
Additional Data :
(1) Fractional void volume in a dry packed bed = ∈ = 0.75
(2) Liquid hold up in a packed tower = φt = 0.0333 m2/m3
(3) Diameter of sphere of same surfaces as a single particle = ds = 0.0472 m
(4) Specific interfacial surface = aA = 37.4 m2/m3
Compute the volumetric mass transfer coefficient using following equations :
For Berl saddle the gas phase coefficient Fa is given by
FG. SCG2/3 l
 ds G –0.36
G = 1.195  
µG(1 – ∈ Lo)
Where, ∈Lo = Operating void space in packing = ∈ – φLt

SCG = Schmidt number for gas
G = gas flow rate, k mol/m2 sec.
The liquid coefficient kL is given by –
kLds l
ds.L  0.45 . Sc 0.5
= 25.1  µ 
DL  L  L
Sol. : (a) for gas side : Assume that ideal gas behaviour
∴ PV = nRT
P Mavg
and hence density of gas ρG = RT
107 × 103 × 11
= 0.08205
× 305
101.3 × 103
ρG = 0.472 kg/m3
µG
Next, ScG =
ρG.DG
10 × 10–5
=
0.472 × 1.3 × 10–5
= 1.63
∈ Lo = ∈ – φLt
= 0.75 – 0.033
= 0.716
0.716
G = 11
2/3
FG × SC l
G  ds. G –0.36
= 1.195 
∴ G 
µG(1 – ∈Lo)
FG × (1.63)2/3  0.0472 × 0.716 
–0.36
∴ = 1.195
0.716 10 × (1 – 0.716)
–5
 11 
∴ FG = 1.913 × 10–3 k mol/m2 sec.
(b) For liquid side :

µL 2 × 10–3
SC = = = 5055.1
L ρLDL 840 × 4.71 × 10–10
kL.ds ds. L  0.45 (S )0.5
l
So, = 25.1  µ 
DL  L  CL
0.0472 × 2.71 0.45

= 25.1 
0.0472
∴ kL × [5055.1]0.5
4.71 × 10–10  2 × 10–3 
kL = 1.164 × 10–4k mol/m2 sec.
ρ
(c) For liquid side C = M
840 k mol
= 260 = 3.23
m3
FL = kL.C
= 1.164 × 10–4 × 3.23
= 3.76 × 10–4 k mol/m2 sec.
and, volumetric coefficients are :
(i) For gas side,
FG. aA = 1.913 × 10–3 × 37.4
= 0.071 k mol/m2 sec. (Ans.)
(ii) For liquid side,
2
FL. G A = 3.76 × 10–4 × 37.4
= 0.014 k mol/m3 sec. (Ans.)
(28) Prove or show the following relationships starting with the flux equations :
(a) Convert k'C to ky and kG;
(b) Convert kL to kx and k'x;
(c) Convert kG to ky and kC.
Sol. : Remembering that dashes mean equimolar counter diffusion and a lack of them diffusion
through a stagnant layer :
ky kG
(a) NA = k'c (CA – CA ) y (yA – yA ) = P (PA – PA )
1 2 BM 1 2 BM 1 2
k'c ky kG
∴ RT (PA1 – PA2) = P y
total BM
(PA – PA ) = P
1 2 BM
(PA – PA )
1 2
' RT RT
∴ kc = P y ky = P kG (Ans.)
total BM BM
k'x
(b) NA = kL (CA – CA ) = kx (xA – xA ) = x (xA – xA )
1 2 1 2 BM 1 2
k'x
∴ kL C (xA – xA ) = kx (xA – xA ) = x (xA – xA )
1 2 1 2 BM 1 2
kx k'x
∴ kL = C = Cx (Ans.)
BM
(c) NA = kG (PA – PA ) = ky (yA – yA ) = kC (CA – CA )

1 2 1 2 1 2
ky kc
∴ kG (PA – PA ) = P (PA – PA ) = RT (PA – PA )
1 2 total 1 2 1 2
ky kc
∴ kG = P = RT (Ans.)
total
'
(29) Experimental analysis found a convective mass transfer coefficient (kG ) of
−8 2
1.486 × 10 k mole/m s. Pa for Equimolal counter diffusion of species A through B at
atmospheric pressure. Calculate the corresponding value (kG) and the resulting mass
flux for diffusion of A through a stagnant layer of B for the same conditions and
concentrations, namely partial pressures PA = 5000 and PA = 2400 Pa.
1 2
'
Sol. : Find conversion between kG and kG :
' –
kGPtotal = kG P BM
'
Ptotal kG
∴ kG = –
PBM
From a total pressure of 101325 Pascals :
pA = 5000 Pa/PB = 101325 – 5000 = 96325 Pa
1 1
pA = 2400 Pa/PB = 101325 – 2400 = 98925 Pa

2 2
– 96325 – 98925
PBM = ln (96325/98925) = 97619.225
(1.486 × 10–8) × 101325

∴ kG = 97619.229
= 1.5424108 × 10–8 k mole/m2 s. Pa
For Stagnant layer, NA = kG (pA – pA ) = 1.5424108 × 10–8 (5000 – 2400)
1 2
= 4.010268 × 10–5 k mole/m2 s.
i.e. flux is 4.010 × 10–5 k mole/m2 s,
mass transfer coefficient 1.542 × 10–8 k mole/m2 s. Pa (Ans.)
(30) An air stream at 52.6 oC and 2 atmospheres (abs.) flows through a duct at 1.524 m/s past
samples of solid naphthalene. Naphthalene diffusivity at 0 oC and 101.32 kPa is
–6 2
5.16 × 10 m /s. Estimate mass transfer coefficient k'C for flow past the following
shapes :
(a) Parallel to a flat plate 152 mm long;
(b) A lone sphere of 12.7 mm diameter.
Sol. : Data from literature at 52.6 oC (425.6 K) :
µ = 1.9682734 × 10–5 kg/m.s
ρ = 1.0876331 kg/m3
For the Schmidt number, we must use Fuller et al. equation to predict the diffusivity of
naphthalene in air under these conditions, knowing that it is 5.16 × 10–6 m2/s at
101.32 kPa and 273 K;
T2 1.75 P1 = 5.16 × 10–6 325.6 1.75 101.32 = 3.5125175 × 10–6 m2/s
DAB = DAB T   273   202.6 
2 1  1 P2
µ 1.9682734 × 10–5
Sc = D = = 5.1521026
AB 1.0876331 (3.5125175 × 10–6)
ρVxd 1.0876331 × 1.524 × 0.152

For flat plate : Re = = = 12800.5
µ 1.9682734 × 10–5
0.5
' DAB 0.664 DAB Re Sc0.33
i.e. less than 15,000 so, kc = L Sh = L
0.664 (3.512175 × 10–6) (12800.5)0.5 (5.1521026)0.33
= 0.152
= 2.9983611 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
ρV∞d 1.0876331 × 1.524 × 0.0127
For single sphere : Re = µ = = 1069.512
1.9682734 × 10–5
i.e. a gas between 1 and 48,000 although Schmidt falls outside 0.6 to 2.7 range, the best we
' DAB DAB
can do is : kc = L Sh = L (2 + 0.552 Re0.53 Sc0.33)
3.5125175 × 10–6
= 0.0127 [2 + 0.552 (1069.512)0.53 (5.1521026)0.33]
= 0.0111835 m/s (Ans.)
3
(31) A micro-organism batch of density 1082 kg/m and spherical diameter 0.75 mm
weighing 3.6 grams is added to an aqueous solution of oxygen at 37 oC (oxygen
–4 3
concentration = 2.26 × 10 k mole/m ) in a shaker flask for a fermentation. Air can
enter through a porous stopper. If oxygen transfer to surface is rate-determining step,
calculate :
(a) The mass O2 consumption rate of oxygen micro-organism is the only consumer of
oxygen in a saturated solution;
(b) The percentage saturation of the solution if the micro-organisms only consumed
0.5 grams per second and other nutrients accounted for the rest.
Sol. : The prescribed correlation for particle suspensions of less than 0.6 mm is :
2DAB
–0.67 
' g µ | ∆ ρ|
kL = d + 0.31 Sc  ρ2 
Before we calculate the Schmidt number, remember that the particle and the water are of
the same density, i.e. Dr = 0, so the second half of the correlation disappears.
' 2DAB 2 (3.27 × 10–9)
kL = = = 3.0293144 × 10–3 m/s
d 1.08 × 10–6
–3 –4 –7
NA = k'L(CA – CA ) = 3.0293144 × 10 [(2.26 × 10 ) – 0] = 6.8462505 x 10
1 2
–7 2
i.e. 6.846 × 10 k mole/m s.
When we talk of a RATE DETERMINING STEP, this means that the transfer through the
porous stopper is so fast as to be considered instantaneous compared to the transfer to
the organism surface, and that the absorption takes place so quickly that the effective
surface oxygen concentration is zero. The prescribed correlation for particle suspensions
of less than 0.6 mm is :
2DAB 0.33
'
kL = + 0.31 Sc–0.67 g µ | ∆ ρ | 
d  ρ2 
From literature data for water at 37 oC :

–6
m = 695 × 10 kg/m.s
ρ = 993.04866 kg/m3
Using existing data for a known temperature and the corresponding viscosity,
extrapolate the diffusivity for this system using Wilke-Chang :
T 2 µ1 310 890 × 10–6
DAB = DAB T µ = 2.41 × 10–9 298 
  695 × 10–6 = 3.2716595 × 10 m /s
–9 2
2 1 1 2
µ 695 × 10–6
Sc = D = = 213.91743
AB 993.04866 (3.2716595 × 10–9)
∆ρ = 1082 – 993.04866 = 88.951341 kg/m3
2 (3.27166 × 10–9) 9.81 × 0.000695 × 88.95130.33
+ 0.31 (213.917)–0.67 
'
∴ kL =
7.5 × 10 –7
 (993.049)2 
-3
= 8.7981258 × 10 m/s
The flux of oxygen to the organism is therefore :
' –3 –4 –6 2
NA = kL (CA – CA ) = 8.7981258 × 10 [(2.26 × 10 ) – 0] = 1.988377 × 10 k mole/m s
1 2
With mass M of organisms comprising a total number of particles N, the total surface
2
area A is given by : A = Np d
π
M = Nρ 6 d3
6M
∴ N =
π ρ d3
6 M 6M 6 × 0.0036
∴ A =π πd2 = = = 26.617375 m2
ρd3 ρd 1082 × (7.5 × 10–7)
–6 –5
molar uptake = 26.617375 × 1.988377 × 10 = 5.2925377 × 10 k mole/s
With a molecular weight of 32 kg/k mole :
–5 –3
Mass uptake = 5.2925377 × 10 × 32 = 1.6936121 × 10 kg/s. (Ans.)
(32) A circular metal pipe was used to transport oil sands. After a long time of service, the
inner surface was coated with a thin layer of bitumen. The inner diameter is D and the
tube length is L. It was decided to use a solvent to clean the tube turbulen flow
conditions. Assume a dilute system. What is the exit bitumen concentration if
(a) tripling the solvent flow rate.
(b) increasing the temperature from 20°C to 30°C. The solvent viscosity dropped by
20% from 20°C to 30°C. For simplicity, assume that the solubility of bitumen in
the solvent is unaffected by temperature.
(c) comment on (b) if solubility change is accounted for.
Assume that the bitumen solubility in the solvent is 2.5 mol/m3 and prior to any
changes the effluent concentration of bitumen was 1.2 mole/m3. No mass transfer
experiment was performed, but the heat transfer is known to obey
0.83 1/3
Nu = 0.023 Re ·Pr
Sol. : CA1 = 0, CA2 = CA, Z1 = 0, Z2 = L.
CAs kc πD
⇒ ln C = L
As – CA Q
 – Q L
kc πD
 
∴ CA = CAs 1 – e 
0.83 1/3 0.83 1/3
(a) Nu = 0.023 Re Pr ⇒ Sh = 0.023 Re Sc
QII = 3QI ⇒ ReII = 3ReI , uII = 3uI
kcD ReII0.83
Sh = D ⇒ kcII /kcI =  Re  = 30.83
AB  I
ln CAs 
 CAs – CAS
 II kcII QI
∴ = k Q = 30.83 – 1 = 3– 0.17 = 0.859639
ln CAs  cI II
 CAs – CA
 I
ln CAs  = 0.829639 × ln 2.5
∴  CAs – CA 2.5 – 1.2 = 0.542523
 II
= CAs (1 – e– 0.542523) = 1.0468 mole/m3
CAII (Ans.)
(b) TII = 30 + 273.15 K = 303.15 K
TI = 20 + 273.15 K = 293.15 K
T DABII TII µI 303.15 ∞ 1
DAB ∝ µ ⇒ D = T µ = = 1.29264
ABI I II 293.15 ∞ (1 – 0.2)
0.83 1/3 µ Dρu
Sh = 0.023 Re Sc , Sc = ,R = µ
ρDAB e
ReII µI 1 ScII µII DABI TI
ReI = µII = 0.8 , S
cI
= µ D
I ABII
= T
II
ln CAs 
 CAs – CA
 II kcII ReII0.83 ScII1/3 DABII 293.15 1/3 TII µI
∴ = k = R  Sc  DAB = 0.8–0.83 × 303.15 × TI µII
ln CAs  cI  eI   I I
 CAs – CA
 I
= 1.53835691
l CAs 
 CAs – CA = 1.00597 ⇒ CAII = 1.5858 mole/m3 (Ans.)
  II
(c) As CAs increases, if temperature is increased. (Ans.)
Therefore, CA II will be slightly higher.
(33) Pure water at a velocity of 0.11 m/s is flowing at 26.1°C past a flat plate of solid
benzoic acid where L = 0.40 m. The solubility of benzoic acid in water is
0.02948 kg mol/m3. The diffusivity of benzoic acid is 1.245 × 10–9 m2/s.
(a) What is the corresponding mass transfer coefficient ?
(b) What is the equivalent film thickness ?
Sol. : To solve this, we need to look at the Re value at the end of the plate.
Lvρ (0.40) (0.11) (998.2)
Re µ = = 44364
9.93 × 10–4
Using a transition Re of 200000, we recognize this is a laminar flow situation here. The
overall mass transfer coefficient can be calculated as follows :
kcL
ShL = D = 0.6654 (ReL )1/2 Sc1/3
AB
kc (0.40) µ 1/3
= 0.664 (44364)1/2 
(1.245 × 10 )–9
ρDAB
kc (0.40) 9.93 × 10–4 1/3
= 0.664 (44364)1/2  
(1.245 × 10 )–9
(998.2) (1.245 × 10 )
-9
kc (0.40)
= 0.664 (44364)1/2 (799)1/3 = 1297.8
(1.245 × 10–9)
kc = 4.04 × 10–6 m/s (Ans.)
(b) The equivalent film thickness is given by
m DAB 1.245 × 10–9
kc = 4.04 × 10–6 s = =
δ δ
m2
1.245 × 10–9 s
δ = m = 0.3 mm (Ans.)
4.04 × 10–6 s
(35) Water flows at 10 cm/s over a sharp-edged plate of benzoic acid. The dissolution of
benzoic acid is diffusion-controlled, with a diffusion coefficient of 1.00 × 10–5 cm2/s.
Find the following :
(a) The distance at which the laminar boundary layer ends;
(b) The thickness of the flow and concentration boundary layer at the point;
(c) The local transfer coefficients at the edge (kc (edge), and at the position of
transition (kc (transition)), as well as the average mass transfer coefficient over this
length (kc (average).
Sol. : (a) To solve for this, we need to identify the point at which the Re exceeds the
laminar-turbulent flow transition. Now, assuming that 300,000 is the critical value,
x 10 s  1
cm g 
xvρ    cm 3

µ = g = = 3,00,000 ⇒ x = 300 cm (Ans.)
0.01 
 cm · s
(b) Recall that for laminar flow,
µ 1/3 1/3
=   ≈ 10
993 × 10–6 Pa · s
= 
δ
Sc1/3 =
ρDAB 2 2 
998.2 m3 1 × 10–5 s × 1002 cm2
δc kg cm m
 
Now, we need to solve for either the velocity (flow) or concentration boundary layer and
then we can get the other value.
From fluid mechanics, we remember that the boundary layer for laminar flow over a
δ 5
plate is ~ x = – this is derived from the Blausius solution to the laminar flow
Rex
profile over a flat plate. In this case, x = 300 cm.
5 (300 cm)
∴ δ = = 2.7 cm
300000
∴ δc = 0.27 cm (Ans.)
(c)
Now we can use the standard correlation to calculate the local mass transfer
coefficients as follows :
kcx 0.332 DAB (Re)1/2 Sc1/3
= 0.332 (R ) 1/2 Sc1/3 ⇒ k =
DAB ex c x
at the leading edge, x = 0,
∴ kc = ∞
cm2
0.332 1 × 10–5 s  (300000)1/2 (10)1/3
 
at the transition, x = 300, ∴ kc = 300 cm
cm
= 1.3 × 10-5 s
The average value for the convective mass transfer coefficient can be determined from
–
kcL – cm
1/2 1/3 –5
DAB = 0.664 (ReL ) Sc so, k c = 2kc = 2.61 × 10 s .
Note here that this is ONLY for laminar flow over a flat plate. (Ans.)
(35) Water flows through a thin tube, the walls of which are lightly coated with benzoic
acid. The benzoic acid is dissolved very rapidly, and so is saturated at the pipe's wall.
The water flows slowly, at room temperature and 0.1 cm/s. The pipe is 1 cm in
diameter. Under these conditions, the mass transfer coefficient varies along the pipe :
1 1
= 0.3  µ   
kx xvρ
ρ 2 µ 3
D   ρD
where, x is the distance along the pipe, and v is the average velocity in the pipe. What
is the average concentration of benzoic acid in the water after 2 m of pipe ?
Some useful information : Dbenzoic/water : 1 × 10–5 cm2/s
µ (993 × 10–6 Pa · s)
Sol. : Sc = = 2 2 = 995
ρDAB 998 kg3 1 × 10–5 cm × m 
 m  s 1002 cm2
(1 cm) 0.1 s  0.998

cm g 
  cm3
Re = = 10
9.93 × 10–3 g 
 cm · s
1
x 0.1 s  0.998
cm g 
kx    cm3  2 1
3
1
3
∴ DAB = 0.3   (995) 0.3 x (10)1/2 (995)
9.93 × 10–3 g 
  cm · s 
DAB 9.47 × 10–5 cm
∴ k = = s
x x
Now let's set up a mass balance.
Rate of accumulation in fluid = Transfer from pipe – over the exposed area of the pipe
in – out = Accumulated; Note however, that the areas are different – one is the pipe
πd2
cross-section  4  , and one is the area of interfacial transport (πd ∆x).
 
πd2
v  4  [C |x – C |x + ∆x = k (πd ∆x) (Csat – C)
 
Now, we can divide thisby the volume of the cylindrical element and take the limit,
∆x → 0
πd2
v 4  [C | – C |
x + ∆x]
  x k (πd ∆x) (Csat – C)
2 = 2
πd  ∆x πd  ∆x
 4   4 
∂C k (4) (Csat – C)
v ∂x = d
∂C
v ∂x = 4k (Csat – C)
∂C 9.47 × 10–4
(Csat – C) = 4 ∂x
x
∴ – ln (Csat – C) = 2 (9.47 × 10-4) x
C – 2(9.47 × 10–4) x – 2 (9.47 × 10–4) x

C
1–C = e ∴ 1 – e =C
sat sat
– 2 (9.47 × 10–4) 200 C
∴ 1 – e = C (Ans.)
sat
C
∴ Csat = 0.02654 (Ans.)
(36) A tube is coated in the inside with naphthalene (A) and has an inside diameter of
20 mm and a length of 1.1 m. Air at 318 K and an average pressure of 101.3 kPa flows
through this pipe at a velocity of 0.8 m/s. Assuming that the absolute pressure remains
essentially constant, calculate the concentration of naphthalene in the exit air. The
following constants may be helpful :
DAB = 6.92 × 10–6 m2/s; PAi = 74 Pa
Air : µ = 1.932 × 10–5 Pa-s, ρ = 1.114 kg/m3
µ 1.932 × 10–5
Sol. : Sc = = = 2.506
ρDAB (1.114) (6.92 × 10–6)
Dvρ (0.020) (0.80) (1.114)
Re = = = 922.6
µ (1.932 × 10–5)
Flow is laminar …… ∴ We can use the appropriate correlation equation –
1 1 1
D D 0.002
Sh = 1.86  L Sc Re = 1.86  L Sc Re = 1.86  1.1 (2.506) (922.6)
3 3 3
     
1
3 kLL
∴ Sh = 1.86 (4.2) = 3 = D
AB
DAB (6.92 × 10–6) m
kL = 3 L = 3 1.1 = 1.898 × 10–5 s
0.074 kPa mol mol

Csat = = 0.026 1 = 2.6 × 10–5
RT m3
Since,
(CAs – AA0) 4L KL
ln (C – C ) = D  D  = (0.002)  (0.80)  = 0.052195
4 (1.1) 1.898 × 10–5
 As AL     
ln 
(2.6 × 10 ) 
–5
∴  = 0.052195
(2.6 × 10–5 – CAL)
(2.6 × 10-5)
∴ = 1.0535
(2.6 × 10–5 – CAL)
mol
∴ CAL = 1.322 × 10–6 (Ans.)
m3
(37) Jasmone (C11H6O) is a valubale material in the perfume industry, used in many soaps
and cosmetics. Suppose we are recovering this material from a water suspension of
jasmine flowers by an extraction with benzene. The aqueous phase is continuous; the
mass transfer coefficient in the benzene drops is 3 × 10–4 cm/s; the mass transfer
coefficient in the aqueous phase is 2.4 × 10–3 cm/s. Jasmone is about 170 times more
soluble in benzene than in the suspension. What is the overall mass transfer
coefficient ?
Sol. : If we write the overall flux as
' '
N = k (C10 – C1i) = k' (C1i – C10 )
(i.e. flux from the water side = flux into benzene side)
We need to solve for the various mass transfer coefficients.
In this case, we recognize that the interfacial concentrations are in equilibrium or
'
C1i = HC1i – Here the trick, as it were, is to recognize that the equilibrium constant
between the two phases is given by that assertion that jasmone is 170 times more soluble
in benzene than in the suspension.
1 '
∴ N = 1 H (HC10 – C10) ,
k' + k
1
K' = 1 170 = 1.3 × 10–5 cm/s (Ans.)
+
3.0 × 10–4 cm/s 2.4 × 10–3 cm/s
(38) A part of the manufacture of microelectronic circuits, silicon wafers are partially
coated with a 5400. A film of a polymerized organic film called a "photoresist". The
density of this polymer is 0.96 g/cm3. After the wafers are etched, this photoresist must
be removed. To do so, the wafers are placed in groups of 20 in an inert "boat", which in
turn is immersed in strong organic solvent. The solubility of the photoresist is
2.23 × 10–3 g/cm3. If the photoresist dissolves in 10 min, what is its mass transfer
coefficient ?
Sol. : This is a relatively simple calculation.
Given that the silicon wafers are uniformly coated with 5400 A° of photoresist and the
density of the resist of 0.96 g/cm3.
∴ On a unit area basis, there are

0.96 g/cm3 × 5400 × 10–8 cm = 5.184 × 10–5 g/cm2
If this amount of material is removed in 10 minutes, then the mass flux is
5.184 × 10–5 g/cm2
= 8.64 × 10–8 g/cm2 · s
10 × 60 s
N = 8.64 × 10–8 g/cm2 · s = k∆C
In this case, the ∆C = (solubility – 0)
8.64 × 10–8 g/cm2 · s
k = = 3.8 × 10–5 cm/s (Ans.)
2.23 × 10–3 g/cm3
(39) Air flows through a cylindrical tube made of naphthalene at a velocity of 5 m/s. The
diameter of the tube is 0.1 m and the temperature of the air is 20°C.
(a) Using the correlation proposed by Linton and Sherwood given below, calculate
the mass transfer coefficient for the transfer of naphthalene to air.
0.83 1/3
Sh = 0.023 Re Sc
kcd ρdv v
Sh = D , Re = µ , Sc = D
AB AB
Compare this result with the values obtained using the analogies of
(b) Reynolds (c) Prandtl (e) Von Kármán (e) Chilton-Colburn
Note that the friction factor for this system, Cf can be estimated using the equation
Cf
–2
2 = (2.236 ln Re – 4.639)
Data : µair = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/m.s
ρair = 1.2 kg/m3
DAB = 4.24 × 10–6 m2/s
Sol. : µair = 1.8 × 10–5 kg/m.s µ = 5 m/s
ρair = 1.2 kg/m3 D = 1m
DAB = 4.24 × 10–6 m2/s
v µ 1.8 × 10–5
Sc = D = = = 3.54
AB ρDAB (4.24 × 10-6) (1.2)
ρDµ (1.2) (0.1) (5)
Re = = = 3.33 × 104
µ 1.8 × 10–5
(a) Linton-Sherwood Correlation :
kcD 0.83 1/3
DAB = Sh = 0.023 Re Sc
4.24 × 10–6
kc = 0.1 (0.023) (3.33 × 104)0.83 (3.54)1/3
kc = 8.43 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
(b) Reynolds Analogy :
kc f –2
vm = 2 = (2.236 ln Re – 4.639)
kc = (5) [2.236 ln (3.33 × 104) – 4.639]–2
f
kc = 1.44 × 10–2 , 2 = 2.876 × 10–3 (Ans.)
(c) Prandtl Analogy :

kc f  1 
vm = 2 =  f 
1 + 5 (S c – 1) 
 2 
1
kc = 5 (0.002876)
1+5 0.002876 (3.54 – 1)
kc = 8.55 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
(d) Von-Kármán Analogy :
kc f/2
vm =
f  5Sc + 1 
2 Sc + ln  6  – 1
1+5
5 (0.002876)
kc = 5 (3.54) + 1
1 + 5 0.002876 3.54 + ln  
  6  – 1
kc = 7.24 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
(e) Chilton-Colburn j-factor Analogy :
kc 2/3 f
vm S c = 2
kc = (0.002876) (5)/(3.54)2/3 = 6.19 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)

(40) The average heat transfer coefficient for natural convection from a single sphere in a
large body of fluid is given by
hd β∆  cpµ1/3
d3ρ2gβ∆
β∆T
= 2 + 0.6 for Gr1/4 Pr1/3 < 200
k  µ 2
 k 
where, d is the diameter of the sphere and the fluid properties are evaluated at the
mean temperature of the sphere and bulk fluid. Using the analogy between mass and
heat transfer, calculate the instantaneous rate of sublimation at the surface of a
naphthalene sphere in air at 145.5°C and 1 atm. Explain the analogy between
Nu = Sh, Sc = Pr, Gr = GrAB.
vap
Data : Pnaphthalene = 0.13 atm, DAB = 5.85 × 10–6 m2/s, d = 7.5 × 10–2m
ρair = 0.839 kg/m3, µair = 2.3 × 10–5 kg/m.s
hmd d2ρ2gβ∆T Cpµ
1/4 1/3
Sol. : = 2.0 + 0.6
k  µ 2
  k 
Nu = 2.0 + 0.6 Gr1/4 Pr1/3
The equivalent expression for mass transfer is :
1/4
Sh = 2.0 + 0.6 GrAB Sc1/3
kc d d3ρ2g∆x1/4  µ 1/3
or = 2.0 + 0.6 
DAB  µ2  ρDAB
Considering only the properties of air (naphthalene has a very small vapour pressure).
ρ = 0.839 kg/m3
µ = 2.3 × 10–5 kg/m.s
CAs = 0.13/1 = 0.13 (A = naphthalene)
∆xA = 0.13 – 0 = 0.13
–2 3 2 1/4
Sh = 2.0 + 0.6 (7.5 × 10 ) (0.839) (9.8) (0.13)
 (2.3 × 10–5)2 
–5
×  2.3 × 10  = 31.20
(0.839) (5.85 × 10–6)
Sh DAB (31.20) (5.85 × 10–6)
kc ==
d 75 × 10–2
–3
kc = 2.43 × 10 m/s
0.13
NA = kc ∆C = (2.43 × 10–3)
0.082 × 418.5
NA = 9.21 × 10–6 kmol/m2 · s (Ans.)
(41) A "cooling bag", commonly used for storing water in deserts, is made of porous
canvas. A small amount of water diffuses through the canvas and evapourates from
the surface. The evapouration of the water cools the surface of the bag and a
temperature driving force is established. Determine the temperature of the ambient air
if the following values are assumed :
Surface temperature of the bag 66 °F
Pr 0.72
Sc 0.61
Density of air 0.072 lb/ft3
Viscosity of air 0.018 cp
Thermal conductivity of air 0.014 Btu/hr.ft2 (°F/ft)
Specific heat of air 0.24 Btu/lb.°F
v∞ 0.5 mph
Latent heat of vapourization of H2O 1056 Btu/lb
Vapour pressure of H2O 0.31 psi
Partial pressure of H2O in air 8 mmHg
R 0.7302 ft3.atm/lbmole/°R
'
kc Ps
Sol. : NA
'
= kc (cs – C∞)
 P∞
= R T – T  … (1)
 s ∞
Q = NA λH2 O = h (T∞ – Ts) … (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2)
'
kc Ps P∞
 
R Ts – T∞ λH2 O = h (T∞ – Ts) … (3)
Rearranging equation (3)
'
kc Ps P∞ λH2O
 
h Ts – T∞ R = (T∞ – Ts) … (4)
Using Chilton-Colburn analogy
'
kc h
jD = U Sc2/3 = Pr2/3
m ρC p Um
'
kc 1 Pr2/3
= … (5)
h ρCp Sc
Substituting equation (5) in equation (4)

1 Pr2/3 Ps P∞ λH2O Ps – P∞ = (T – T )
ρCp Sc  –  = a Ts T∞ s
Ts T∞ R   ∞
Consequently
2  Ps
T∞ – T∞ Ts + a T  + aP∞ = 0 … (6)
 s 
where,
1 Pr2/3 λH2O
a =
ρCp Sc R
2/3
1 0.72 (1056 Btu/lb) (18 lb/lbmol)
=
(0.072 lb/ft3) (0.24 Btu/lb. °F) 0.61 0.7302 ft3 atm/lbmol. °R
= 1682490.5 °R2/atm
and Ps = 0.31 psi/(14.7 psi/atm) = 0.021 atm
and P∞ = 8 mmHg/(760 mmHg/atm) = 0.0105 atm
Therefore, equation (6) becomes
2
T∞ – 592.3 T∞ + 17666.2 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation for T∞ we get : T∞ = 560.8 °R = 101.1 °F (Ans.)
(42) Naphthalene is sublimating from a flat plate into a turbulent air stream flowing past
the plate. It is found that the thickness of the naphthalene coating at a point decreases
0.5 mm in one hour. Surface temperature at that point is 78°F. Using data given below,
calculate the gas-phase mass transfer coefficient, kG in gmol/cm2 sec mmHg and the
thickness of a fictitious laminar film (cm) having a resistance to mass transfer equal to
that in the boundary layer.
Properties of naphthalene :
Vapor pressure at 78°F = 0.0895 mmHg
Density (cast material) = 1.08 g/cm3
Molecular weight = 128.16
Diffusivity in air (at 20°C) = 0.0611 cm2/sec.
Sol. : We can model the flux as
N = k∆C
Since we know that the thickness decreased by 0.5 mm/hr = 1.4 × 10–5 cm/s and we
know that the bulk density was 1.08 g/cm3.
∴ On a unit area basis (cm2), the flux of naphthalene was = 1.5 × 10–5 g/s
= 1.18 × 10–7 mol/cm2 · s
1.18 × 10–7 mol/cm2 · s 1.18 × 10–7 mol/cm2 · s
k = = 1
∆C
RT (∆P)
1.7 × 10–7 mol/cm2 · s
∴ k =
1 0.0895  cm3
8.314 (298 K)  760 101.325 × 1000 L
k = 3.54 × 10–5 cm/s
To calculate the fictitious film thickness, we can use the relationship

D D 0.0611 cm2/s
k = ⇒ δ= k = = 1731 cm
δ 3.54 × 10–5 cm/s cm/s
Note : This is based on film theory. (Ans.)
(43) A particular implant has been designed to release a drug at constant rate of
0.5 µg/cm2-s. The drug has a solubility in blood of 10 g/l and a diffusivity of 10–6 cm2/s.
The effective therapeutic concentration is one-tenth of the solubility. What is the
effective film thickness in the blood ?
Sol. : We can view this as follows :
N D∆C
A = z
fm
where,
zfm = approximate film thickness, and
N
A = flux per unit area
cm2
10–6 s 10–2
g g 
– 10–3
D∆C  cm3 cm3
∴ zfm = N = g
0.5 × 10–6
A cm2 · s
∴ zfm = 0.18 mm (Ans.)
(44) A fluid is flowing in a vertical pipe and mass transfer is occuring from the pipe wall to
'
the fluid. Relate the convective mass transfer coefficient kc to the variables d, L, µ, v,
DAB, G, ∆ρ,
∆ρ where, D is the pipe diameter, L is pipe length, and ∆ρ is the density
difference.
L2 L2
Sol. : kc =  t  , D = [L], ρ=  3 , µ = Lt , v =  t  , DAB =  t  , g =  t  , ∆ρ =  3
' L M M L M
  L          L 
We have 8 variables and 3 parameters.
Therefore, we need to come up with 5 equations.
So using the Buckingham π approach, and selecting D, ρ, µ as the variables common to all
sets.
'
π1 : Da ρb µc kc
M b M c L
[L]a  3 Lt  t 
L     
L : a – 3b – c + 1 = 0; M : b + c = 0; t : – c – 1 = 0
c = – 1; b = 1; a = 1
Dρ '
π1 : µ kc
π2 : Da ρb µc DAB
M b M c L2
[L]a  3 Lt  t 
L     
L : a – 3b – c + 2 = 0; M : b + c = 0; t : – c – 1 = 0
c = – 1; b = 1, a = 0
ρDAB
π2 : µ
π3 : Da ρb µc v
M b M c L
[L]a  3 Lt  t 
L     
Dρ
π3 : µ v
π4 : Da ρb µc ∆ρ
M b M c M
[L]a  3 Lt  3
L    L 
L : a – 3b – c – 3 = 0; M : b + c + 1 = 0; t : – c = 0
c = 0, b = – 1, a = 0
∆ρ
π4 :
ρ
π5 : Da ρb µc g
M b M c L2
[L]a  3 Lt  t 
L     
L : a – 3b – c + 2 = 0; M : b + c = 0; t : – c – 1 = 0
c = – 1, b = 1, a = 0
ρg
π5 : µ
Dρ ' ρDAB Dρv ∆ρ ρg

π1 : µ kc ; π2 : µ ; π3 : µ ; π4 : ; π5 : µ
ρ
'
π1 Dkc
= Sh = Dρρv ∆ρ ρg
π2 DAB = f  µ ‚ ρ ‚ µ  (Ans.)
(45) Mercury at 26.5 °C is flowing through a packed bed of lead spheres having a diameter
of 2.096 mm with a void fraction of 0.499. The superficial velocity is 0.02198 m/s. The
solubility of lead in mercury is 1.721 wt%, the Schmidt number is 124.1, the viscosity
of the solution is 1.577 × 10–3 Pa·s, and the density is
13530 kg/m3.
(a) Predict the value of jD. Compare with the experimentally determined value of
jD = 0.076.
(b) Predict the value of mass transfer coefficient of lead in mercury.
Sol. : ε = 0.499, ' = 0.02198 m/e (superficial velocity).
NDC = 124.1, T = 26.5°C, ρ = 13530 kg/m3, µ = 1.577 × 10–3 Pa·s.
Dp = 2.096 mm = 2.096/1000 = 0.002096 m.
Fig. 3.16 : Packed bed and lead spheres

Dk É' ρ (0.002096) (0.02198) (13530)
NR e = = = 395.3
µ 1.577 × 10–3
0.250 – 0.31 0.250
JD = NRe = 0.499 (395.3) – 0.31
ε
(a) JD = 0.07843
Let A = B, ∴ MA (Pb) = 207.19

B = Mercury, ∴ MB (Hg) = 200.59
XAi = 0.01721 wt. fraction

(Solubility of Pb(A) in Hg (B)
Fig. 3.17
Assume 100 kg saturated solution :
1.721 kg A and 98.279 kg B
1.721
207.19
XA1 (mol frac.) = 1.721 98.279 = 0.01667
207.19 + 200.59
XB1 = 1.000 – 0.01667 = 0.98333
XB2 = 1.000 – 0 = 1.000
XB1 + XB2 0.9833 + 1.000
XB2 ≅ 2 = 2 = 0.9916
'
' kc
We have correlation, kc C = kc XBM C or kc = X
BM
Also equation for JD is given by,

'
kc 2/3
JD = É' NDC
'
kc
0.07843 = 0.02198 (124.1) 2/3
'
kc = 6.929 × 10–5 m/s (Ans.)
'
kc
6.929 × 10–5
(b) kc = X = 0.9916 kc = 6.986 × 10–5 m/s (Ans.)
BM
(46) Ether and water are contacted in the Lewis cell shown in the figure. An iodine-like
solute is originally present in both phases at 3.10–3 M. However, it is 700 times more
soluble in ether. Diffusion coefficients in both phases are around 10–5 cm2/s.
Resistance to mass transfer in the ether is across a 10–2 – centimeter thin film;
resistance to mass transfer in the water involves a surface renewal time of 10 seconds.
What is the solute concentration in the ether after 20 minutes ?
3
20 cm ether
2
Surface area of 12.2 cm
3
100 cm H2O
Fig. 3.18 : Lewis cell in Ex. 44

Sol. : Given information :
• Initial iodine-like solute concentrations in both phases : 3 × 10–3 M.
• Solute is 700 times more soluble in ether.
• Diffusion coefficients in both phases : 1 × 10–5 cm2/s.
• Resistance to mass transfer in the ether : across 10–2 cm film.
• Resistance to mass transfer in the water : a surface renewal time of 10 s.
From the given information, the mass transfer coefficients in both phases can be
calculated. In the ether phase, film theory can be applied.
Therefore,
D 10–5
kc = 1 = = 10–3 cm/s … (1)
10–2
In the water phase, surface renewal theory can be applied. Therefore,
kw = D/τ = 10–5/10 = 10–3 cm/s … (2)
Ether phase c1i' Water phase
c1' Solute flux c1
c1i
Fig. 3.19
For convenience, let us designate all concentrations in the ether phase with a prime and
all those in the water without a prime. Then, the flux of solute is,
' '
N1 = ke (c1i – c1 ) = kw (c1 – c1i) … (3)
The interfacial concentrations are in equilibrium. Therefore,

'
c 1i = Hc1i … (4)
Eliminating these interfacial concentrations, we get,
N1 =  1  (Hc1 – c' ) … (5)

1/ke + H/kw  1
Therefore, the overall coefficient based on a driving force in ether is
Ke = 1/k + H/k 
1 1
= = 1.43 × 10–6 cm/s … (6)
 e w 1/10–3 + 700/10–3
From the mass balance in the ether phase,
'
dc1 '
Ve dt = Ke A (Hc1 – c1 ) … (7)
From the mass balance of the solute,

' '
Vtc = Vec1 + Vwc1 ⇒ 120 × 3 × 10–3 = 20c1 + 100c1
'
c1 = 3.6 × 10–3 – 0.2 c1 … (8)
If we plug equation (8) into equation (7), then we obtain,
'
dc1 KeA
' = Ve dt … (9)
2.52 – 141c1
If we integrate equation (9) from t = 0 to t, then
'
 2.52 – 141 c1  KeAt
1
ln   = … (10)
– 141 2.52 – 141 c'  Ve
 10
'
1  2.52 – 141 c1  –6
ln   = 1.43 ∞ 10 ∞ 12.2 ∞ 20 ∞ 60
– 141 2.52 – 141 × 3 × 10 
–3 20
'
⇒ c1 = 5.0 × 10–3 M (Ans.)
(47) A thin metal foil is put in a wind tunnel in order to measure the drag force exerted by
an air current flowing parallel to the foil's surfaces. For a speed of 40 m/s, 1 bar
pressure and 25°C, the drag force measured was 0.134 N. The metal foil is now
replaced by a naphthalene plate of exactly the same dimensions.
(a) Calculate the diffusion coefficient of naphthalene in air, the Schmidt Number, Sc
and the naphthalene molar concentration at the plate's surface for the above
conditions. The diffusion coefficient of naphthalene in air at 25°C and 3 bar is
2.064 × 10–6 m2/s, while its saturation pressure is 0.25 Torr. Properties of air at 25°C
and 1 bar : kinematic viscosity v = 1.57 · 10–5 m2/s, and density ρ = 1.17 kg/m3.
(b) What is (assuming steady state conditions) the maximum rate of sublimation of
naphthalene (in mol/s), at the same air current conditions, using the correlation :
f k
= (Sc) 2/3 … (1)
2 u0
where, f is the friction factor, Sc, the Schmidt Number, K, the average mass transfer
coefficient and u0 the air current velocity ? Hint : Remember that the shear stress τ0 on
a plate is the force exerted parallel to the plate divided by its surface area.
Air current
Metal foil/
Naphthalene plate
Drag force
measuring device
Fig. 3.20 : A thin metal foil is put in a wind tunnel to measure drag force
Sol. : (a) For 1 bar and 25°C :
P0 3
D = D0 P = 2.064 × 10–6 1 m2/s = 6.19 × 10–6 m2/s
µ v
Sc = = D ≈ 2.54
ρ·D
The concentration on the plate's surface is that at saturation :
P1i
c1i = RT ≈ 1.345 × 10–2 mol/m3
(b) For the maximum sublimation rate :
N F1
N1 = k (c1i – c∞i) ≈ k c1i ⇒ k = c = A · c … (2)
1i 1i
where, A is the total surface of the plate. Using the definition of the friction factor f and
equations (1) and (2) :
F1 f τ0 Fdrag 1
Sc2/3 = 2 = = A · ⇒
A · c 1i · u0 ρ · (u0)2 ρ · (u0)2
P1i 
Fdrag · RT
Fdrag · c1i  
F1 = = ≈ 2.07 × 10–5 mol/s (Ans.)
Sc2/3 · ρ · u0 Sc2/3 · ρ · u0
(48) A single potassium chloride (KCl) crystal about 0.063 cm in diameter, which is
immersed in a 5.2% supersaturated solution containing about 25 wt% potassium
chloride, is growing at a rate of 0.0013 cm/min. If the system is well mixed, this growth
is second order, presumably because both potassium and chloride ions are involved.
In our case, the solution may not be well mixed; it flows past the crystal at 6 cm/s. The
solution's viscosity is about 1.05 · 10–3 Pa · s; its density is 1.2 g/cm3, and the crystal's
density is 1.984 g/cm3. Does diffusion influence the rate of crystal growth ?
(Additional information : Diffusion coefficient of KCl in water at the given conditions
: 1.994 · 10–5 cm2/s)
Sol. : To check if the diffusion influences the rate of the crystal growth you have to calculate the
mass transfer coefficient where growing effects take place and compare with the mass
transfer coefficient without growing effects. By comparing these two values you can say
if the crystal growth is the limiting step or not.
The mass transfer coefficient without growing effects can be calculated using equation for
forced convection around a solid sphere is given by :
1 1
0
kd
= 2.0 + 0.6 dv 2  v 3 … (1)
D  v  D
where the diffusion coefficient D is 1.994 · 10–5 cm2/s, the relative velocity of the sphere
v0 is 6 cm/s, the solution viscosity v is (1.05 · 10–3 Pa · s) (1.2 g/cm3) = 8.75 m2/s, and the
diameter of the crystal d is 0.063 cm.
The mass transfer coefficient k without growing effects becomes therefore :
1 1
 dv0 2 v 3 D
k = 2.0 + 0.6  v  D  · d
    
m m2 m2
   1.994 · 10
1
6.3 · 10 m · 0.06 s   8.75 · 10
1
–4 2 –7 3 –9
s s
=  2.0 + 0.6  8.75 · 10 m  1.994 · 10
2 m 2   · 6.3 · 10 –4 m
  s 
–7 –9
s 
… (2)
m cm
= 1.01 · 10–4 s = 0.0101 s
The mass transfer coefficient K including growth effects can be calculated using the
information of the growing rate and the concentration of the solution.
j = K (c1 – c1, sat) … (3)
The flux j can be calculated with the information of the growing rate of 0.0013 cm/min,
and the density of the crystal of 1.984 g/cm3
1 dm ρ dV ρ (π/2) · d2 · dd ρ dd
j = A · dt = A · dt = π · d2 · dt = 2 · dt … (4)
g cm 1 min g
j = 0.5 · 1.984 · 0.0013 min · 60s · = 2.15 · 10–5
cm3 cm2 · s
This flux has to be equal to :
1.052 · 0.25 1 · 0.25 g g
K (c1 – c1, sat) = K  1.052 – 1.052 · 1.2 = K · 1.48 · 10–2 … (5)
  cm 3 cm3
Combining equation (4) and (5), the mass transfer coefficient K including growth effects
becomes :
g
2.15 · 10–5
cm2 · s cm
K = g = 0.00145 s … (6)
1.48 · 10–2 3
cm
Now, we see that when comparing (equation 2) and (equation 6), that the mass transfer
which includes the growing effect is only :
K
k = 0.143 … (7)
14.3% of the mass transfer coefficient without growing effects, therefore the crystal
growth is the limiting step ! (Ans.)
(49) The mass transfer coefficient in gas-solid fludized beds has been correlated with the
dimensionless expression
kp  µ 2/3
 dGM – –0.44
= 1.77   · RT
G ρD µ (1 – ε)
where k is the mass transfer coefficient (cm/s), ρ is the mean pressure of the fluidized
–
gas (atm), G is the total convective flux, d is the particle diameter, M is the molecular
weight of the gas, ε is the bed porosity, and R is the gas constant (82.05 cm3 · atm/
(mol · K). You are studying 0.1 centimeter particles of coal burning in a bed with
ε = 0.42 fluidized by air at 1250°C. The air flux at 1.7 atm is 380 lb/(ft2 · h). The
produced CO2 is caried away by an excess of air.
What is the film or unstirred layer thickness for the CO2 diffusion around the coal
particles ?
Additionally required data : Air viscosity at the given conditions : 550 · 10–6 g/(cm · s);
molecular weight of air : 29 g/mol, of CO2 : 44 g/mol, D = 1.467 cm2/s
Sol. : If we assume that the surface layer of air around the carbon particles is an unstirred film,
we know from the film theory, that the film thickness correlates diffusivity and mass
transfer coefficient :
D
l = k … (1)
For the calculation of the mass transfer coefficient, we still need the convective flux G in
mol/(cm2 · s) (applying the given conversion) and the density of the air (assumed as an
ideal gas).
The total convective flux is
lb
G = 380
ft2 · hr
lb g 1 ft2 1 hr 1 mol
= 380 · 453.59 lb · · 3600 s · 29 g … (2)
ft2 · hr (30.48 cm) 2
mol
= 1.777 · 10–3
cm2s
The density of the gas is :
– g
– 29 mol · 1.7 atm
Mp g
ρ = M c = RT = = 3.95 · 10–4 … (3)
cm3atm cm3
82.05 mol K · 1523 K
So finally the mass transfer coefficient becomes,
dGM – –0.44
G ρD 2/3
 · Rt · p ·  µ 
air 
k = 1.77 ·
µ (1 – ε)  
Putting all known parameters, we get,
cm
= 70.32 s … (4)
Eventually we get for the film thickness :

D 1.467
l = k = 70.32 cm = 0.02 cm (Ans.)
(50) Find the dissolution rate of a cholesterol gallstone 1 cm in diameter immersed in a

solution of bile salts. The solubility of cholesterol in this solution is about 3.5 · 10–3
g/cm3; the kinematic viscosity of this soution is about 0.06 cm2/sec; the diffusion
coefficient of cholesterol is 1.8 · 10–6 cm2/sec.
Sol. : A schematic of the problem can be seen in Fig. 3.21.
Dr Solute flux
away
Fig. 3.21 : Steady dissolution of a cholesterol gasstone

The dissolution rate of the gall stone can be defined like :
· dm
M = dt = N1 A = kA (csat – c∞) … (1)
The surface of the sphere is

A = πd2
and the concentration far away is
c∞ = 0
whereas at the surface of the sphere, the concentration is the saturation concentration,
which is the solubility of cholesterol in bile solution and is given.
Because of the density difference between saturated bile solution and pure bile
solution, we get a free convection around the sphere. For this case, Cussler gives us the
mass transfer correlation :
d3 ∆ρg1/4  v 1/3
= 2.0 + 0.6 
kd
… (2)
D  ρv2  D
We can solve this for the mass transfer coefficient k and obtain :
d3 ∆ρg1/4  v 1/3 D
k = 2.0 d + 0.6 
D
… (2a)
 ρv2  D  d 
For the density of bile solution, we can take the density of water :
g
ρ = 1
cm3
All other quantities are given in the text or are well-known constants. So we get for the
mass transfer coefficient :
cm2
1.8 · 10– 6 s 1/4 1/3
k= 2.0 + 0.6 13 · 0.003 · 981  0.06   = 1.89 · 10–4 cm
1 cm   1 · 0.06  1.8 · 10  
2 –6 s
… (3)
Finally, we can calculate the dissolution rate :
S = k πd2 csat
cm g s
= 1.89 · 10–4 s · π · 1 cm2 · 3.5 · 10–3 3 · 86400 day … (4)
cm
g
= 0.18 day
How would the solution look like if we had only diffusive flux, but no free convection ?
A mass balance on a shell around the sphere has the following form :
Solute accumulation = Diffusion into – Diffusion out
 within the shell   the shell   of the shell 
or in mathematical terms :
∂ 2 2 2
∂t (4πr ∆rc) = (4πr j)r – (4πr j)r + ∆r … (5)
The left-hand side of the above equation is equal to zero, because we can treat the
diffusion as in steady-state.
We divide both sides of this equation by the spherical shell volume and take the limit
∆r → 0, then we find,
1 d
0 = 2 dr (r2 j)
r
Combine this with the Fick's law,
D d dc
0 = 2 dr r2 dr … (6)
r  
This differential equation has two boundary conditions
d
r = R0 = 2 , c = csat
r=∞ , c=0
After two integrations and using the boundary condition we get the concentration profile
R0
c = csat r … (7)
The diffusive dissolution flux j can be found from Fick's law
dc DR0
j = – D dr = csat … (8)
r2
which, at the sphere's surface, is
D 2D
j = R csat = d csat … (9)
0
The mass flow by diffusion alone then would be :

dm' 2D 2
dt = jA = d πd csat … (10)
By comparison of (1) and (10) we see, that
2D
k' = d
which is the first term of the right hand side of equation (2a), is the mass transfer
coefficient for pure diffusion from a solid sphere. The second term in equation (2a) is
accounting for the effect of free convection around the sphere. (Ans.)
(51) Consider a laboratory bio-reactor in which micro-organisms need oxygen (at a rate of
0.9 g/h) to work property. This oxygen is continuously supplied by feeding air
(20% O2, 80% N2, at a pressure of 1 atm) through a sparger at the bottom of the reactor.
The reactor is stirred with a power input of 450 W/m3. By this, air bubbles are
generated with an average diameter of 1.2 mm that have an average residence time in
the reactor of 25 seconds.
Data (at the operating conditions) :
Density of the liquid : 1 g/cm3
Kinematic viscosity : 0.1 cm2/s
Diffusion coefficient of O2 : 2.1 · 10–5 cm2/s
Partition coefficient of oxygen in the liquid : 4 · 10–5 g/(atm · cm3)
(a) Use the appropriate correlation to calculate the mass transfer coefficient in that
process.
(b) Calculate the volume rate of air that is needed to keep the oxygen concentration
in the liquid at 40% of its saturation concentration on the bubble/liquid interface.
It can be assumed that bubble diameter and partial pressure of O2 in the bubbles
are constant.
Sol. :
Air
Fig. 3.22 : Laboratory bio-reactor
(a) For the stirred tank with gas bubbles, the mass transfer correlation is :
4 1/4 1/3
kd
= 0.13 (P/V) d   v 
D  ρv3  D
This can be solved for kstirred.
(P/V)1/4
kstirred = 0.13  D2/3 v1/3
 ρv3 
≈ 0.0021 cm/s
(b) Mass balance :
 Mass of oxygen  = Mass transfer rate
consumed per time  of oxygen 
·
or m O2 = k A (cO2‚ sat – cO2 )
The saturation concentration is
cO 2 = H pO2 = H yO2p
‚ sat
The wanted oxygen concentration is
cO2 = 0.4 cO2‚ sat
So the required exchange area becomes :
·
mO2
A = 0.6 kc
O 2‚ sat
This is also the total surface area of all the bubbles in the liquid :
A = N · πd2
Therefore, the number of bubbles in the tank must be :
·
1 mO2
N =
πd2 0.6 k cO2‚ sat
From this, the needed air volume rate can be calculated :
· Vbubble N
V air =
τ
·
πd3 1 1 mO2
= 6 ·
τ πd2 0.6 k cO2‚ sat
·
1 d mO2
= 3.6
τ k HyO2 p
1 0.12 0.9/3600
= 3.6 25
0.0021 · 4 · 10–5 · 0.2 · 1
cm3
≈ 19.8 s (Ans.)
(52) Water containing 0.1-M benzoic acid flows at 0.1 cm/s through a 1 cm diameter rigid
tube of cellulose acetate, the walls of which are permeable to small electrolytes. These
walls are 0.01 cm thick; solutes within the walls diffuse as through water. The tube is
immersed in a large well-stirred water bath. Under these conditions, the flux of
benzoic acid from the bulk to walls can be described by,
1
2
kd
= 1.62 d v3
D DL 
where, L is the length of the tube and v is the average velocity of the tube.
(a) After 50 cm of tube, what fraction of a 0.1-M benzoic acid solution has been
removed ?
Remember that there is more than one resistance to mass transfer in this system.
(b) How much does the previous answer change if the benzoic acid solution in the
tube is in benzene, not water ?
Sol. : A schematic of the problem can be seen in Fig. 3.23.
Water containing
Benzoic acid out
Larger, well stirred water bath

Water containing
Benzoic acid in
Fig. 3.23 : Schematic of the problem (50)

(a) The diffusion coefficient of benzoic acid at infinite dilution in water at 25°C is D = 1.00 ·
10–5 cm2/s.
Under the given conditions, the flux of benzoic acid from the bulk to the walls can be
described using the given equation in the text. Using this equation it is possible to
calculate the mass transfer coefficient k :
cm 1 cm2
1
d 2v 3  (1 cm) 0.1 s 
2 3 1 · 10–5 s
k = 1.62  DL 
D cm
· d = 1.62   · 1 cm = 9.47 · 10–5 s … (1)
  cm 2
1 · 10 s · 50 cm
–5
The total mass transfer coefficient kT is put together by the mass transfer coefficient
resulted form the flux of benzoic acid from the bulk to the walls and from the mass
transfer coefficient resulted from diffusion :
1 1 cm
kT = 1 1 = 1 0.01 cm = 8.65 · 10–5 s … (2)
k + D cm + 2
cm
9.47 × 10–5 s 1.00 · 10–5 s
To calculate the concentration profile of benzoic acid along the tube, a mass balance over
a section of the pipe has to be made.
πd2
4 v∆c = – kT (πd ∆z) (c – csat) … (3)
Equation (3) can be written as,
dc 4kT
– dz = dv (c – cext) … (4)
Considering a infinite small volume.
The boundary conditions are :
c = c0 at z = 0
cext = 0 for all z (large well-stirred water bath)
Solving equation (4) applying the boundary conditions :
4kT
ln c  = – dv L
c
… (5)
 0
The concentration at the end of the pipe is therefore,

cm
 4 · 8.65 · 10 s
–5

c = c0 exp – dv L
4kT
= 0.1 M exp – 
· 50 cm = 0.0841 M … (6)
  cm
 1 cm · 0.1 s

Therefore, 15.9% of the benzoic acid has been removed.
(b) The diffusion coefficient of benzoic acid in benzene is D = 1.38 · 10–5 cm2/s.
Under the given conditions, the flux of benzoic acid from the bulk to the walls can be
described using the given equation in the text. Using the equation it is possible to
calculate the mass transfer coefficient k :
cm 1 cm2
1
d 3v 3 D
(1 cm) 2 0.1
s  3 1.38 · 10 –5
s
k = 1.62  DL  · d = 1.62
cm
   cm 2  · 1 cm = 1.17 · 10–4 s

1.38 · 10–5 s · 50 cm

… (7)
The total mass transfer coefficient kT is put together by the mass transfer coefficient
resulted form the flux benzoic acid from the bulk to the walls and from the mass transfer
coefficient resulted from diffusion from benzoic acid through the walls into water :
1 1 cm
kT = 1 1 = 1 0.01 cm = 1.05 · 10–4 s … (8)
+ +
k D cm cm2
1.17 · 10–4 s 1.00 · 10–5 s
The concentration at the end of the pipe is therefore :
cm
 4kT  
4 · 1.05 · 10–4 s 
c = c0 exp – dv L
  = 0.1 M exp –  
cm 50 cm = 0.0811 M … (9)
 1 cm · 0.1 s

Therefore, 18.9 % of the benzoic acid has been removed, that means that 3% more is
removed when the benzoic acid is solved in benzene. (Ans.)
(1) Estimate the overall liquid side mass transfer coefficient at 250C for oxygen from water
into air. In this estimate, assume that each individual mass transfer coefficient is :
D
k = 0.01 cm
Ans. : k = 2.1 × 10–3cm/sec; kp = 9.4 × 10–4 gm. mol

; K = 2.1 × 10–3 cm/sec
 L cm 2
sec. atm L 
(2) We are studying gas absorption into water at 2.2 atm. total pressure in a packed bed
tower containing Berl saddles. From previous experiments with ammonia and methane,
we assume that for both gases, the mass transfer coefficient times the packing area per
kg mole
tower volume is 18
hr.m3
For the gas side and 530 kg/mole hr. m3 for the liquid side. Henry's law constants for
ammonia is 9.6 atm and 41,000 atm for methane.
Estimate the overall gas-side mass transfer coefficient for each gas.
(Ans. : kyaammonia = 16 kg mole/hr. m3‚ kyamethane = 0.03 kg mole/hr.m3)
(3) Estimate the average mass transfer coefficient for water evapourating from a film falling
at 0.82 cm/sec into air. The air is at 25oC and 2 atm, and the film is 186 cm long. Express
your results in cm3 of H2O vapour at STP/(hr. cm2. atm)
(Ans. : 130 in units given)
(4) Calculate the convective mass transfer coefficient in a wetted wall column for the transfer
of benzene into carbon-dioxide at 0°C. The gas velocity through the column is 1.25 m/s.
The diameter of the column is 0.16 m. Assume that the benzene concentration in Carbon
dioxide is very low.
(Ans : kC = 4.3 × 10–3 m/s)
(5) Determine the film thickness of oil (density = 980 kg/m3) at a distance of 100 mm
downstream of the leading edge of a flat surface over which the oil is flowing at a rate of
0.4 m/s.
Ans. : Film thickness = 16.57 mm 
 Displacement thickness = 0.375 m 
 Boundary wall thickness = δ = 6.21 mm
(6) It is desired to estimate the mass transfer coefficient kG in kg mol/s m2 for water vapour
in air at 338.6 k and 101.32 kpa flowing in a large duct past different geometry solids. The
velocity in the duct is 3.66 m/s. The water vapour concentration in the air is small, so the
physical properties of air can be used. Water vapour is being transferred to the solids. Do
this for the following geometries.
(a) A single 25.4 mm diameter sphere
(b) A packed bed of 25.4 mm spheres with ∈ = 0.35
Ans. : (a) k = 1.98 × 10–8 kg mole 
 G s.m2 
(7) Calculate the maximum possible rate of O2 uptake 37oC of micro-organisms having
2
diameter of 3 µm suspended in an agitated aqueous solution. It is assumed that the
surrounding liquid is saturated with O2 from air at 1 atm. pressure. It will be assumed
that the microorganism can utilize the oxygen much faster than it can diffuse to it.
The micro-organism has density very close to that of water.
Physical data :
g mol O2
(1) The solubility of O2 from air in water at 37oC = 2.26 × 10–7
cm3 liquid
(2) The diffusivity of O2 in water at 37oC = 3.25 × 10–9 m2/sec.
(3) Viscosity of water at 37oC = 6.94 × 10–4 kg/ms
(4) Density of water = 994 kg/m3
(5) Density of Air = 1.13 kg/m3
(Hint : Since O2 is consumed faster than, it is supplied, the concentration CA2 at the
surface is zero. The concentration CA1 in the solution is at saturation)
Ans : k = 9.75 × 10–3 m/s‚ N = 2.20 × 10–6 kg mole O2
 
 C A s. m2 
(8) A total of 5 gm of wet micro-organisms having a density of 1100 kg/m3 and a diameter
of 0.667 µm are added to 0.1 liter of aqueous solution at 37oC in a shaker flask for a
fermentation. Air can enter through a porous stopper. Use physical property data from
example (8)
(a) Calculate the maximum rate possible of mass transfer of O2 in kg mol/O2. sec. to the
surface of micro-organisms assuming that the solution is saturated with air at
101.32 kpa.
(b) If the actual utilization of O2 by the micro-organisms is 6.30 × 10–6 kg mol.
O2 sec. What would be the actual concentration of O2 in the solution as percent
saturation during the fermentation ?
–3 –5
Ans : (a) kL = 9.82 × 10 m/s‚ NAA = 9.07 × 10 kg. mol O2/sec
 (b) 6.95 % saturation 
 
(9) A stream of air at 100 kPa pressure and 300 K flowing on the top of surface of a thin flat
sheet of solid naphthalene of length 0.2 m with a velocity of 20 m/s.
The order date are :
(i) Mass diffusivity of naphthalene vapour in air = 6 × 10–6 m2/sec.
m2
(ii) Kinematics viscosity of air = 1.5 × 10–5 s
(iii) Concentration of napthalene of the air solid napthalene interface = 1 × 10–5 k
mole/m3
Calculate :
(a) The average mass transfer coefficient over the plate.
Ans. : (a) k– = 5.597 ∞ 10–6 k mole/m2.s kpa 
 G 
(b) Rate of loss of naphthalene = 1.1194 × 10–11 k mole/m
(10) Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure passes up a duct at 2.48 m/s. Estimate the mass
transfer coefficient kG of water vapour to this air at from a number of different solid
objects placed in the duct. As the water vapour concentration in the air is small, use the
physical properties of pure air.
(a) A single sphere of 19.05 mm diameter
(b) A bed of such spheres with a voidage of 50%.
-8
(Ans: (a) mass transfer coefficient kG = 1.90 × 10 m/s; (b) mass transfer coefficient
–8
(kG = 4.91 × 10 m/s)
(11) A mixture of air and carbon dioxide flows in a wetted-wall tower past a thin film of water
flowing down a vertical plate. The CO2 is absorbed into the water from the air at 20°C
and 1.20 atm. (abs.), and a value for k'C of 7.289 × 10–4 m/s has been predicted. At a given
–5
point the mole fraction of CO2 in the liquid at the liquid-gas interface is 1.8 × 10 and the
partial pressure in the bulk of the air phase is 0.03 atm. Calculate the absorption rate of
4
CO2. Henry's Law coefficient of CO2 in air as 0.142 × 10 atmospheres per mole fraction.
-7 2
(Ans : Rate of absorption of CO2 = –1.34 × 10 k mole/m .s; i.e. flow is from gas bulk to
the liquid).
(12) Large volumes of pure water are made to flow past a piece of solid benzoic acid. The
water is at 26.1 oC, at which the solubility of benzoic acid is 0.02948 k mole/m3.
Calculate (i) the flux of benzoic acid perpendicular to the acid block, making any
approximations to the log mean water concentration if necessary and (ii) the exit
concentration (if applicable) for :
(a) Water at 0.127 m/s parallel to a flat acid plate of length (parallel to flow) 0.254 m.
(b) Water at 0.04572 m/s through a circular acid tube of length (parallel to flow)
0.9144 m and diameter 9.525 mm.
–7 2 –4
(Ans : (a) NA = 2.45 × 10 k mole/m s; (b) Exit concentration= CA = 8.050 × 10
3 −8 2
k mole/m ; NA = 9.585 × 10 k mole/m s)
(13) A micro-organism of diameter 1.08 mm floats suspended in water of similar density. If
the surrounding water is saturated with oxygen at 37 oC (oxygen concentration
–4 3
= 2.26 × 10 k mole/m ) and the micro-organism absorbs the O2 so quickly on its arrival
at the surface that the surface concentration is zero,
calculate :
(a) The diffusivity of oxygen in the water;
(b) The molar flux of oxygen absorption.
–9 2 –7 2
(Ans : (a) DAB = 3.27 × 10 m /s; (b) NA = 6.84 × 10 k mole/m .s)
(14) Water, at 25 oC, flows through a 6 ft long 2 in I.D. pipe at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The pipe
is coated on the inside with a thin layer of benzoic acid which slowly dissolved in the
water. The solubility of benzoic acid is 0.029 g mole/l. The diffusion coefficient of benzoic
acid is 1.06 × 10–4 cm2/sec.
(a) If the concentration of benzoic acid in the exit stream is 1 × 10–4 g mole/l what is
the average mass transfer coefficient, kc, cm/sec ?
(b) What is mass transfer coefficient in units of g mole/[cm2.sec. (mole fract)] ?

(c) Evaluate the Sherwood and Stanton numbers (using kc from part (a)).
(15) Water at 20 oC flows through a 5 cm ID pipe at an average velocity of 3 m/s. A 60 cm
section of the pipe is replaced with a tube made of solid sodium chloride. Compare the
mass transfer coefficient for the dissolution of sodium chloride in water using the mass
transfer forms of the :
(a) Prandtl analogy; (b) Von Karman analogy and (c) Chilton-Colburn analogy.
(16) In studying the sublimation of naphthalene into an air stream, an investigator constructed
a 3 m long annular duct. The inner pipe was made from 2.5 cm OD solid naphthalene
rod; this was surrounded by a 5 cm ID naphthalene pipe.
Air at 20 oC and an average pressure of 1 atm flowed through the annular space at a bulk
velocity of 15 m/s. At 20 oC, naphthalene has a vapour pressure of 0.039 mm Hg and a
diffusivity in air of 0.05 cm2/s. Determine the concentration of naphthalene in the air
stream existing from the annular duct.
(17) It is known that a thin microlayer of organic matter exists on the surface of the water in
the petrochemical complex near Mumbai. Oxygen which is transported from the
atmosphere to the water below must diffuse through the organic microlayer of thickness
of 10–4 cm. You are asked to develop appropriate expressions for the overall water-side
mass transfer coefficient and the overall air-side mass transfer coefficients for the
transport of oxygen from the atmosphere to the water phase through the surface
microlayer. You may wish to use the nomenclature below but note that you may not need
all of the listed parameters.
k = air-side mas transfer coefficient (above the microlayer)
kw = water-side mass transfer coefficient (below the microlayer)
kow = overall water-side mass transfer coefficient
koa = overall air-side mass transfer coefficient
kmw = mass transfer coefficient in the microlayer for microlayer-water mass transfer
kma = mass transfer coefficient in the microlayer for microlayer-air mass transfer
Haw = dimensionless air-water equilibrium partition coefficient (Haw = Ca/Cw)
Ham = dimensionless air-microlayer partition coefficient (Ham = Ca/Cm)
Hwm = dimensionless water-microlayer partition coefficient (Hwm = Cw/Cm)
h = thickness of microlayer.
(18) The mass transfer coefficient for mass transfer from (or to) a flat plate is given by the
following equations :
Laminar conditions (Rez < 3 × 105) : kcz/DAB = 0.332 Rez1/2 Sc1/3
Turbulent conditions (Rez < 3 × 105) : kcz/DAB = 0.0292 Rez4/5 Sc1/3
where Rez = Vzρ/µ. V is the wind velocity and z is the distance along the plate (z = 0 is
the position where the air stream first encounters the plate. Note : the above correlation is
not applicable when z approaches zero, however, it can be used to average kc over the
plate from say z = 0 to z = L, where L is the length of the plate). A 6 m/s wind flows
parallel to a pan containing water. The mass diffusivity of water in air at the temperature
and pressure of the system is 0.25 cm2/s.
Determine :
(a) The value of the mass transfer coefficient at a distance of 1.2 m from the leading
edge of the pan.
(b) The average mass transfer coefficient for the surface between z = 0.25 m and
z = 0.45 m.
(c) The average value of the mass transfer coefficient for the entire pan if the pan
length is 1.5 m.
(19) Chlorine water for pulp bleaching is being prepared by absorbing chlorine gas in water
within a packed tower operating at 293 K and 1.013 × 105 Pa pressure. At one point in the
tower, the chlorine pressure in the gas is 4 × 104 Pa and the concentration in the liquid is 1
kg/m3. Data on the solubility of chlorine in water at 293 K are given below. If the mass
transfer coefficient in the gas phase is four times larger than the mass transfer coefficient
in the liquid phase, what are the interfacial concentrations ?
Partial pressure of Cl2, mm Hg 5 10 30 50 100 150

Solubility of Cl2, g/liter 0.438 0.575 0.937 1.21 1.773 2.27
(20) Estimate the time that a spherical drop of water, originally 2 mm in diameter, must fall in
quiet air at 295 K and 1.013 × 105 Pa pressure in order to reduce its volume by 50%. The
free-fall terminal velocity of water drops in air was reported by Sherwood and Pigford
(1952) as given below :
Diameter, mm 0.05 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Velocity, ft/s 1.18 2.3 7.0 12.7 19.2 23.8
(21) Air is flowing counter-currently to a falling water liquid film in a 3-cm-ID wetted-wall
column. The gas is at 298 ok and 1.013 × 105 Pa total pressure. Determine the gas-side
mass transfer coefficient, kG, if
(a) At a point of 1 m from the gas inlet, the airflow rate is 9.5 × 10–4 m3/s, the average
partial pressure of water vapour in the gas stream is 665 Pa and the average airflow
rate is 9.5 × 10–4 m3/s. The kinematic viscosity of the gas stream is 1.7 × 10–5 m2/s.
(b) The average partial pressure of the water vapour in the gas stream is 665 Pa. The
kinematic viscosity of the gas stream is 1.7 × 10–5 m2/s.
(22) Component A is being separated from a gas mixture of A and B in a wetted-wall
absorption tower with the liquid mixture flowing downward along the wall. At a certain
point in the tower, the bulk gas concentration yA is 0.7 mole fraction and the bulk liquid
xA is 0.1 mole fraction. At the temperature 30°C and 1 atm at which the tower is
operating, the equilibrium data is given below was mole fractions.
xA yA
0 0
0.1 0.155
0.2 0.340
0.25 0.465
0.3 0.650
0.35 0.905
'
The film mass transfer coefficient for A is kx = 3.1 lb mole/hr-ft2 and
'
ky = 2.06 lbmole/ hr-ft2.
(a) Calculate the interfacial compositions yAi and xAi for the case of equimolar counter
diffusion of A and B through both the liquid and gas films.
(b) Calculate the interfacial compositions yAi and xAi for these case of diffusion of A
through stagnant B where the liquid is a non-diffusing solvent.
(Ans. : (a) yAi = 0.47, xAi = 0.253, (b) yAi = 0.573, xAi = 0.284)
(23) A wetted wall adsorption tower is fed with water as the wall liquid and ammonia-air
mixture is passed over the liquid. At a particular level in the tower the ammonia
concentration in the bulk gas is 0.7 mole fraction and that in the liquid is 0.05 mole
fraction. Compute the lcoal mass transfer flux for the absorption of ammonia ignoring the
vaporization of water.
Equilibrium data
xA yA
0.05 0.0707
0.10 0.1347
0.25 0.591
0.3 0.920
When dilute solutions were used, kx = 1.59 gmole/m2s (mole fraction) and
ky = 1.47 gmole/m2s (mole fraction) were found to be the local mass transfer coefficient
from the correlation.
(a) What is the local mass transfer flux for the absorption of ammonia ?
(b) What is the error if you assumed that this is an equimolar/dilute case rather than
the true diffusion of A through stagnant B ?
(24) A perfume scent can be extracted from an aqueous solution using oil drops (diameter :
0.1 cm). The perfume sent is about 200 times more soluble in the oil than in the aqueous
solution. The mass transfer coefficient in the aqueous phase (outside the drops) is
8.4 ⋅ 10−3 cm/sec. After 10 minutes, the concentration of the perfume scent in an initially
pure oil drop is 100 times larger than in the aqueous phase.
Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of the perfume scent inside the oil drops.
(25) A gas stream at 75°C flows through a 0.07 m long packed bed of naphthalene spheres at a
superficial velocity of 0.32 m/s. The diameter of each sphere is 0.011 m and the bed
porosity is 0.4. The average mass transfer coefficient for this steady-state) process was
found to be approximately 0.05 m/s.
(a) Write the naphthalene molar balance and calculate the bulk concentration of
naphthalene in the gas stream at the exit of the tube.
(b) Determine the percent saturation of the exiting gas stream.
Additional Information : The entering gas stream is free of naphthalene. The vapour
pressure of naphthalene at 75°C is 5.61 mmHg.
(26) Consider a laboratory bio-reactor in which micro-organisms need oxygen (at a rate of
0.9 g/hr) to work properly. This oxygen is continuously supplied by feeding air (20% O2,
80% N2, at a pressure of 1 atm.) through a sparger at the bottom of the reactor. The
reactor is stirred with a power input of 450 W/m3. By this, air bubbles are generated with
an average diameter of 1.2 mm that have an average residence time in the reactor of 25
seconds.
Data (at the operating conditions) :
Density of the liquid : 1 g/cm3
Kinematic viscosity : 0.1 cm2/sec
Diffusion coefficient of O2 : 2.1 ⋅ 10−5 cm2/sec
Partition coefficient of oxygen in the liquid 4⋅10−5 g/(atm.cm3)
(a) Use the appropriate correlation to calculate the mass transfer coefficient in that
process.
(b) Calculate the volume rate of air that is needed to keep the oxygen concentration in
the bulk liquid at 40% of its saturation concentration (on the bubble/liquid
interface) ?
(27) In a cylindrical gas absorption column (5 m in height and 1 m in diameter), a solute gas A
(with molecular weight of about 50 g/mol) diffuses into solvent liquid droplets within
which it also reacts. The solvent liquid droplet diameter is 2 cm and remains constant,
while the reaction is zero order with respect to the solute.
(a) At a depth L = 0.4 cm below the droplet liquid surface, the concentration of A has
fallen to one-third of the value at the surface. What is the solute molar concentration
profile inside the droplet at steady-state ?
(b) For a given droplet, what is the molar flux (moles/cm2/s) at this depth L at
steady-state conditions ? The solute-solvent molecular diffusivity D = 2 × 10−6 cm2/s,
the zero-order rate constant k0 = 10−10 mol/cm3/s and the solute concentration
CAi inside the droplets at the droplet liquid interface is 4 × 10−4 mol/cm3.
(c) If the number concentration of droplets in the tower is approximately 104/m3, what is
the total mass depletion rate of the gas in the absorption column ?
(28) A spherical balloon is filled with 15 liters of pure Helium. The balloon skin is slightly
permeable to Helium and can be considered as a membrane with a constant thickness of
0.015 cm. Outside the balloon, the wind is blowing strongly and leading to a surface
renewal time of 0.8 sec at the outer surface of the balloon. The balloon is shrinking, so
that the pressure inside the balloon (p = 1.5 bar) is constant. The temperature of balloon
and environment is 20°C. The effective diffusion coefficient of Helium (D⋅H) in the
membrane is approximately 5⋅10−7 cm2/sec.
(a) Calculate the overall mass transfer coefficient. What is the limiting step ?
(b) How long does it take until the balloon has lost 20% of its initial volume ?
(29) A spherical droplet of water (substance A) is suspended in stagnant air (gas B) at
constant temperature and ambient pressure (25°C, 1.013 bar). The droplet radius is R.
Around the droplet there is a spherical stagnant air film of radius r2, through which water
vapor is diffusing radially. The molar fraction of water in the air is xA1, at R and xA2 at r2.
Consider ideal gases.
(a) Calculate the flux (mol/(sm2)) of water vapor evaporating from the droplet as
function of c (the total concentration), DAB (the diffusion coefficient), R, pB1 (partial
pressure of B at r = R) and pB2 pressure of B at r = r2), assuming steady state, constant
droplet radius and concentrated solutions.
(b) Calculate the flow rate of water at the surface of the droplet when the film becomes
infinitely thick. DAB = 0.26 cm2/s; R = 2 mm; xA1 = 0.4.
(30) Calculate the sublimation flux (mol/(cm2⋅s) of naphthalene from a cylinder made of
naphthalene with a diameter of d = 4 mm and surface temperature of 25°C. The cylinder
is submerged in an air stream flowing perpendicularly to it with a velocity of u = 3 m/s,
at p = 1 atm, and T = 25°C. Make use of the following correlation for an average heat
transfer coefficient h (g/s3⋅K)) to derive the corresponding correlation for the average
mass transfer coefficient k (cm/s) by approximately altering the dimensionless groups to
account for mass transfer (instead of heat transfer).
d ⋅ u0.5  ν 0.31
Nu = 0.43 + 0.532 ⋅ Re0.5 ⋅ Pr0.31 ⇒ 
h ⋅ d
= 0.43 + 0.532 ⋅ 
 λ   ν  ⋅ α
where, λ is the thermal conductivity (g⋅cm/(s3⋅K)), ν is the kinematic viscosity (cm2/s),
and α is the thermal diffusivity (cm2/s). Note that α = λ/(ρ⋅cp), ρ being the density
(g/cm3) and cp the specific heat capacity (cm2/(s2⋅K). The above correlation is valid for
1 < Re < 4000.
The diffusion coefficient of naphthalene in air (at 3 atm and 25°C) is D = 0.206 ×
10−5 m2/s, while the saturation pressure of naphthalene at 25°C is 0.25 mmHg. The air
kinematic viscosity ν (at 1 atm, 25°C) = 1.57 × 10−5 m2/s, and air density (at 1 atm, 25°C)
ρ = 1.17 Kg/m3. The gas constant R = 0.082 L⋅atm/(mol⋅K).
(31) A very dilute solution of ethyl chloride in water flows at 298 K with an average velocity
of 0.07 cm/s through a 1.5 cm diameter tube (of total length L = 40 cm) the walls of which
are permeable to ethyl chloride. These walls are 0.011 cm thick. Solutes within the walls
diffuse as through water. The tube is immersed in a large well-stirred tank of water
(assume no resistance to mass transfer from the outer walls to the tank).
Use the appropriate mass transfer coefficient to calculate what fraction (in % mole) of the
ethyl chloride has been removed at the exit of the tube. The viscosity of water at 298 K is
0.008937 g/(cm⋅s).
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols Meaning
a Specific surface of a fixed bed of pellets, pellet surface per volume of bed,
m2/m3
A Mass transfer surface, m2
b 1, b 2 Constant
c Solute concentration (if subscripted), molar density of solution (if not
subscripted), mole/m3
–
c Bulk average concentration, mole/m3
d Differential operator; diameter, m
dc Diameter of cylinder, m
de Equivalent diameter of a non-circular duct = 4 (cross-sectional area)/
Perimeter, m
dp Diameter of a sphere; for a non-spherical particle, diameter of sphere of the
same surface as the particle, m
D Molecular diffusivity, m2/s
ED Eddy mass diffusivity, m2/s
EH Eddy thermal diffusivity, m2/s
EV Eddy momentum diffusivity, m2/s
f Friction factor, f1, f2, functions
F Mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2 s
g Acceleration due to gravity, m2/s
G Molar mass velocity, kg/S
G' Mass velocity, kg/S
Gr Grasph of number, dimensionless
h Heat transfer coefficient, w/m2.K
H Enthalpy
jD Mass transfer dimensionless group, St . SC2/3
D
jH Heat transfer dimensionless group, St Pr2/3
H
Symbols Meaning
J Mass transfer flux relative to molar average velocity, mole/m2. sec
k Thermal conductivity, W/m. K
kc, kG, kx, ky Mass transfer coefficients, mole/ m2. sec (concentration difference)
K Constant
l Length; Prandtl mixing length; L
ld Length scale of eddies in the universal range, m
le Length scale of medium sized eddies, m
L Length of a wetted-wall tower, m
m Mass, kg
n A number, a dimensionless
N Mass transfer flux at, and relative to, a phase boundary, mole/m2.s
Nu Nusselt Number, dimensionless
P Vapour pressure, kN/m2
– Partial Pressure kN/m2
P
Pe Peclet number, dimensionless
Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless
q Heat transfer flux, w/m2
R Universal gas law constant
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless
Re' Reynolds number for flow outside a cylinder, dcG'/µ, dimensionless
Re '' Reynolds number for flow past a sphere, dpG'/µ, dimesionless
Re Reynolds number for flow in a non-circular duct, deG'/µ, dimensionless
e
Re Reynolds number computed with x as the length dimension
x
s Fractional rate of surface-element replacement, s–1
S Cross-sectional area of a duct, m2
SC Schmidt number, dimensionless
Sh Sherwood number, dimensionless
St Stanton number
t Temperature, K
u Linear velocity, m/s
– Bulk-average velocity, m/s
u
u' Root-mean–deviating velocity, m/s
u'i Instaneous deviating velocity, m/s
ud' velocity of eddies in the universal range, m/s
x, y, z (no Distance in the x, y, z direction respectively, m
subscript)
xA Concentration of component A in a liquid, mole fraction
yA Concentration of component A in a gas, mole fraction
z Distance from the centre of a pipe, m
Zb Depth of penetration (film and surface-renewal theories), m
ZF Effective film thickness (film theory), m
Symbols Meaning
Greek letters :
α Thermal diffusivity = k/ρCp, m2/s
β Volumetric coefficient of expansion, s–1
ϒϒτ Mass rate of flow/unit width, kg/m.sec
δ Thickness of a layer, m
λ Molar heat evolution on passing through a surface
ρ Density, kg/m3
φ Area of surface elements (surface-renewal theory), m2/m2.sec
Subscripts :
A Component A
B Component B
C Concentration
D For mass transfer
H For heat transfer
i Interface; instantaneous when used with velocity
M Logarithmic mean
r Reference condition
s Sensible heat
t Total
x, y, z in the x, y, z directions, respectively
0 Approach, or initial value
1 At beginning of mass transfer path
2 At the end of mass transfer path.
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
2. W.L. McCabe, J.C. Smith and P. Harriot, "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering",
Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
3. J.D. Seader and E.J. Henley, "Separation Process Principles", John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
4. A.H.P.Skelland, “ Diffusional Mass Transfer”, Kriegar, Malbar FL, 1985.
Hall, 2003
8. G.K.Roy, “ Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, Second Edition, Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, 1990
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
10. Philip Wankat,” Equilibrium Staged Operations”, McGraw Hill, 1988.
11. A.L.Hines and R.N. Maddox,” Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications”, Prentice
Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1985
12. J.R. Welty, R.E. Wilson and C.E. Pikes, “Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
Transfer”, Wiley New York, 1980.
,,,
4
CHAPTER
INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of Equilibrium
4.3 Diffusion between phases
4.4 Film concept in mass transfer
4.4.1 Two-film theory of mass transfer
4.4.2 Two-film theory and equilibrium solubility curve
4.4.3 Analysis of mass transfer process using two-film theory
4.5 Local two-phase mass transfer
4.6 Two resistance concept
4.7 Resistance to mass transfer
4.8 Overall mass transfer coefficient
4.9 Material balances for :
(a) Steady-state concurrent operations
(b) Steady-state counercurrent operations
(c) Cascades
4.10 Stages and stagewise operations
4.11 Kremser Equation
Solved Problems
Exercises for Practice
Nomenclature
References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Thus so far we have considered only the diffusion of substances within a single phase.
In most of the mass transfer operations, however, two insoluble phases are brought into contact in
order to permit transfer of constituent substances between them. Therefore we are now concerned
with the simultaneous application of the diffusional mechanism for each phase to the combined
system. We have seen that the rate of diffusion within each phase is dependent upon the
concentration gradient existing within it. At the same time the concentration gradients of the
two-phase system are indicative of the departure from equilibrium, which exists between the
phases. Should equilibrium be established, the concentration gradients and hence the rate of
diffusion will fall to zero. It is therefore, necessary, to consider both the diffusional phenomena
and the equilibria in order to describe the various situations fully.
Purpose of this Chapter :
(A) To show the interrelation of the resistance and driving forces in an interphase mass
transfer process at a particular point in a piece of equipment and to integrate the
relationships over the entire surface area.
(4.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 4.2 Interphase Mass Transfer
(B) A design equation relating the rate of transfer to the total required transfer area will be
developed.
4.2 CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM
It is convenient first to consider the equilibrium characteristics of a particular operation and
then to generalise the result for others. As an example, consider the gas-absorption operation,
which occurs when ammonia is dissolved from an ammonia-air mixture by liquid water. Suppose
a fixed amount of liquid water is placed in a closed container together with a gaseous mixture of
ammonia and air, the whole arranged so that the system can be maintained at constant
temperature and pressure. Since ammonia is very soluble in water, some ammonia molecules will
instantly transfer from the gas into the liquid, crossing the interfacial surface separating the two
phases. A portion of the ammonia molecules escapes back into the gas, at a rate proportional to
their concentration in the liquid. As more ammonia enters the liquid, with consequent increase in
concentration within the liquid, the rate at which returns to the gas increases, until eventually the
rate at which it enters the liquid exactly equals that at which it leaves. At the same time, through
the mechanism of diffusion, the concentrations throughout each phase become uniform.
A dynamic equilibrium now exists, and while ammonia molecules continue to transfer back and
forth from one phase to the other, the net transfer falls to zero. The concentrations within each
phase no longer change. To the observer who cannot see the individual molecules the diffusion
has apparently stopped.
If we now inject additional ammonia into the
container, a new set of equilibrium concentrations
will eventually be established, with higher
Mole fraction of A in gas yA
concentrations in each phase than were at first

obtained. In this manner we can eventually obtain the
complete relationship between the equilibrium
concentrations in both phases. If the ammonia is
designated as substance A, the equilibrium
concentrations in the gas and liquid, yA and xA mole
fractions, respectively, give rise to an equilibrium-
distribution curve of the type shown in Fig. 4.1.
This curve results irrespective of the amounts of
water and air that we start with and is influenced Mole fraction of A in liquid = xA
only by the conditions, such as temperature and Fig. 4.1 : Equilibrium Distribution Curve
pressure, imposed upon the three-component system.
It is important to note that at equilibrium the concentrations in the two phases are not equal;
instead the chemical potential of the ammonia is the same in both phases, and it will be recalled
that it is equality of chemical potentials, not concentrations, which causes the net transfer of
solute to stop.
The curve of Fig. 4.1 does not of course show all the equilibrium concentrations existing
within the system. For example, the water will partially vapourize into the gas phase, the
components of the air will also dissolve to a small extent in the liquid, and equilibrium
concentrations for these substances will also be in the liquid, and equilibrium concentrations for
these substances will also be established. For the moment we need not consider these equilibria,
since they are of minor importance to the discussion at hand. Obviously also, concentration units
other than mole fractions may be used to describe the equilibria.
Generally speaking, whenever a substance is distributed between two insoluble phases, a

dynamic equilibrium of this type can be established. The various equilibria are peculiar to the
particular system considered. For example, replacement of the water in the example considered
above with another liquid such as benzene or with a solid adsorbent such as activated carbon or
replacement of the ammonia with another solute such as sulfur dioxide will each result in new
curves not at all related to the first. The equilibrium resulting for a two-liquid-phase system bears
no relation to that for a liquid-solid system. A discussion of the characteristic shapes of the
equilibrium curves for the various situations and the influence of conditions such as temperature
and pressure must be left for the studies of the individual unit operations. Nevertheless the
following principles are common to all systems involving the distribution of substance in the two
insoluble phases :
1. At a fixed set of conditions, referring to temperature and pressure, there exists a set of
equilibrium relationships, which can be shown graphically in the form of equilibrium –
distribution curve for each distributed substance by plotting the equilibrium
concentrations of the substance in the two phases against each other.
2. For a system in equilibrium, there is no net diffusion of the components between the
phases.
3. For a system not in equilibrium, diffusion of the components between the phases will
occur so as to bring the system to a condition of equilibrium. If sufficient time is available,
equilibrium concentrations will eventually prevail.
4.3 DIFFUSION BETWEEN PHASES
Having established that departure from equilibrium provides the driving force for diffusion,
we can now study the rates of diffusion in terms of the driving forces. Many of the mass transfer
operations are carried out in steady-flow fashion, with continuous and invariant flow of the
contacted phases and under circumstances such that concentrations at any position in the
equipment used do not change with time. It will be convenient to use one of these as an example
with which to establish the principles and to generalize respecting other operations later. For this
purpose, let us consider the absorption of a soluble gas such as ammonia (substance A) from a
mixture such as air and ammonia, the wetted-wall tower previously described. The ammonia-air
mixture may enter at the bottom and flow upward while the water flows downward around the
inside of the pipe. The gas mixture changes its composition from a high to a low solute
concentration as it flows upward, while the water dissolves the ammonia and leaves at the
bottom as an aqueous ammonia solution. Under steady-state conditions, the concentrations at any
point in the apparatus do not change with passage of time.
4.4 FILM CONCEPT IN MASS TRANSFER
As previously noted, gas absorption operation involves mass transfer from the gas phase to
the liquid phase. That means the gas molecules must diffuse from the main body of the gas
phase to the gas-liquid interface, then cross this interface into the liquid side, and finally
diffuses from the interface into the main body of the liquid.
The Figure 4.2 shows a typical gas-liquid interface. This interface can represent any location
in the gas absorption equipment where the gas contacts the liquid.
In the gas phase, 3 flow Gas-Liquid interface

regimes can be visualized :
• Fully developed turbulent
region where most of the (a) Laminar Film
mass transfer takes place
by eddy diffusion. (b) Transition Zone
• A transition zone with (c) Fully-developed
some turbulence Wall Gas turbulence
• A laminar film with
molecular diffusion
Such phenomena are
difficult to analyze. Instead, we (a) (b) (c)
will use a simplified TWO-
FILM THEORY as a basis for
analysis as well as Liquid
development of various
correlations of mass transfer Fig. 4.2 : A typical gas-liquid interface
phenomena.
4.4.1 Two-Film Theory of Mass Transfer
Once again consider the interface between the gas phase and the liquid phase, now
simplified as shown in the Figure 4.3.
Gas Liquid Bulk
yAG or pAG Film Film Liquid
Phase
XAi
or
Bulk Gas yAi
or CAi
Phase
pAi XAL or CAL
Interface
Liquid Gas
Entering Leaving Gas Film Liquid Film
Bulk Bulk
Gas Liquid
Any point in Phase Phase
the column
Interface
Liquid Gas
Leaving Entering
Fig. 4.3 : The interface between the gas phase and the liquid phase
This interface can represent any point in the gas absorption equipment where the gas
contacts the liquid. See the Figure below that shows a counter-current gas absorption column.
We will study the diffusion of solute A from the gas phase into the liquid phase, for example,
NH3 that is diffusing from a gaseous air-NH3 mixture into liquid phase water.
Assumptions of Two-Film Theory :
• Steady state : concentrations at any position in the tower do not change with time.
• Interface between the gas phase and the liquid phase is a sharp boundary.
• Laminar film exist at the interface on both sides of the interface
• Equilibrium exists at the interface, thus there is negligible resistance to mass transfer
across the interface : (xi, yi) is the equilibrium concentration.
• No chemical reaction : rate of diffusion across the gas-phase film must equal the rate of
diffusion across the liquid-phase film.
4.4.2 Two-Film Theory and Equilibrium Solubility Curve
In the analysis of gas absorption, we are interested in the transfer of materials throughout the
entire gas absorption equipment, not just a single location in the equipment. Therefore the
two-film theory can be analyzed more effectively by using the equilibrium solubility curve.
The concentrations at the interface in the gas (yAi) and in the liquid (xAi) is represented as a
point M on the equilibrium solubility curve (see Fig. 4.4). Point M thus has the co-ordinates
(yAi, xAi). As we move along the column along the continuous interface, we can trace out an
equilibrium curve.
Very often, the subscript "Ai" is dropped, and the equilibrium curve is simply a relationship
between y and x; i.e. y = f(x).
The concentrations in the bulk gas phase (yAG) and in the bulk liquid phase (xAL) is
represented as a point P above the equilibrium curve. Point P thus has the co-ordinates
(xAL, yAG). Point P is located above the equilibrium curve.
[Remember that it is the departure from equilibrium that provide the driving force for mass
transfer]
See the Figure as follows.
Slope of PM
= – Kx / ky
Equilibrium Curve
y = f(x)
yAG P
yAi M
xAL xAi
Fig. 4.4 : Equilibrium curve
Notation :
yAG = composition of A in the bulk gas phase (mole fraction)
xAL = composition of A in bulk liquid phase (mole fraction)
(xAi, yAi) = equilibrium interface compositions (mole fraction)
4.4.3 Analysis of Mass Transfer Process Using Two-Film Theory
In the gas-phase, the concentration falls from yAG in the bulk gas to yAi at the interface. Thus,
there is a concentration driving force for mass transfer from the bulk gas to the gas film to the
interface.
At the interface, the component A crossed the interface and enters the liquid side.
In the liquid-phase, the concentration falls from xAi at the interface to xAL in the bulk liquid.
Thus, there is a concentration driving force for mass transfer from the interface to the liquid
film to the bulk liquid.
The mass transfer process can be represented by the line PM. See the Fig. 4.4.
NOTE : The bulk concentrations yAG, xAL are not equilibrium values, otherwise there would
be no diffusion of A.
REMINDER :
Gas Liquid Bulk

pAG Film Film Liquid
Phase
Bulk cAi
Gas pAi cAL
Phase
Interface
Partial pressure of solute
Equilibrium Curve, p = f(c)

in the gas phase, pA
pAG P D
pAi
M
Concentraction of
pA* C solute
in the liquid
cAL cAi cA* phase, cA
Fig. 4.5 : Two-film theory and equilibrium curve expressed in partial pressures and concentrations
The two-film theory and equilibrium curve can be expressed in other ways, e.g. in terms of
partial pressure (for the gas phase) and concentration (for the liquid phase); but the analysis for
them is the same as outlined before for mole fractions (x and y). Refer to the Figure 4.5, which
showed the two-film theory and equilibrium curve expressed in partial pressures and
concentrations.
4.5 LOCAL TWO-PHASE MASS TRANSFER

Let us investigate the situation at a particular level along the tower, e.g., at a point midway
between top and bottom. Since the solute the solute is diffusing from the gas phase into the
liquid, there must be a concentration gradient in the direction of mass transfer within each phase.
This can be shown graphically in terms of the distance through the phases, as in Fig. 4.6, where a
section through the two phases in contact is shown. It will be assumed that no chemical reaction
occurs.
The concentration of A in the main body of the gas
is yA,G mole fraction, and it falls to yA, at the interface. Gas Liquid
In the liquid, the concentration falls xA,I at the interface
diffusing solute A
Concentration of
to XA,L in the bulk liquid. The bulk concentrations yA,g yAG Interface
xAi
and XA,L are clearly not equilibrium values, since
otherwise diffusion of the solute would not occur. At yAi
xAL
the same time, these bulk concentrations cannot be used
directly with a mass transfer coefficient to describe the
rate of interphase mass transfer, since the two
concentrations are differently related to the chemical Distance
potential, which is the real “driving force” of mass Fig. 4.6 : The two-resistance concept
transfer.
To get around this problem, Lewis and Whitman assumed that the only diffusional
resistances are those residing in the fluids themselves. Then there is no resistance to solute
transfer across the interface separating the phases, and as a result the concentrations yA,I and XA,I
are equilibrium values, given by the system’s equilibrium-distribution curve.
The reliability of this theory has been the subject of a great amount of study. A careful review
of the results indicates that departure from concentration equilibrium at the interface must be a
rarity. It has been shown theoretically that departure from equilibrium can be expected if
mass-transfer rates are very high, much higher than are likely to be encountered in any practical
situation. Careful measurements of real situations when interfaces are clean and conditions
carefully controlled verify the validity of the assumption.
Unexpectedly large and small transfer rates between two phases nevertheless occur, and
these have frequently been incorrectly attributed to departure from the equilibrium assumption.
For example, the heat of transfer of a solute, resulting from a difference in the heats of solution in
two phases, will either raise or lower the interface temperature relative to the bulk-phase
temperature and the equilibrium distribution at the interface will then differ from that which can
be assumed for the bulk-phase temperature. Because of unexpected phenomena near the interface
in one or both of the contacted phases (caused by the presence of surfactants and the like) there
may be a departure of the transfer rates from the expected values which may improperly be
attributed to departure from equilibrium at the interface. These matters will be considered later.
Consequently, in ordinary situations the interfacial concentrations of Fig. 4.6 are those
corresponding to a point on the equilibrium-distribution curve.
Referring again to Fig. 4.6 it is clear that the concentration rise at the interface, from ya,I to xA,I
is not a barrier to diffusion in the direction gas to liquid. They are equilibrium concentrations and
hence correspond to equal chemical potential of substance A in both phases at the interface.
The various concentrations can also be shown Equilibrium Distribution
Concentration of solute in the gas

graphically, as in Fig. 4.7, whose co-ordinates are those Curve, yAi = f(xAi)
of the equilibrium distribution curve. Point P represents k
the two bulk-phase concentrations and point M those at yAG P Slope = – —x
ky
the interface. For steady-state mass transfer, the rate at
which A reaches the interface from the gas must equal
yAi
that at which it diffuses to the bulk liquid, so that no M
accumulation or depletion of A at the interface occurs.
We can therefore write the flux of A in terms of the
mass-transfer coefficients for each phase and the
concentration changes appropriate to each (the
development will be done in terms of the k-type
coefficients, since this is simpler, and the results for xAL xAi
F-type coefficients will be indicated later). Thus, when ky Concentration of solute in the liquid
and kx are the locally applicable coefficients, Fig. 4.7 : Departure of bulk-phase
NA = ky (yA, G – yA, i) = Kx (xA, i – xA, L) … (4.1) concentration form equilibrium
And the differences in y’s or x’s are considered the driving forces for the mass transfer.
Rearrangement as :
yA‚G – yA‚ i kx
XA‚ L – XA‚ i = – ky … (4.2)
Provides the slope of the line PM. If the mass-transfer coefficients are known, the interfacial
concentrations and hence the flux NA can be determined, either graphically by plotting the line
PM or analytically by solving equation (4.2) with an algebraic expression for the equilibrium
distribution curve.
YA, i = f (xA, i) … (4.3)
4.6 TWO RESISTANCE CONCEPT
Gas Liquid Gas Liquid

phase phase phase phase
Concentration of diffusing
Concentration of diffusing
CA,i pA,G
species A
species A
pA,i
pA,i
CA,L
CA,L
Interface if H < 1 Interface if H = 1
0 Distance, Z 0 Distance, Z
Fig. 4.8 (a) : Steps in Interphase mass transfer process
The interphase mass transfer involves three steps :
(i) Transfer of mass from the bulk of one phase to the interface separating the two phases.
(ii) Transfer of mass from this interface to the second phase.
(iii) Transfer of mass to the bulk of the second phase.
kL
Slope = – —
k G
pA,G
Partial pressure of A
in the gas phase
pA,i
Equilibrium Curve
cA,L cA,i
Concentration of A
in the liquid phase
Fig. 4.8 (b) : Equilibrium curve of a component A distributed between the gas and the
liquid phase in contact
The interface offers no resistance to mass transfer. The resistance to the interface of diffusing
component is offered by the phases on each side of the interface.
For steady-state transfer of component A from the gas phase to the liquid phase, the molar
rate of diffusion in :
(a) Gas Phase : NA, Z = Kg (pA, G – pA, i) … (4.4)
(b) Liquid Phase : NA, Z = Kl (CA, i – CA, L) … (4.5)
Where, pA, G = Partial pressure of A in the bulk gas, Pa
pA, i = Partial pressure of A in the interfacial gas, Pa
CA, i = Concentrations of A in the intefacial liquid, mol/m3
CA, L = Concentations of A in the bulk liquid, mol/m3
Kg = Convective mass transfer coefficient in the gas phase expressed as,
 moles of A transferred 
(time) (interfacial area) (∆P – Units of concentration)
Kl = Convective mass transfer coefficent in the liquid phase expressed as
 moles of A transferred 
(time) (interfacial area) (∆C – Units of concentration)
Under steady-state conditions, the molar rate of mass transfer of A in one phase must equal
to that of A in the other phase. Therefore,
NA, Z = Kg (pA, G – pA, i) = kl (CA, i – CA, L) … (4.6)
And equation (4.6) may be written as,
pA‚ G – pA‚ i Kl
CA‚ L – CA‚ i = – Kg … (4.7)
4.7 RESISTANCE TO MASS TRANSFER

Resistance in the gas phase ∆PA‚ gas film 1/Kg
Overall Resistance (i.e. resistance in both phases) = = 1/K … (4.8)
∆PA‚ Total G
Resistance in the liquid phase ∆CA‚ gas film

Overall Resistance = … (4.9)
∆CA‚ total
As long as following linear equilibrium relation exists, we can express,

pA, i = m·CA, i
pA, G = m·CA … (4.10)
pA = m·CA, L
The overall mass transfer coefficient (KG) based on the partial pressure difference, as driving
*
force is given by : NA = KG (pA, G – pA ) … (4.11)
Rearranging above equation, we get,'
* *
1 pA‚ G – pA pA‚ G – pA‚ i pA, i – pA
KG = NA‚ Z = NA‚ Z +N
A, Z
1 pA‚ G – pA‚ i m (CA‚ i – CA, L)

KG = NA‚ Z + NA‚ Z
1 1 m
or, KG = +
Kg Kl … (4.12)
The overall mass transfer coefficient (KL) based on the concentration difference, as driving
force is given by : NA = KL (CA* – CA, L ) … (4.13)
Rearranging above equation, we get,
1 CA* – CA‚ L CA. – CA‚ i CA‚ i – CA‚ L
KL = NA‚ Z = NA‚ Z + NA‚ Z
1 PA‚ G – PA‚ i (CA‚ i – CA‚ L)

KL = m·NA‚ Z + NA‚ Z
1 1 1
Thus we have, KL = m·Kg + K1 … (4.14)
Note : If we assume numerical value of KL and KG are approximate the same and m is very
small (Equilibrium distribution curve is flat), so that at equilibrium, only small concentration of A
m
in the gas will be provide a very large concentration in the liquid, the term K in equation (4.12)
l
1
becomes minor, the major resistance is represented by K and the rate of mass transfer is
g
gas-phase controlled. Thus,
1 1
KG ≈ Kg
*
or pA, G – pA ≈ pA, G – pA, i
4.8 OVERALL MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Determination of mass transfer coefficient is necessary to evaluate the rate of transfer
between two phases. The two phases are assumed to be in equilibrium at all points on the
interface. In a gas liquid operations (e.g. gas absorption), the liquid concentration (Ci) and the
partial pressure (pi) at the interface are related by equilibrium conditions. For a liquid-liquid
transfer process (e.g. liquid-liquid extraction), the value of Ci will be different in each of the
phase, but the two will correspond to equilibrium concentration in the two phases. The extreme
difficulty in physical measurement of Partial pressure and concentration at the interface makes it
necessary to employ overall mass transfer coefficient. The overall mass transfer coefficient (KG)
based on the partial pressure difference, as the driving force is given by :
*
NA = KG (pA, G – pA ) … (4.15)
Where, pA, G = partial pressure of A in the bulk gas (Pa)
*
pA = partial pressure of A i the equilibrium with the bulk composition
in the liquid phase (Pa.)
KG accounts for the entire diffusional resistance in the bulk phase. The overall mass transfer
coefficient (KL) based on the concentration difference, as driving force is given
*
by : NA = (K L (CA – CA‚ L) ) … (4.16)
*
where, CA = Concentration of A in equilibrium with the bulk composition of
gas phase. (mol/m3).
CA, L = Concentration of A in the bulk liquid (mol/m3).
Equilibrium
Curve
pA, G
k
Slope = – —L
kG
DpA, G
DpA,Total
pA, i
DpA, L
p*A
cA, L cA, i c*A

DcA, L DcA, G
Fig. 4.9 : Equilibrium curve of component A

4.9 MATERIAL BALANCES FOR
(A) STEADY–STATE CO–CURRENT OPERATIONS
(B) STEADY–STATE COUNTERCURRENT OPERATIONS
(C) CASCADES
Introduction :
The concentration difference – driving force are existing at one position in the equipment
used to contact the immiscible phases in batch or steady-state processes. These changes produce
corresponding variations in the driving force, and these can be followed with the help of material
balance. In other words, all concentrations are the bulk average values for indicated streams.
(A) Steady State Co-Current Operations : Consider any mass transfer operation conducted
in steady state co-current fashion as shown in Fig. 4.6, which is simply shown by rectangular box.
Let the two phases R identified as two insoluble phases in gas and liquid respectively. Consider
only single substance A diffuses from phase R to phase E during their contact. The other
constituents at the phases, solvents for the diffusing solutes, are considered not to diffuse.
E
Es
y
Y E2
E1 moles total material/time I Es
Es moles non-difusing II y2
material/time Y2
y1 mole fraction solute
Y1 mole ratio solute
R2
R1 moles total material/time
Rs
Rs moles non-difusing x2
material/time X2
R
x1 mole fraction solute Rs
X1 mole ratio solute x
X
Fig. 4.10 : Steady-State Concurrent Process
The content of the leaving streams is R2x2 and E2y2 respectively.
R1x1 = R2x2 + E2y2 … (4.17)
or R1x1 – R2x2 = E2y2 – E2y1 … (4.18)
x1
but, R1x1 = RS 1 – x = RS X1 … (4.19)
1
where X1 = Mole ratio concentration of 'A' at the entrance mole A/mole non–A.
Equation (4.18) becomes,
RS (X1 – X2) = ES (Y2 – Y1) … (4.20)
RS
This is equation of straight line on X, Y co-ordinates of slope is – E passing through two
S
points whose co-ordinates are (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) respectively. At any section B-B through the
apparatus, the mole fractions of A are x and y and the mole ratios X and Y, in phases R and E
respectively, and if envelope – II is drawn to include all the device from the entrance to section
B-B, the A balance becomes.
RS (X1 – X2) = ES (Y – Y1) … (4.21)
RS
This is also the equation of straight line on x, y co-ordinates of slope – E , through the points
S
(X1, Y1) and (X, Y).
Note : Since the two-straight lines have the same slope and a point in common they are the
same straight line and equation (4.21) is therefore a general expression relating the compositions
of the phases in the equipment at any distance from the interface.
It must be emphasized that the graphical representation of the operating line as a straight line
is greatly dependent upon the units in which the concentrations of the material balance are
expressed. The representations of Fig. 4.7 and 4.8 are straight lines because the mole-ratio
concentration are based on the unchanging quantities ES and RS. If equation (4.18) were plotted
on mole-fraction co-ordinates, or if any concentration unit proportional to mole fractions such as

partial pressure were used, the nature of the operating curve obtained would be indicated as in
Fig. 4.13. In any operation where the total quantities of each of the phases E and R remain
constant while the compositions change owing to diffusion of several components a diagram in
y = Conc. in phase E, mole A/mole non-A
K
Equilibrium Curve,
L
Y2 Yi = f(xi)
T
Y1
Y2 Operating Line,
Slope = – RS/ES
Y1
M
X*2 Xe X2 X1
x = Conc. in phase R, mole A/mole non-A
Fig. 4.11 : Steady-State Co-current process, Transfer of solute from phase R to phase E
terms of mole-fraction will provide a straight line operating line, as equation 4.18 indicates
(let E2 = E1 = E; R2 = R1). If all the components diffuse so that the total quantities of each phase do
not remain constant, the operating line will generally be curved.
P Operating Line,
Concentration in phase E,
Y1 Equilibrium
moles A/mole non-A = Y
moles A/mole non-A = y
Slope = – RS/ES ye T Curve, Yi = f(xi)

Y2 Q y2 Q
Ye T Equilibrium Operating
Curve, Curve
Yi = f(xi)
y1 P
X1 X2 Xe xe x2 x1
Concentration in phase R, Concentration in phase R,
moles A/mole non-A = X moles A/mole non-A = x
Fig. 4.12 : Steady-State Co-current process Fig. 4.13 : Steady-State Co-current Process
Transfer of solute from phase E to phase R transfer of solute from phase R to Phase E
To sum-up, the cocurrent operating line is a graphical representation of the material balance.
A point on the line represents the bulk average concentrations of the stream in contact with each
other at any section in the apparatus. Consequently the line passes from point representing the
streams entering the apparatus to that representing the effluent streams.
(B) Steady-State Countercurrent Operations : If the same process (combined out in
co-current fashions) is carried out in countercurrent fashion as shown in Fig. 4.14. Here 1
indicates that end of apparatus where phase R enters and 2 that end where phases R leaves.
Material Balance for envelope – I :

E2y2 + R = 1x1 = 1y1 + R2x2 … (4.22)
and RS (x1 – x2) = ES (y1 – y2) … (4.23)
Material Balance for envelope – II :
Ey + R1x1 = E1y1 + Rx … (4.24)
and RS (x1 – x) = ES (y1 – y) … (4.25)
Equations (4.24) and (4.25) gives general relationship between the concentrations in the
phases at any section. Equation (4.22) and (4.23) establish the entire material balance.
RS
Equation 4.23 is that of a straight line on X, Y co-ordinates of slope E , through points of
S
co-ordinates (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), as shown in Fig. 4.11. The line will lie above the equilibrium curve if
diffusion proceeds from phase E to phase R (Absorber) and below for diffusion in the opposite
direction (stripper) (i.e. phase R to phase E).
B
E
Es
y
Y E2
E1 moles total material/time I Es
Es moles non-difusing II y2
material/time Y2
y1 mole fraction solute
Y1 mole ratio solute
R2
R1 moles total material/time Rs
Rs moles non-difusing x2
material/time X2
R
x1 mole fraction solute Rs
X1 mole ratio solute x
X
B
Fig. 4.14 : Steady-State Countercurrent Process
The operating lines of Fig. 4.14 are straight because the mole-ratio concentrations X and Y are
based on the quantities RS and ES, which are stipulated to be constant. If for this situation mole
fractions (or quantities such as partial pressures, which are proportional to mole fractions) are
used the operating lines are curved, as indicated in Fig. 4.11. However, for some operations
should the total quantity of each of the phases E and R be constant while the compositions
change, the mole fraction diagram would provide the straight line operating lines, as
equation 4.22 would indicate (let E = E1 = E2; R = R1 = R2). As in the concurrent case, however, the
operating line will generally be curved if all the components diffuse so that the total quantities of
each phase to not remain constant.
The countercurrent operating line is a graphical representation of the material balance,
passing from the point representing the streams at one end of the apparatus to the point
representing the streams passing each other at any section in the apparatus. The advantage of
the countercurrent method over concurrent is that, for the former, the average driving force
for given situation will be larger, resulting either smaller equipment for a given set of flow
conditions or smaller flows for a given equipment size.
Equilibrium Curve,
yi = f(xi)
y1
moles A/mole non-A = y
Operating
Curve
y2
x2 x1
moles A/mole non-A = x
Fig. 4.15 : Steady-State Countercurrent Process, Transfer of
Solute from Phase R to Phase E
(C) Cascades : A group of stages interconnected so that the various streams flow from one to
the other is called cascade. Its purpose is to increase the extent of mass transfer over and above
that which is possible with a single stage. The fractional overall stage efficiency of a cascade is
then defined as the number of equilibrium stages to which the cascade is equivalent divided by
the number of real stages.
ES1 ES2 ES3
y1 y2 y3
Y1 Y2 Y3
1 2 3
RS RS RS RS
x0 ES1 x1 ES2 x2 ES3 x3
X0 y0 X1 y0 X2 y0 X3
Y0 Y0 Y0
moles A / mole non-A
Y1
Slope
RS
= – —–
RS ES1
Y2 – —–
ES2
Y3
R
– —–S
Y0 ES3
X3 X2 X1 X0
Concentration in phase R, moles A / mole non-A
Fig. 4.16 : A cross flow cascade of three real stages
Two or more stages connected so that the flow is concurrent between stages will, of course,
never be equivalent to more than one equilibrium stage, although the overall stage efficiency can
thereby-increased. For effects greater than one equilibrium stage, they can be connected for cross
flow or countercurrent flow.
In Fig. 4.16, each stage is represented simply by a circle and within each the flow is
concurrent. The R-phase flows from one stage to the next, being contacted in each stage by a fresh
E phase. There may be different flow rates of the E phase to each stage and each stage may have a
different Murphee stage efficiency. The material balances are obviously merely a repetition of
that a single stage and the construction on the distribution is obvious. Cross flow is used
sometimes in adsorption, leaching, drying and extraction operations.
4.10 STAGES AND STAGESWISE OPERATIONS
(1) Stage : Stage may be defined as any device or combination of devices in which two
insoluble phases are brought into intimate contact, where mass transfer occurs between the
phases tending to bring them to equilibrium, and where the phases are then mechanically
separated. A process carried out in this manner is single stage process.
(2) Equilibrium/Theoretical/Ideal Stage : In order to establish a standard for the
measurement of performance, the equilirbium/ideal/theoretical stage is defined as one where
effluent phases are in equilirbium so that a longer time of contact will bring about no additional
change of composition.
(3) Stage Efficiency : A stage efficiency is defined as the fractional approach to equilibrium
which a real stage produces. Referring to Fig. 4.7, that be taken as the fraction which the line QP
represents of the line TP, or the ratio of actual solute transfer to that if equilibrium were attained.
(4) Murphee Stage Efficiency : The most commonly used expression in design of absorber
and striper is the Murphee stage efficiency. It is defined as, the fractional approach of one leaving
stream to equilibrium with the actual concentration in the other leaving stream. Again referring to
Fig. 4.7, this can be expressed in terms of the concentrations in phase E or in phase R –
Y2 – Y1
EME = * … (4.26)
Y2 – Y1
X1 – X2
EMR = X – X … (4.27)
1 2
These definitions are somewhat arbitrary since, in the case of a truly co-current operation
such that of Fig. 4.7, it would be impossible to obtain a leaving concentration in phase E higher
than Ye or one in phase R lower than Xe. The two Murphee efficiencies are not normally equal for
a given stage and they can be simply related only when the equilibrium relation is straight line.
Thus for a straight equilibrium line of slope,
*
(Y2 – Y2)
m = *
(X2 – X2)
EMR EMR
it can be shown that : EME = E (1 – S) + S =
EMR 1 – A + A
MR 1 1
 
RS
where, A = mE is called the absorption factor.
S
1 m·ES
S =A = R is the stripping factor.
S
RS = Rate of flow of non-diffusing solvent in phase R.

ES = Rate of flow of non-diffusing solvent in phase E.
m = Equilibrium curve slope.
Comments :
(i) A high degree of absorption can be obtained, either by using a large number of plates or
RS
by using high absorption factor; A = m E
S
RS
Since m is fixed by the system, this means that E must be large if a high degree of
S
absorption can be obtained, but this will result in a low value of x for the liquid leaving at
the bottom.
RS
(ii) It is important to note that, if m E < 1, then very large number of plates are required to
S
achieve a high recovery and even an infinite number will not give complete recovery.
RS Slope of operating line
(iii) Absorption factor = A = mE = Slope of equilibrium curve
S
RS RS
If E < m i.e. m E < 1, then the operating line will never cut the equilibrium curve and
S S
gas leaving the top of column will not therefore reach equilibrium with entering liquid.
4.11 KREMSER EQUATION (KREMSER - SOUDERS - BROWN EQUATION)
(a) For transfer from R to E (stripping of R) :
Xo – XN
P (1/A)NP + 1 – 1/A
A≠1: = … (4.30)
Xo – YN + 1/m
P
(1/A)NP + 1 – 1
Xo – YNP + 1/m 

NP = log X – Y (1 – A) + A … (4.31)
 NP NP + 1m 
Xo – XN NP
P
A=1: Xo – YN + 1/m = N +1 … (4.32)
P P
Xo – XN
P
NP = X – Y + 1/m
N P N P
(b) For transfer from E to R (absorption into R) : A similar treatment yields :
YN + 1 – Y1
P ANP + 1 – A
A≠1 = … (4.33)
YN + 1 – mXo
P
ANP + 1 – 1
YNP + 1 – mXo  1  1 
 Y – mX 
 1 o 1 – A + A
NP = log log A … (4.34)
YN – Y1 NP
P+1
A=1: YN = N +1 … (4.35)
P + 1 – mXo P
YN – Y1
P+1
NP = Y1 – mXo … (4.36)
The equations from (4.30) to (4.36) are called as Kremser – Brown – Souders (or simply Kremser
equations)
where, NP = Total number of stages in a cascade
mole A
X = Concentration of A in phase R, mole non – A
Y = Concentration of A in phase E mole non – A

mole
 
m = Equilibrium curve slope
A = Absorption factor
The Kremser equations (equation 4.30 to 4.36) are plotted in Fig. 4.17, which becomes very
convenient for quick solutions.
1.0
A / 1/A
0.8 0.3
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.3
0.8
0.2
(stripping)
0.9
0.1
0.08
0.95
YNp – YNp+1 / m
X0 – YNp+1 / m
0.06
0.04
1.0
0.03
0.02
(absorption) or
1.05
1.1
0.01
0.008
0.006
YNp+1 – mX0
1.2
Y1 – mX0
1.3
0.004
1.6 1.4
0.003 1.5
2.0
A (absorption) 1.8
3.0
0.002 or 5.0 2.5
1/A (stripping) 4.0
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0005
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50
Np = Number of theoretical trays
Fig. 4.17 : Number of theoretical stages for counter-current cascades, with Henry's law equilibrium and
constant absorption or stripping factors
1.0
8 Plates
0.9
es
lat
5 P tes
la
4P es
lat
3P es
P lat
2 es
lat
YNP+1 – mXo
Y1 – mXo
1P
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
Absorption factor (A)
Fig. 4.18 : Graphical representation of the effect of the absorption factor and the number of plates on the
degree of absorption
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) In a mass transfer apparatus operating at 1 atm., the individual mass-transfer
coefficients have the following values :
Kx = 22 kg mole/m2 hour (∆
∆x = 1)
Ky = 1.07 kg mole/m2 hour (∆ ∆y = 1)
The equilibrium compositions of the gaseous and liquid phases are characterised by
Henry's law. p* = 0.08 × 106 · x mm Hg
(i) Determine the overall mass-transfer coefficient Kx and Ky.
(ii) How many times the diffusion resistance of the liquid phase differs that of the
gaseous phase ?
Sol. : Data given : Kx = 22 kg mole/m2. hour (∆x = 1) = Kl
Ky = 1.07 kg mole/m2.hour (∆y = 1) = Kg
p* = H.C. = 0.08 × 106 · x mm Hg
= 105.26 x atm.
So, H = 105.26
1 1 1
(i) Kx = Kx + HKy
1 1
= 22 + = 0.0539
105.26 × 1.07
∴ Kx = 18.55 kg mole/m2. hour
1 1 H
Similarly, Ky = K =K
y x
1 105.26
= 1.07 + 22
= 5.715
∴ Ky = 0.175 kg mole/m2. hour
1
Rx Resistance in liquid phase Kx
(ii) Ry = Resistance in gas phase = 1
Ky
0.0539
= 5.715
= 0.0094 (Ans.)
(2) In a wetted wall column, a gas A is being stripped from A – water solution into an air
stream. At a certain point in the column, the concentration of component A in liquid is
4.8 k mole/m3 and partial pressure of component A in gas stream is 1 atm.
The equilibrium relation for dilute solution of component A in water is given by
PA, i = 0.25 CA, i
Where, PA, i = Equilibrium partial pressure of component 'A' (atm.)
CA, i = Equilibrium concentration of A in water  3

k mole A 
m solution
The overall liquid coefficient :
k mole A
KL = 0.0144
(hr. m2) 
k mole A
 m3 
Assume that gas phase offers 70% of total resistance to mass transfer. Calculate the
following :
(a) Convective mass transfer coefficient in liquid phase, Kl.
(b) Convective mass transfer coefficient in gas phase, Kg.
(c) Overall mass transfer coefficient in gas phase, KG.
Sol. : (a) Since 70% of the total resistance to mass transfer offers in the gas phase; hence the
resistance in liquid phase is 30%.
Resistance in liquid phase ∆ CA‚ liquid film
∴ Overall resistance =
∆ CA‚ Total
1 1
Ki 0.30 Kl
= 1 = 100 = 1
KL 0.0144
k mole A
So, Kl = 0.048 (Ans.)
(hour · m2) (k mole . A/m2)
(b) Corrective mass transfer coefficient is given by
1 1 1
KL = m · Kg + Kl
Here, m = 0.25
1 1 1
∴ 0.0144 = +
0.25 × Kg 0.048
k mole A
∴ Kg = 0.082 (Ans.)
(hour · m2) (atm.)
(c) Overall mass transfer coefficient in gas phase, KG is given by
1 1 m
KG = Kg + KL
1 1 0.25
∴ KG = 0.082 + 0.0144
k mole A
∴ KG = 0.0338 (Ans.)
(hour · m2) (atm.)
(3) In a typical chemical process, component A is desorped from an aqueous solution into
an air stream in a mass transfer tower at a certain operating temperature and pressure.
At a particular point in the tower, analysis report shows that :
PA, G = 12 mm Hg;
CA, L = 4 k mole/m3
K mole A
The overall mass transfer coefficient, KG = 0.269 2
(m .hr.atm.)
If Henry's law is applicable to this system and if 56% of the total mass transfer
resistance is encountered in gas film. Calculate :
(a) Gas film coefficient, Kg.
(b) Liquid film coefficient, Kl.
(c) Molar flux of component A, NA.
atm
Data : Henry's law constant = 7.5 × 10–3
mole A/m3 solution
12
Sol. : Data given : PA, G = 12 mm Hg = 760 atm = 0.01578 atm.
CA, L = 4 k mole/m3
KG = 0.269 k mole A/[(hr) (m2) (atm.)]
(a) Since 56% of the total mass transfer resistance in gas film. So, for liquid film the
resistance is 44%.
We know that,
Resistance in liquid phase ∆ CA‚ liquid film
Overall resistance =
∆ CA‚ total
1
56 Kg
∴ 100 = 1
0.269
(k mole A)
∴ Kg = 0.469
(hr. m2) (atm.)
Henry's law constant is given as,
atm.
m = 7.5 × 10–3
(mole/m3 solution)
1 1 m
So, KG = K + K
g l
1 1 7.5 × 10–3
0.269 = 0.469 = Kl
k mol A
∴ Kl = 4.85 (Ans.)
(hr. m ) (mole A/m3)
2
*
(c) Molar flux NA : (
NA = KG pA‚G – pA )
*
where, pA = Partial pressure of component A
= m × CA, L
= 7.5 × 10–3 × 4
= 0.03 k mole/m3
∴ NA = 0.269 (0.01578 – 0003)
k mole
NA = 3.825 × 10–3 (Ans.)
(hour · m2)
(4) Ammonia is absorbed by water in a weffed-wall column being operated at 20 oC and
1 std. atm. The overall gas coefficient is 1 k mole NH3/[(m2) (std. atm.)]. At one point in
the column, the gas contains 10 mole% ammonia and the liquid phase contains 0.155
mole ammonia per m3 of solution. 96% of the total resistance is in the gas phase.
Assume Henry's law constant at 293 K = 4.247 × 10–3 std.atm./(mole NH3/m3 solution).
Determine the interfacial film coefficient and the interfacial compositions.
Sol. : (i) Calculation of gas phase coefficient Kg : It is given that 96% of the total resistance is
in the gas phase.
1
Resistance in the gas phase Kg
∴ Overall resistance = 1 = 96%
KG
1
Kg
∴ 1 = 0.96
KG
KG 1 k mole NH3
or, Kg = 0.96 = 0.96 = 1.0416
(hr.) (m2) (std. atm.)
(ii) Calculation of liquid phase coefficient, Kl :
1 1 m
We have, KG = K + K
g l
1 1 4.247 × 10–3
∴ 1 = 1.0416 + Kl
k mole NH3
Solving for Kl, we get, Kl = 0.1063 (mole NH3)
(hr) (m2) 3
(m solution)
*
(iii) Partial pressure, pA in equilibrium with the liquid : At a certain point in the
column, the bulk concentration in the gas phase,
PA, G = YA · P = 100 (1) = 0.1 std. atm.

10
 
CA, L = 0.155 mole NH3/m3 solution
*
Since Henry's law is applicable to this system. So pA in equilibrium with the bulk liquid
concentration is,
* std. atm. mole NH3
pA = H · CA, L = 4.247 × 10–3 × 0.155 3
 mole NH3  m solution
m3 solution
 
*
pA = 0.658 × 10–3 std. atm. (Ans.)
*
(iv) Molar flux, NA : NA = KG (p A‚ G – )
pA
= 1 (0.1 – 0.658 × 10–3)
k mole NH3
= 0.0993 (Ans.)
(hr. m2)
(v) Partial pressure at the interface, pA, i :
NA = Kg (PA, G – PA, i)
0.0993 = 1.0416 (0.1 – PA, i)
⇒ PA, i = 4.66 × 10–3 std. atm. (Ans.)
(vi) Concentration in the liquid phase at the interface :
pA, i = m · CA, i
4.66 × 10–3 = 4.247 × 10–3 CA, i
mole NH3
∴ CA, i = 1.097 (Ans.)
m3
(5) In an experimental study of the absorption of NH3 by water from an air-ammonia
mixture in a wetted-wall tower, the value of overall gas mass transfer coefficient, KG
was found to be :
93.25 × 10–2 k mole NH3/[(hr) (m2) (std. atm.)]
The operating pressure and temperature of the tower were 2 std. atm and 288 K
respectively.
For dilute solutions of ammonia in water at 288 K, the equilibrium partial pressure is
given by : pA, i = 4 (CA, i)
where, pA, i = equilibrium partial pressure of ammonia, std. atm.
CA, i = concentration of ammonia in water, k mole NH3/m3 solution
At the top of the tower, the outlet gas contained ammonia 1% by volume and inlet
liquid, which this contacted with pure water. Assuming 85% of the total resistance to
mass transfer was contributed by the gas phase, calculate :
(i) the gas film coefficient, Kg.
(ii) the liquid film coefficient, Kl.

(iii) the overall liquid mass transfer coefficient, KL.
(iv) the interfacial concentrations pA, i and CA, i
Sol. : Given data : KG = 93.25 × 10–2 K mole NH3/[(hr) (m2) (std. atm.)]
P = 2 std. atm.
Since, volume % = mole %,
1
So, pA, G = yA. P = 100 × 2 = 0.02 std. atm.
(i) Gas film coefficient, Kg : Since 85% of the total resistance to mass-transfer is in the
gas-phase. So,
1
Resistance in the gas phase Kg
overall resistance = 1 = 85%
KG
KG
∴ Kg = 0.85
93.25 × 10–2 K mole NH3

∴ Kg = = 1.097
0.85 (hr) (m2) (std. atm)
(Ans.)
(ii) Liquid film coefficient, Kl : We have,
1 1 m
KG = Kg + Kl
Here m = 4 std.atm/(k mole NH3/m3 solution)
1 1 4
∴ = 1.097 + K
93.25 × 10–2 l
k mole NH3
∴ Kl = 24.87
(hr) (m ) (k mole NH3/m3 solution)
2
(Ans.)
(iii) Overall liquid mass-transfer coefficient, KL : Since 85% of the total resistance lies
in the gas phase, so the liquid phase shares rest 15% of the total resistance, therefore,
1
Kl
1 = 0.15
KL
KL
∴ Kl = 0.15
∴ KL = 0.15 (24.87)
k mole NH3
= 3.73
(hr.) (m ) (k mole/m3 solution)
2
(Ans.)
(iv) Molar flux, NA : We have,

*
NA = KL (CA – CA, L)
from equilibrium relation,
*
PA, G = m · CA , we get
* 0.02 k mole NH3
–3
CA = 4 = 5 × 10 m3 solution
= 0 having 1 volume % NH was pure water.

Since the liquid in contact with the gas
CA, L
 3 
∴ NA = 3.73 (5 × 10–3 – 0)
k mole NH3
= 18.65 × 10–3
(hr) (m2)
(v) Concentration at the interface : For the continuity of mass flow,
*
NA = KL (CA – CA, L ) = Kl (CA, i – CA, L)
∴ 18.65 × 10–3 = 24.87 (CA, i – 0)
Solving for CA, i we get, CA, i = 7.5 × 10–4 k mole NH3/m3 solution
and PA, i = m CA, i = 4 (7.5 × 10–4)
= 3 × 10–3 std. atm. (Ans.)
(6) The following data were obtained from a wetted wall column employing a constant
liquid flow rate :
Molar gas flow rate, Gm (k mole/sec) 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Overall mass transfer coefficient, KG 50.8 67.2 84.0 91.7 93.5 100
2 2 6
(k mole/m sec. (kN/m ) × 10 )
The relationship between the equilibrium vapour pressure PA (kN/m2) and the molar
1
concentration in the liquid phase CA (K mole/m3) is given by
1
k mole
PA = 20 CA. For a gas flow rate of 0.05 sec . Calculate overall and individual
mass transfer coefficients.
1 1 m
Use the relation : KG = K + K
g l
where Kg and Kl are individual mass transfer coefficients for gas and liquid phase
respectively.
KG = Overall mass transfer coefficient for gas phase
kN2 
m 
m = Henry's law constant of value 20 k mole
 
 m3 
0.8
It is given that : 0.8 Kg ∝ G m , where Gm = gas velocity.
Sol. : Given data : PA = 20 CA

kN2 
m 
m = 20 k mole
 3 
 m 
1 1 m
KG = kg + K … (1)
l
0.8
Kg ∝ G m
0.8
a · Gm
∴ Kg = 0.8 , where a = constant
1 0.8 m
Thus equation (1) becomes, Ka = 0.8 + K
a· Gm l
y = mx + C
0.8
where, m = slope = a
m
C = Intercept = K
l
1 1
Plot a graph of K v/s 0.8
G Gm
1/KG 0.0196 0.0149 0.0119 0.0109 0.0106 0.010
0.8
1/G m 39.81 22.86 13.13 9.494 7.542 6.30
0.020 –10
0.8
Slope = m = —
a = 2.831 ×10
0.015
1
KG
}
0.01
m –9
Intercept = —
kl = 8.3 ×10
0.005
0
0 10 20 30 40
1
0.8
Gm
1 1
Fig. 4.19 : A Graph of K v/s 0.8 in Ex. (6)
G Gm
0.8
∴ a = m
0.8 0.8
∴ from graph, a= m = = 2.82 × 109
2.831 × 10–10
m
C=K = 8.3 × 10–9 … (2)
l
0.8
a · Gm
So, Kg = 0.8
2.82 × 109 (0.05)0.8
= 0.8
Kg = 3.21 × 108 k mole/m2. sec (Ans.)
1 1 m
and KG = k +K
g l
1 –9
= 8 + 8.3 × 10
3.21 × 10
KG = 8.75 × 107 k mole/m2 sec. (Ans.)
(7) Show that for the absorption of a soluble gas, from a mixture with a non-soluble gas,
1 1 H
into a liquid : K G = K G + kL
where the symbols have their usual meaning. Hence indicate the conditions under
which either the gas or liquid films can become the controlling factor in the overall
rate. For the absorption of a certain gas from an air stream into water KG = 10–3 m/s
and 15% of the total resistance lies in the liquid phase. Estimate kG and kL.
T = 300 K
Molecular weight of gas = 36
H = 0.2142, where pressure is expressed as kPa and concentration in the liquid phase
as kg/m3.
Solution : The principles of mass transfer define the following :
In the gas phase,

1 PG – P* PG – PGi PGi – P* PG – PGi PGi – P* CLi – CL
KG = NA = NA + N = N +C –C NA
A A Li L
1 PG – PGi
In the gas phase, kG = NA
1 CLi – CL
In the liquid phase, kL = NA
1 1 1
By substitution, KG = k +Hk
G L
If H is low or kL high KG approximates to kG. Similarly, when kG is high, KG approximates

to kL.
1 1 H
For the given case : = k + k = 1000 s/m
10–3 G L
and we know that 85% of this resistance is in the gas phase.

1
∴ k = 850 s/m ⇒ kG = 1.176 × 10–3 m/s (Ans.)
G
H H 0.2142
∴ k = 150 s/m ⇒ kL = 150 = 150 = 1.428 × 10–3 Ns/kg (Ans.)
L
(8) Given that the solvent liquid to gas ratio is reduced, explain the way this would
affect : (a) The slope of the operating line. (b) The number of theoretical plates
required.
Solution : (a) The operating line in an absorber problem has a gradient of L/G. With increased
gas flow G, the gradient will decrease.
(b) As the gap between the operating line and the equilibrium curve narrows, the steps
between the two become shallower but greater in number, i.e. the number of theoretical
stages increases.
(9) Define the term mole fraction and mole ratio and derive a relationship between the
two.
Solution : Denote mole fractions with a lower case "x" and mole ratios with a capital "X" :
moles of solute moles of solute
x = moles of mixture = moles of solvent + moles of solute
moles of solute
X = moles of solvent
1 moles of solvent + moles of solute moles of solvent moles of solute 1

∴ x = moles of solute = moles of solute + moles of solute = X + 1
1 1+X
∴ x = X
X
∴ x = X+1
(10) Interfacial Gas Concentration :

Consider a system in which component A is being transferred from a gas phase to a
liquid phase. The equilibrium relation is given by yA = 0.75xA where yA and xA are
mole fraction of A in gas and liquid phase respectively. At one point in the equivalent,
the gas contains 10 mole % A and liquid 2 mole % A. Gas film mass transfer
coefficient ky at this point is 10 kmol/(hr.m2.∆
∆yA) and 60% of the resistance is in the gas
film. Calculate :
(a) The overall mass transfer coefficient in kmol/(hr.m2.∆
∆yA).
(b) Mass flux of A in kmol/(hr.m2).
(c) The interfacial gas concentration of A in mole fraction.
*
Sol. : Equilibrium composition of gas yA corresponding to xA = 0.02 (i.e. 2 mole %).
*
yA = 0.75 xA × 0.02 = 0.015
Since individual gas film resistance 1/ky is 60% of overall resistance 1/Ky.
1 1
0.6 K = k
y y
Ky = 0.6 × 10 = 6 kmol/(hr.m2.∆yA)
Mass flux in terms of overall mass transfer coefficient :

*
Mass flux = Ky (yA − yA) … (1)
= 6 (0.1 − 0.015) = 0.51 kmol/(hr.m2)
Mass flux in terms of individual mass transfer coefficient :
Mass flux = ky (yA − yAi) … (2)
where, yAi = Interfacial gas concentration.
Substituting for mass flux, ky and yA in equation (2),
10 (0.1 − yAi) = 0.51
yAi = 0.049
(11) Consider a wetted-wall column 117 cm long with an inner diameter of 2.67 cm. In an
experiment, water and air streams are allowed to flow co-currently. Under the
following experimental conditions, the rate of water evaporation was measured to be
0.234 kg/h. Estimate the average mass transfer coefficient.
Data : Top : T = 31.1 C; pw = 2.5 mmHg; pvap = 33.9 mmHg
Bottom : T= 26.1C; pw = 19.3 mmHg; pvap = 25.4 mmHg
Solution : Consider a wetted-wall column 117 cm long with an inner diameter of 2.67 cm.
In an experiment, both water and air streams are allowed to flow concurrently (downwards).
Under the following experimental conditions, the rate of evaporation was measured to be
0.234 kg/h.
o
Given : T(top) = 31.1 C
o
T(bottom) = 26.1 C
pw (inlet) = 2.5 mm Hg
pvap = 33.9 mm Hg
pw (out) = 19.3 mm Hg
pvap = 25.4 mm Hg
We have to estimate the average mass transfer coefficient (kc)

Air
(Pw = 2.5mm Hg)
o
31.1 C
0.0267 m
1-17 m
o
26.1 C
PW0 = 19.3mm Hg
Fig. 4.20 : Wetted wall column in Ex. (10)
· –
m w = kc A (∆C )L
A = πDL → area for mass transfer

= π × 0.0287 × 1.17
= 0.0981 m2
· 0.234 –6
mw = = 3.61 × 10 kmol/s
18 × 3600
(∆C)1 – (∆C)2
 ∆CL  =
  ∆C1
ln  
∆C2 
(33.9 – 2.5) ×  760 

101325
∆C1 (top) ∆pw1  
= RT =
(of water) 1 8314 × (273.15 + 31.1)
kmol
= 0.00165
m3
101325
(25.4 – 19.3) ×760
∆PAir kmol
(∆C2) = RT = = 0.00033
2 8314 × (273.15 + 26.1) m3
0.00165 – 0.00033 kmol
∴ ( ∆C ) L =
ln 0.00033
0.00165 = 0.00082
m3
 
–6
3.61 × 10 kmol 1 m3
∴ kC = s . 2 . kmol
0.0981 × 0.00082 m
m m
kC = 0.045 s or 162 h (Ans.)
(12) A hailstone falling freely through the atmosphere grows by transfer of water vapour
from the surrounding air saturated with water vapour. Estimate the mass transfer
coefficient (kc) for a 3-cm diameter hailstone falling at a Reynolds number of 4 × 104.
Assume air temperature to be – 10C. Use the following mass transfer coefficient
–0.33 0.5 0.78
correlation for this type of phenomenon : [Sh Sc = 0.51 Re + 0.02235 Re ].
o
Solution : We need DAB at – 10 C
o
From data : DAB for air-water mixture @ 25.9 C
–4
= 0.258 × 10 m2/s
= T 
D2 T2 1.5
∴ D1  1
273.15 – 10 3/2
= 273.15 + 25.9
–4 2
D2
∴
  0.258 × 10 m /s
–4
= 0.213 × 10 m2/s
–6
o ν 12.5 × 10
Schmidt No. at (– 10 C) for air = D = –4 = 0.585
AB 0.213 × 10
kC D –0.33 4 0.5 4 0.78
∴ DAB (Sc) = 0.51 × (4 × 10 ) + 0.02235 (4 × 10 )
∴ kC = 0.112 m/s or 404 m/h. (Ans.)

(13) Air flows through a cylindrical tube made of naphthalene at a velocity of 5 m/s. The
tube diameter is 0.1 m, and the air temperature is 20C. Estimate the mass transfer
–6
coefficient. Given : Dnaph-air = 4.24 ×10 m2/s.
pM 101325 × 28.9
Solution : For air : ρ = RT = = 1.2 kg/m3
8314 × (293.15)
–5
µ = 1.8 × 10 pa.s
–5
µ 1.8 × 10
Sc = = –6 = 3.54
ρ DN–A 1.2 × 4.24 × 10
–
ρDu 1.2 × 0.1 × 5 4
Re = µ = 1.8 × 10–5 = 3.33 × 10
0.83 1/3
Use : Sh = 0.023 Re Sc (Linton – Sherwood correlation)
DN-A 4 0.83 1/3
∴ kC = 0.1 × 0.023 (3.33 × 10 ) (3.54)
= 0.00843 m/s
Try Colburn jD factor
2/3 f –0.20
jD = St. Sc = 2 = 0.023 Re
Re Sc –0.20
Sh = 2/3 . 0.023 Re
Sc
0.8 1/3
= 0.023 (Re) (Sc)
–3
∴ kc = 6.2 × 10 m/s
= 0.0062 m/s
(14) In the dilute concentration region, equilibrium data for SO2 distributed between air
and water can be approximated by [PA = 25 xA], where the partial pressure of SO2 (A)
in the vapour phase is in atmospheres. For an absorption column operating at 10 atm,
the bulk vapour and liquid concentrations at one point in the column are : yA = 0.01
and xA = 0.0. The mass transfer coefficients for this process are :
kx = 10 kmol/(m2h) and ky = 8 kmol/(m2h).
(a) Find the overall mass transfer coefficient, Kx.
(b) Determine the interfacial compositions, xAi and yAi.
(c) Calculate the molar flux NA.
Solution :
(a) pA = 25 xA
pA 25
yA = P = 10 atm. xA
yA = 2.5 xA (a straight line)
m' = m" = slope of equilibrium line
1 1 1
Kx = m" ky + kx
m" = 2.5 (slope of equilibrium curve, see Fig. 4.21)
1 1 1 kmol
∴ Kx = 2.5 × 8 + 10 ⇒ Kx = 6.67 (m2.h)
1 1 m'
Similarly, Ky = ky + kx
1 2.5 kmol
= 8 + 10 ⇒ Ky = 2.67 (Ans.)
(m2·h)
yA
P Equlibrium curve
Slope = 2.5
0.01 D
M From Part (b)

0.005
O 0.005 0.01 X
C
Fig. 4.21 : Equilibrium curve in Ex. (13)
kx yAi – yAG yAi – 0.01
(b) ky = slope = xAi – xAL = xAi – 0
10 yAi – 0.01 2.5 xAi – 0.01
or, – 8 = xAi = xAL
0.01
∴ xAi = 2.5 + 1.25 = 0.00267
yAi = 2.5 xAi = 0.00669 (Ans.)
Equation for line PM

yA = – 1.25 XA + 0.01
(c) NA = kx (xAi – xAL)
= 10 × (0.00267 – 0)
kmol
= 0.0267 2
m .h
or NA = ky (yAG – yAi)
= 8 (0.01 – 0.00667)
kmol
= 0.0267 2
m .h
*
or (
NA = Kx XA – XAL )
yAG
* 0.01
XA
= 2.5 = 2.5 = 0.004
Kx = 6.67
∴ NA = 6.67 (0.004 – 0.0)
kmol
NA = 0.0267 (Ans.)
m2.h
(15) In an apparatus for studying the absorption of SO2 by water, the overall mass transfer
coefficient Ky was found to be 0.3 kmol/(m2h). Assuming that 40% of the resistance to
mass transfer is in the gas phase, calculate the overall mass transfer coefficient based
on the liquid concentration. The system temperature was 30°°C and the pressure was
maintained at 1 atm.
The equilibrium data for SO2H2O system at 30°°C are :
(kg SO2)/(100 kg H2O) PSO2, atm
0.1 0.0062
0.3 0.0259
0.5 0.0474
0.7 0.0684
1.0 0.1039
Solution : Need xA vs. yA data
kg SO2/64.06
xA = kg SO /64.06 + kg H O/18
2 2
PSO
2
yA = p
We get :
xA yA
–4 0.0062
2.81 × 10
–4 0.0259
8.46 × 10
–4 0.0474
14.1 × 10
–4 0.0684
19.8 × 10
–4 0.1039
28.2 × 10
With the straight line equilibrium relationship, m' = m"
the tall one data essentially

a straight line
Fig. 4.22 : Operating line in Ex. (14)

0.1039 – 0.0062
m' = m" = –4 –4 = 38.5
28.2 × 10 – 2.81 × 10
Also  1  = 0.4  1 
ky Ky
= 0.4 k + k 
1 m'
 y x
kmol
Since Ky = 0.3
(m2.h)
kmol
∴ ky = 0.75
(m2.h)
0.6 0.4 m' 1
or ky = kx ⇒ k
x
1 0.6
kx = 0.4 m' k
y
0.6 2
= = m'
0.4 × 0.75 × m'
1 1 1
Now Kx = m" k + k
y x
1 2
= + 38.5
38.5 ∞ 0.75
kmol of SO2
= 11.6
m2.hr
kmol (of SO2)
∴ Kx = 11.6 (Ans.)
(m2.h)
(16) At one point in an absorption column, the bulk compositions were found to be
xA = 0.0 and yA = 0.08. The corresponding interfacial compositions were estimated to
be xAi = 0.025 and yAi = 0.04. If the overall mass transfer coefficient for the liquid
phase (Kx) is 50 kmol/(m2h), determine the percentage resistance to mass transfer for
the gas phase. Assume that the equilibrium relationship for the gas and liquid phases
can be described by Henry's law.
Solution : Henry's law :

∴ Equilibrium relationship is
yA = HxA, a straight line
yA varies from 0 to 0.08
xA varies from 0 to 0.025
Slope of line PM (See Fig. 4.23)
kx 0.04 – 0.08
= – k = 0.025 – 0
y
kx
∴ ky = 1.6 → kx = 1.6 ky
yA
0.1
P k D
0.08 Slope = – —x
ky
0.06
0.04 Equilibrium
M
0.02
0 xA
C 0.01 0.02 0.03
Fig. 4.23 : Equilibrium curve in Ex. (15)
For liquid phase :
1 1 1
Kx = m" k + k
y x
where, m" = slope of line MD
= m' (straight line)
0.04 – 0
Slope m' = m" = 0.025 – 0 = 1.6
1 1 1
∴ 50 = 1.6 k + 1.6 k
y y
∴ ky = 62.5 kmol/(m2.h)
kx = 1.6 × 62.5 = 100 kmol/(m2.h)
Both resistances are equal.
% resistances for the gas phase = 50%
1 1 m'
Also Ky = k + k
y x
1 1.6
= 62.5 + 100
∴ Ky = 31.25 kmol/m2.hr. (Ans.)

o
(17) Water is used to absorb CO2 from a N2-CO2 mixture in a unit operating at 10 C and
2 MPa. The average gas - and liquid-side mass transfer coefficients are 4.0 and
o
48.0 kmol/(m2.h), respectively. Henry's law for the CO2-water system at 10 C is :
5
[p = 1.05 × 10 x], where p is the partial pressure (in kPa) of CO2 in the gas phase and x
is the aqueous-phase mole fraction of CO2. Water is assumed to be non-volatile, and
the solubility of N2 in water is neglected.
(a) Calculate the overall mass transfer coefficients, Kx and Ky.
(b) At a certain location in the absorption unit, the mole fractions of CO2 in the
liquid and gas phases were measured to be 0.0005 and 0.10, respectively. Estimate
the interfacial mole fractions of CO2 at this location.
(c) At the location in Part (b), obtain the mass rate of CO2 absorption for an
interfacial area of 0.6 m2.
o
Solution : Interphase mass transfer @ 10 C and 2 MPa.
CO2 diffuses through gas phase into the liquid (water) phase.
Let A + CO2, B = N2 or water
A diffusing, B non-diffusing
Henry's law for CO2 :
5
pA = H xA ⇒ pA = 1.05 × 10 xA
pA 5
1.05 × 10
yA = p = 3 xA
t 2 × 10
∴ yA = 52.5 xA
yA
P(xAL, yAG)
M(xAi, yAi)
xA
Fig. 4.24 : Graph of xA versus yA in Ex. (16)
ky = 4.0 kmol/(m2.h)
kx = 48.0 kmol/(m2.h)
(a) Calculation of Kx and Ky :
Here m' = m" = 52.5
–1
= m" k + k 
1 1
Kx
 y x
–1
=  1 + 
1
52.5 × 4.0 48
Kx = 39.1 kmol/m2.h (Ans.)
–1
= k + k 
1 m'
Ky
 y x
–1
=  1 + 52.5
4.0 48 
Ky = 0.744 kmol/m2.h (Ans.)
(b) xAi and yAi when yAG = 0.10, xAL = 0.0005
kx 48.0 yAi – yAG
–k = – 4.0 ≡ slope of PM = x –x
y Ai AL
and yAi = 52.5 xAi
52.5 xAi – 0.10
– 12.0 = x – 0.0005
Ai
– 12 xAi + 0.006 = 52.5 xAi – 0.10
xAi = 0.00164, yAi = 0.0863 (Ans.)
(c) Absorption rate :
mass rate = MCO × NA × a
2
= 44 × 0.6 × NA = 26.4 NA
NA = ky (yAG – yAC) = kx (xAC – xAL)
*
(
= Ky yAG – yA ) = Kx (x*A – xAL)
*
yA = 52.5 × xAL
= 52.5 × 0.0005
= 0.02625
* yAG 0.10
xA = 52.5 = 52.5
–3
= 1.905 × 10
Mass rate of CO2 absorption (kg/h)
26.4 (4.0 (0.10 – 0.0863) = 1.45 kg/h
26.4 (4.8 (0.00164 – 0.0005) = 1.44 kg/h
26.4 (0.744 (0.10 – 0.02625) = 1.45 kg/h
–3
26.4 (39.1 (1.905 × 10 – 0.0005) = 1.45 kg/h
Rate of CO2 absorption = 1.45 kg/h (Ans.)
(18) A wetted-wall column, with 20-cm diameter, is used for absorbing a solute 'A' from an
'A'+ air mixture at 100 kPa. The solvent vapour pressure and the solubility of air in the
solvent are negligible. The equilibrium data are plotted. At a certain column location,
the steady-state liquid- and gas-phase mole fractions of 'A' are 0.02 and 0.07,
respectively, and the liquid- and gas-side mass transfer coefficients are estimated to be
70 and 50 kmol/(m2h), respectively. Calculate the following at this location.
(a) The equilibrium mole fractions : yAi and xAi.
(b) The mass transfer coefficients : kG, Ky and Kx.
(c) The molar absorption rate of 'A' per unit column height.
Solution : Absorption of 'A' in a non-volatile solvent.
Solubility of air in solvent is negligible.
∴ "A" is diffusing, but air (or solvent) is not !
Gas Liquid
yAG
yAi
xAi
interface
Fig. 4.25 : Illustration of gas-liquid interface in Ex. (17)
(a) xAi and yAi

kmol
Given kz = 70
m2h
kmol
ky = 50
m2h
yAG = 0.07, xAL = 0.02
Point P : xAL = 0.02, yAG = 0.07 (See Fig. 4.26)

kx 70
Slope Pm = – k = – 50 = – 1.4
y
From P, draw a line of slope = – 1.4
Locate M on the equilibrium curve

Graphically : xAi = 0.05, yAi = 0.027 (Ans.)
Find the equation of PM
(y – 0.07) = – 1.4 (x – 0.02)
y = – 1.4 x + 0.098 (y intercept)
xAi = 0.05, yAi = 0.027

yA
P(0.02, 0.07)
yAG
D
(0.07)
yAi M
(0.028)
yA*
(0.01) C
xAL xAi xA*

(0.02) (0.05) (0.083)
Fig. 4.26 : Graphical calculations of interfacial concentrations
(b) Calculation of kG, Ky and Kx
ky (∆yA) 50 kmol
kG (∆pA) = ky (∆yA) → ∴ kG = = 100
pt(∆yA) kPa.m2
kmol kmol
kG = 0.5 2 = 0.0005
kPa.m .h Pa.m2.h
∆pA = pt (∆yA)
–1
Ky =  1 + m'
ky kx 
0.027 – 0.01  yA – y*A 
m' (slope of CM ) = 0.05 – 0.02 = 0.57  
xAi – xAL 
–1
= 50 + 70 
1 0.57
Ky
∴
 
= 35.5 kmol/m2.h
–1
= m" k + k 
1 1
Kx
 y x
yAG – yAi
m" = *
xA – xAi
0.07 – 0.027
= 0.083 – 0.05 = 1.3
–1
=  + 70
1 1
∴ kx
1.3 × 50 
= 33.7 kmol/m2.h
Check :
*
ky (yAG – yAi) = Ky yAG – yA ( )
(yAG – yAi)
∴ Ky = ky
(yAG – y*A)
(0.07 – 0.027)
= 50 × (0.07 – 0.01)
= 35.8 kmol/m2.h
(*
kx (xAi – xAL) = Kx xA – xAL )
0.05 – 0.02
∴ Kx = 70 × 0.083 – 0.02
kmol
= 33.3 2
m .h
(c) · A = Ky a yAG – yA
m ( *
) (*
= Kx a xA – xAL )
a = πdL
·A
m
∴ L = 35.5 × (π × 0.2) × (0.07 – 0.01)
kmol
= 1.34 m.h
·A
m
Check (with kx) : L = 33.7 × π × 0.2 × (0.083 – 0.02)
kmol
= 1.33 m.h ; OK (Ans.)
(19) An oil is used for removing cyclohexane (C6H6) from an air stream using a
countercurrent packed column. The steady-state operating conditions are 30°°C and
101.3 kPa. At these conditions, the oil has low vapour pressure and the solubility of air
in the oil is negligible.
The equilibrium relationship (Henry's law) is given by : PA = 16.2 xA, where PA
(in kPa) is partial pressure of C6H6. Average liquid- and gas-side mass transfer
coefficients are 5.0 and 100.0 kmol/(m2h), respectively.
(a) Estimate the average values of overall mass transfer coefficients, Kx and Ky.
(b) Somewhere in the middle of the column, the liquid and gas phase mole fractions
of C6H6 are 0.02 and 0.005, respectively. Estimate the molar flux of C6H6 and the
interfacial compositions at this location.
(c) For the packed column, the inlet compositions are : yA = 0.01 and xA = 0.005, and
the outlet compositions are : yA = 0.002 and xA = 0.04. Use the average values of
mass transfer coefficient(s) to calculate the molar absorption rate of C6H6 when
the total interfacial area is 50.0 m2.
Solution :
"A" (C6H6) diffuses into oil ("C").
Air ("B") does not diffuse. "C" is non-volatile
pA = 16.2 xA
pA 16.2
∴ yA = pt = 101.3 xA
yA = 0.16 xA
yA
0.012
0.008
P
0.004
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Fig. 4.27 : Graphical calculations in Ex. (18)
(a) Calculation of Kx and Ky
m' = m" = 0.16
–1 –1
Ky =  1 + m' =  1 + 0.16
ky kx  100.0 5.0 
kmol
= 23.8
m2.h
–1 –1
= m"k + k  =  + 5.0
1 1 1 1
Kx
 y x 0.16 × 100.0 
kmol
= 3.8 (Ans.)
m2.h
(b) xAL = 0.02, yAG = 0.005
NA = Ky (yAG – y*A)
= 23.8 (0.005 – 0.16 × 0.02)
= 0.043 kmol/m2h
or (*
NA = Kx xA – xAL )
kmol
= 3.8 (0.03125 – 0.02) = 0.043
m2.h
Equation of PM
kx 5.0
slope = – k = – 100.0 = – 0.05
y
(yA – y1) = m (xA – x1) → (yA – 0.005)
= – 0.05 (xA – 0.02)
∴ yA = – 0.05 xA + 0.006
Point 'm' : Point of intersection with yA = 0.16 xA
∴ 0.16 xA = – 0.05 xA + 0.006
xAi = 0.0286
∴
yAi = 0.16 × 0.0286 = 0.00457
kmol
∴ NA = 0.043
m2.h
xAi = 0.0286
yAi = 0.00457
·
(c) m = NA × (area) = Kg  ∆yA  × area
  lm
 ∆yA 
(yA2 – y*A2) – (yA1 – y*A1)
=
  lm
yA2 – y*A2
ln 
yA1 – y* 
 A1
(0.002 – 0.16 × 0.005) – (0.01 – 0.16 × 0.04)
=
ln
0.002 – 0.16 × 0.005
 0.01 – 0.16 × 0.04 
–3
= 2.185 × 10
yA2 = 0.002 xA2 = 0.005
yA1 = 0.01 xA1 = 0.04

Fig. 4.28 : Counter current packed bed
· –3
∴ m = 23.8 (2.185 × 10 ) × 50.0
= 2.6 kmol of A/h
With arithmetic mean,
–3
∆yA = 2.4 × 10
· –3
∴ m = 23.8 × 2.4 × 10 × 50.0
kmol
= 2.86 h
Check with kx :
·
m = Kx  ∆xA  area
 
 ∆xA  =
(x*A2 – xA2) + (x*A1 – xA1)
  2
0.002 – 0.005 + 0.01 + 0.04

 0.16  0.16 
= 2
= 0.015
·
∴ m = 3.8 (0.015) 50
kmol
= 2.85 h ; OK (Ans.)
(20) The following schematics illustrate possible concentration profiles near the gas (yb) -
liquid (xb) interface. For each curve, establish whether mass transfer can occur and if
so, in which direction (gas → liquid/liquid → gas). Explain/justify your answer by
describing a situation in which such a profile might exist.
Mole
fraction xb xb
yb yb
Distance (a) (b)
xb xb xb
yb
yb yb
(c) (d) (e)
Fig. 4.29 : Concentration profiles for gas-liquid interface

Solution : (a) Solute will transfer from the gas to the liquid phase. The fact that the interfacial
liquid mole fraction is higher than the gas concentration is no impediment. It is
merely an indication of high gas solubility.
(b) There is no transfer from gas to liquid nor from liquid to gas. Such a profile
(where the interfacial concentration is higher from both sides) only arises in the
case where the solute is generated at the gas-liquid interface.
(c) The solute will desorb from the liquid to the gas phase. Gas solubility is low
because the interfacial concentrations are nearly identical.
(d) The flat liquid phase profile indicates that the liquid phase is well-mixed and
shows no mass transfer resistance. Because the gas phase concentration
diminishes in the negative direction (away from the interface), the transfer will
be from liquid to gas.
(e) Transfer is from gas to liquid. As in (d), the liquid phase is well-mixed.
(1) A gas mixture, A – Air is fed into an absorption tower where absorption of the
component A in water is taking place at 288 K and 3 std. atm. pressure.
k mole A
Given : Kl = 0.152
(hr. m2) (mole A/m3)
k mole A
Kg = 1.22
hr. m2. atm.
The equilibrium partial pressure of the gas A over dilute solution of A in water is given
by PA, i = 0.25 CA, i
where, PA, i is the atm.
CA, i is in mole A/m3
Determine the values of the following mass transfer coefficients :
(i) Ky, (ii) KC for gas film,
(iii) KG, (iv) KL.

k mole A
(Ans. : (i) Ky = 3.66 ,
hr. m2
(ii) KC = 28.83 m/hr,

k mole A
(iii) KG = 0.405 ,
hr. m2. atm.
k mole A
(iv) KL = 0.1014
(hr. m2) (mole A/m3)
(2) A component A is being transferred from the liquid phase to the gas phase in a mass
transfer apparatus such that the following equilibrium relation :
yA, i = 0.75 (xA, i) holds good.
At one point in the apparatus, the liquid contains 90 mole% of A and the gas in contact
with this liquid contains 40 mole % of A. The individual gas-film mass transfer coefficient
at the above point is,
k mole
Ky = 2
(hr) (m2) (∆ yA)
and 72% of the total resistance to mass transfer lies in the gas phase.
Determine :
(i) molar flux of A, NA.
(ii) interfacial concentration of A in both phases.

(iii) the overall mass transfer coefficient, Ky.
(Ans. : (i) NA = –0.396 k mole A/(hr.m 2),
(ii) yA, i = 0.202, xA, i = 0.269,

k mole A
(iii) Ky = 1.44 )
(hr) (m2) (∆YA)
(3) In the absorption of component A from an air stream into an aqueous stream, the bulk
composition of the two adjacent streams were analyzed to be PA, G equals 0.1 atm and
CA, L equals 0.004 g mole/cm3. The Henry's constant for this system is 16.5 atm. cm3/g
mole. The overall gas-side mass transfer coefficient KOG was 7.45 × 10–6 g mole/ cm2.s.
atm.
If 57% of the total resistance to mass transfer is in the gas film, determine
(a) the gas-side mass transfer coefficient, kG;
(b) the concentration on the liquid side of the interface, CA, i

(c) the liquid-side mass transfer coefficient, kL;
(d) the mass flux of A.
(4) The partial pressure of CO2 in air is 1.333 × 104 Pa and the total pressure in 1.133 × 105 Pa.
The gas phase is in equilibrium with a water solution at 303 K. What is the value of xA of
CO2 in equilibrium in the solution ? See appendix for the Henry's law constant.
(Ans. : xA = 7.07 × 10–5 mole fraction CO2)
(5) At 303 K the concentration of CO2 in water is 0.90 × 10–4 kg CO2/kg water. Using the
Henry's law constant from Appendix, what partial pressure of CO2 must be kept in the
gas to keep the CO2 from vapourising from aqueous solution ?
(Ans. : pA = 6.93 × 103 Pa)
(6) The solute A is being absorbed form a gas mixture of A and B in a wetted-wall tower
with the liquid flowing as a film downward along the wall. At a certain point in the
tower, the bulk gas concentration yAG = 0.25 and the bulk liquid concentration is
xAL = 0.05. The tower is operating at 298 K and 1.013 bar and the equilibrium data can be
represented by
0.4749 x
yA = 4/3
1 – 2.304 xA
The solute A diffuses through stagnant B in the gas phase and then through a
non-diffusing liquid. Using correlations for dilute solutions in a wetted-wall tower, the
–3
film mass transfer coefficient for A in the gas phase is predicted as ky = 1.465 × 10 kmol-
–3
A/(s.m2) and for the liquid phase is predicted as kx = 1.967 × 10 kmol-A(s.m2).
Calculate.
(a) Interface concentrations yAi And xAi and flux NA. Sketch graphically how to find the
interface concentration. Obtain the actual numbers through numerical solution.
'
(b) Overall mass transfer coefficients Ky and Ky and flux NA.
'
(c) Overall mass transfer coefficient Kx and flux NA.
–4
(Ans. : (a) xAi = 0.16904, yAi = 0.10231, NA = 2.633 × 10 kmol/(cm2.s)
' –3 –3
(b) Ky = 1.003 × 10 kmol/(m2.s), Ky = 1.169 × 10 kmol/(cm2s),
–4
NA = 2.633 × 10 kmol/(m2.s)
' –4 –4
(c) Kx = 8.967 × 10 kmol/(m2.s), NA = 2.633 × 10 kmol/(m2.s)
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols Meaning
A Substance A, the diffusing solute, Absorptions factor, dimensionless
e 2.7183
E Phase E; total rate of flow of phase E, mole/s
Es Rate of flow of non-diffusing solvent in phase E, mole/s
EME Fractional Murphee stage efficiency of phase E
EMR Fractional Murphee stage efficiency for phase R
f Equilibrium-distribution function
FG Gas-phase mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
FL Liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2. s
FOG Overall gas mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
Symbols Meaning
FOL Overall liquid mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
i Generalized concentration in phase R
j Generalized concentration in phase E
kx Liquid mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s(mole fraction)
ky Gas mass transfer coefficient, mole/ m2. s (mole fraction)
Kx overall liquid mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (mole fraction)
Ky overall gas mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (mole fraction)
m Equilibrium curves slope, dimensionless
m', m" slopes of chords of the equilibrium curve, dimensionless
n Stage n
N Mass transfer flux, mole/m2.s
Np Total number of ideal stages in a cascade
R Phase R; total rate of flow of phase R, mole/s
Rs Rate of flow of non-diffusing solvent in phase R, mole/sec
S stripping factor, dimensionless
x Concentration of A in a liquid or in phase R, mole fraction
X Concentration of A in phase R, mole A/mole non-A
y Concentration of A in a gas or in phase E, mole fraction
Y Concentration of A in phase E, mole A/mole non-A
Subscripts :
A Substance A
e Equilibrium
E Phase E
G Gas
i Interface
L Liquid
n Stage n
O Overall
R Phase R
0 Entering stage 1
1, 2 Positions 1 and 2; stage 1 and 2
Subscripts :
* In equilibrium with bulk concentration in other phase.
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
1. A.H.P.Skelland, “Diffusional Mass Transfer”, Kriegar, Malbar FL, 1985.
Hall, 2003
7. C.J. Geankoplis, “ Mass Transport Phenomena”, Columbus, Chio, 1972
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
9. T.K.Shrewood and R.L. Pigford, ”Mass Transfer”, McGraw Hill, 1975.
10. A.L.Hines and R.N. Maddox, ”Mass Transfer : Fundamentals and Applications”,
Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1985
11. J.R. Welty, R.E. Wilson and C.E. Pikes, “Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
12. E.L. Cussler, “Diffusion : Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems”, Second Edition, Cambridge
University Press, 1998.
,,,
5
CHAPTER
GAS ABSORPTION
5.1 Background
5.2 Physical Vs. Chemical Absorption
5.3 Method of Operation
5.4 Henry's Law for Gas Absorption
5.5 Minimum Liquid/Gas Ratio for Absorption
5.6 Choice of Solvent for Gas Absorption
5.7 HETP (Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate)
5.8 Packing Height : The Method of Transfer Units
5.9 Number of Theoretical Trays
5.10 The Kremser-Brown-Souders (KBS) Equation
5.11 Introduction
5.12 Equipment for Absorption/Stripping
5.13 Equilibrium Curve
5.14 Interfacial Mass Transfer : Review
5.15 Definition of Transfer Coefficients
5.16 Height of Packed Tower
5.17 Transfer Unit
5.18 Evaluation of NTU's Integral
5.19 Concept of HETP
5.20 Analogy with Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
5.21 Relationship among Hox, Hoy, Hx, Hy
5.22 Pressure Drop in Packed Beds
5.23 Tower Diameter
5.24 Absorption with Chemical Reaction
5.25 General Procedure for Design of Packed Absorption Columns
5.26 Design Considerations
5.27 Typical Absorber Design Problem
Solved Problems
Nomenclature
References
5.1 BACKGROUND
Gas absorption (also known as scrubbing) is an operation in which a gas mixture is contacted
with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving one or more components of the gas
mixture and to provide a solution of them in the liquid. Therefore we can see that there is a mass
transfer of the component of the gas from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The solute so
transferred is said to be absorbed by the liquid.
(5.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 5.2 Gas Absorption
In gas desorption (or stripping), the mass transfer is in the opposite direction, i.e. from the
liquid phase to the gas phase. The principles for both systems are the same. We will focus on the
analysis for gas absorption, for the simple case whereby only one component of the gas solute is
being absorbed. The other components of the gas are assumed to be non-soluble in the liquid
(i.e. the other gas components are inert components), and the liquid is non-volatile, which means
that there is no transfer of molecules from the liquid to the gas phase.
In addition, we assume that there is no chemical reaction in the system and that it is operating
at isothermal condition.
The process of gas absorption thus involves the diffusion of solute from the gas phase
through a stagnant or non-diffusing liquid. Gas absorption and desorption (stripping) can often
integrated.
Gas absorption is a process in which a gas mixture is in placed in contact with a liquid for the
purpose of preferential dissolving of one ore more components of the gas mixture.
Examples :
• NH3 is removed from oven gas by water.
• CO2, H2S are removed from natural gas using water solutions of Alkaline salts.
• Benzene, toluene are removed from natural gas using hydrocarbon oil.
Absorption : Physics of the process
P, T
Absorption : Physics of process

Fig. 5.1 : Absorption : Physics of process
Imagine a system where we have a binary mixture of two components A and B, one (A) is
volatile and the second one (B) is a non-volatile solvent.
The mixture coexists with an equilibrium gas of almost pure volatile component, which has
pressure P. So if we place a piston on the top of the system, exerting pressure P, the system will
be in equilibrium.
The concentration of the volatile component A in solvent B is called solubility of A in B at
P, T. This characteristics can be measured for a range of binary systems under different P, T
conditions.
In general solubility decreases with temperature. it is natural to guess that if we heat the
system up, the energy supplied in the system will be used to evaporate more of the volatile
component A.
Physics of the process : Multicomponent mixture :
P, T
Physics of process : Multicomponent mixture

Fig. 5.2 : Physics of process : Multicomponent mixture
Now we deal with a jar where a number of components are dissolved in the solvent and also
forms and equilibrium gas mixture. Each component can be characterized with it’s own solubility
under these conditions (composition, P, T). In general these solubilities (and other properties of
the systems) must be described using methods of multicomponent phase equilibria (or measured
experimentally). In many cases the system can be described with Simplified relations. If ideal gas
is in equilibrium with ideal mixture we can apply the following expression to find partial
pressures of the components :
*
Pi = Pxi
If ideal gas is in equilibrium with non-ideal mixture, Henry’s law applies
*
= mxi Pi
Absorption : General design considerations
1. Entering gas composition flow rate, temperature and pressure Design objectives
2. Desired degree of separation
3. Choice of solvent :
• High gas solubility
• Low volatility Theromophysical Characteristics
• Low corrosiveness
• Low cost
• Low viscosity
• Non-toxic, non-explosive
4. Minimum solvent flow rate -> actual solvent flow rate Basic Design Elements
5. Number of equilibrium stages
6. Heat/cooling requirements
7. Type of absorber Technical Specifications
8. Geometrical parameters of the system/economy
For example : Integration of absorber and stripper :
In practice, absorbers and strippers are often interconnected with one stripper serving several
absorbers.
In general, operating pressure should be high and temperature low for an absorber, to
minimize stage requirements and/or solvent flow rate and to lower the equipment volume
required to accommodate the gas flow. Unfortunately, both compression and refrigeration of a
gas are expensive. Therefore most absorbers are operated at feed gas pressure, which may be
higher than ambient pressure. Operating temperature is kept low, but not to condense the feed
gas.
The Figure shows an amine treating system typical in refineries with one absorber (scrubber)
and one regenerator (stripper).
Overhead
condenser Acid
Sweet gas gas
Lean
amine Lean
amine
cooler
Overhead
Outlet accumulator
drum Reflux
Lean amine water
charge pump
Absorber
(scrubber) Reflux pump
Lean amine
booster pump Rich Stripper
amine (regenerator)
Sour
gas
Reboiler
Rich Lean amine
amine storage tank Steam
Inlet Flash
drum gas Condensate
Lean/rich
amine heat
exchanger
Rich
amine Lean amine
flash
drum Carbon
filter
Flowsheet of Amine treating system
Fig. 5.3 : Flowsheet of Amine treating system
In the absorber, H2S is removed from the incoming sour gas by contacting it with liquid
amine (DEA or MEA) in a counter-current manner. The amine solution (known as lean amine)
enters the column at the top. The gas leaves the absorber as sweet gas with the H2S removed. The
amine solution that leaves the bottom of the column is rich in absorbed H2S (known as rich
amine) and is feed to the stripper or regenerator.
In the regenerator, the opposite process takes place whereby H2S is removed from rich amine
by counter-current contact with steam. The amine stripped of H2S leaves the bottom of the
regenerator is send back to the scrubber as lean amine for more absorption. The entire process
takes place essentially in a closed loop. Note that in this case, the liquid entering the absorber is
no longer pure (i.e. x2 is not 0) as it may contain traces of H2S in the entering liquid amine.
5.2 PHYSICAL VS. CHEMICAL ABSORPTION

There are two types of absorption processes : Physical absorption and chemical absorption,
depending on whether there is any chemical reaction between the solute and the solvent
(absorbent).
When water and hydrocarbon oils are used as absorbents, no significant chemical reactions
occur between the absorbent and the solute, and the process is commonly referred to as physical
absorption. When aqueous sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is used as the absorbent to dissolve
an acid gas, absorption is accompanied by a rapid and irreversible neutralization reaction in the
liquid phase and the process is referred to as chemical absorption or reactive absorption.
More complex examples of chemical absorption are processes for absorbing CO2 and H2S
with aqueous solution of monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), diethyl-eneglycol
(DEG) or triethyleneglycol (TEG), where a reversible chemical reaction takes place in the liquid
phase. Chemical reactions can increase the rate of absorption, increase the absorption capacity of
the solvent, increase selectivity to preferentially dissolve only certain components of the gas, and
convert a hazardous chemical to a safe compound.
5.3 METHOD OF OPERATION
Two methods of contacting the gas and liquid are possible : counter-current operation and
co-current operation. We will focus principally on the counter-current gas absorption, as it was
widely used in the industry. The main differences between the two configurations will be
highlighted. Note that for counter-current operation, the gas enters
Lout Gout
Lin Gout
Xout yout
Xin yout
Distance Distance
Lout Gin Lin Gin

Xout yin Xin yin
Gas concentration Gas concentration

of solute of solute
Concentration
Concentration
Liquid Liquid
concentration of solute concentration of solute
Distance Distance
Method of operation
Fig. 5.4 : Method of operation for contacting gas and liquid
the column or tower from below as leaves at the top, while liquid enters from the top and flows
in opposite direction and exits from the bottom. [Recall the similarity with heat exchanger
operation].
We will be concerned primarily with counter-current gas absorption. As shown in the Figure
below, the gas flows upwards while the liquid flow downwards. Inside the column where there is
vapor-liquid contact, mass transfer by absorption occurs, i.e. there is a transfer of solute(s) from
the gas phase to the liquid phase.
Liquid in: Gas out:

Inert liquid + Inert gas + unabsorbed
little or solute A (trace amount)
no solute A
Mass transfer of
solute A from gas
into liquid
Solute (solute A absorbed
content in into inert liquid)
liquid-
phase
increases Solute
down the content in
column gas phase
decreases
up the
column
Liquid out:
inert liquid + Gas in:
absorbed solute A inert gas + solute A
Flow of gas and liquid in counter-current gas absorption

Fig. 5.5 : Flow of gas and liquid in counter-current gas absorption
(a) Counter-Current Gas Absorption :
Refer to the Figure below for a dilute system :
G2 L2
y2 x2
1 Bottom of column
2
2 Top of column
G L
y x
Envelope 1
1
G1 L1
y1 x1
Counter-current gas absorption

Fig. 5.6 : Counter-current gas absorption
Notations : In terms of mole fraction and total flow rates

y : mole fraction of solute A in the gas phase
x : mole fraction of solute A in the liquid phase
2
G : total molar flow rate of the gas stream (gas flux), kg-moles/m .s
2
L : total molar flow rate of the liquid stream, kg-moles/m .s
2
Gy and Lx are the molar flow rates of A in the gas and liquid respectively (kg-moles A/m .s)
at any point inside the column.
Inside the column, mass transfer takes place as the solute (component A) is absorbed by the
liquid. The quantities of L and x (for the liquid side) and G and y (for the gas side) vary
continuously : as we gradually move up the column, component A is continuously being
transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase. Thus, in going up the column, there is a
decrease in the total gas flow rate, and a decrease in the concentration of A in the gas phase. At
the same time, in going down the column, there is an increase in the total liquid flow rate, and an
increase in the concentration of A in the liquid phase. Thus,
G1 > G > G2 L1 > L > L2 … (5.1)
y1 > y > y2 x1 > x > x2
For dilute systems, the solute content is small relative to the non-soluble inerts and non-volatile
liquid. Thus, we can assume :
G1 = G2 = G = constant … (5.2)
L1 = L2 = L = constant
The relationship between these variables L, x, G and y is the operating line equation. The
operating line equation is obtained by material balance around the column (as shown in Envelope
1 of the Figure above).
At steady-state : IN = OUT … (5.3)
Thus, G y + L 1 x1 = L x + G1 y1
Using the dilute system assumptions, we simply the equation and obtain :
G y = L x + G y1 – L x1 … (5.4)
Re-arranging :
y = G x + 
L Gy1 – Lx1
… (5.5)
   G 
Since L and G are assumed to be approximately constant, the operating line is a straight line
of the form y = mx + c, with the gradient of L / G, the liquid-to-gas ratio.
The operating line connects the two end points - point 1 (x1, y1) that represents conditions at
the bottom of the column, and point 2 (x2, y2) that represents conditions at the top of the column.
For dilute solution, the equilibrium solubility line is also straight, as represented by Henry's
Law, y = mx, where m is the Henry's Law constant which is also the gradient of the line.
When these two lines are plotted on mole fraction co-ordinates, we have the following Figure.
Mole fraction a decreases up the column

Operating
line
Mole fraction solute A in vapour, y

(bottom)
y1
Equilibrium
line
Any point (Henry's law)
P (x, y) -k /k
y x y
(top)
y2
x2 x x1
Mole fraction A increases down the column
Fig. 5.7 : Concept of operating and equilibrium line

Any point P (x, y) on the operating line represents gas-liquid contact for which the analysis
can be carried out using the two-film theory covered in earlier section. The larger the distance
between the operating line and equilibrium line, the larger the concentration difference for mass
transfer, and thus, the easier the separation.
Note :
• Operating line for gas absorption lies above the equilibrium line.
• Also, in the analysis of gas absorption, we will need to know the minimum liquid rate that can be used for a
given separation, i.e. to remove a specified amount of solute from the gas. This is known as the minimum
liquid-to-gas ratio.
• The analysis is applicable to both tray and packed column.
(b) Co-Current Gas Absorption :
This mode of operation is seldom used in practice. See the Figure below. The main points to
note about this operation are as follow :
L1 G1
x1 y1
Operating
line, slope
= -L/G
Equilibrium
y1 line,
Mole fraction solute in vapour, y
y=mx
y2
L G
x y
(xe, ye)
x1 x2
L2 G2
x2 y2 Mole fraction of solute a in liquid, x
Co-current gas absorption
Fig. 5.8 : Co-current gas absorption
The operating line has negative slope. There is no minimum liquid-to-gas ratio. To produce
an exit liquid and gas streams at equilibrium (xe, ye) on the equilibrium curve, an infinitely tall
column must be used. It is less efficient than counter-current operation.
5.4 HENRY'S LAW FOR GAS ABSORPTION
When the gas mixture in equilibrium with an ideal liquid solution follows the ideal gas
behaviour, we have - as seen previously - the Raoult's Law :
p* = Pvp x … (5.6)
[at this point, students should revise this concept previously covered in the topic on
distillation].
When the solution is non-ideal, Raoult's Law cannot be applied.
For non-ideal solution, we must use Henry's Law, which states that :
p* = Hx or y* = p* / PT = m x … (5.7)
where,
y* = Equilibrium mole fraction in gas phase
PT = Total system pressure
m = Henry's Law Constant
In many cases, the superscript '*' is dropped for convenience :
pA = H xA yA = m xA … (5.8)
Henry's Law is often used to represent equilibrium solubility curves.
As we can see, Henry's Law predicts a linear equilibrium relationship. Still, most equilibrium
relationships are actually non-linear. Henry's Law is only applicable over a modest liquid
concentration range, especially when the solution is dilute.
Note : Several other variations of Henry's law are available, depending on applications,
e.g. membrane separation. Care must be exercised in the correct unit for the constant. For
example, H has the unit of pressure/mole fraction, while m is dimensionless. m is independent of
total pressure, whereas H does not.
Table below showed the values of Henry's Law constant as a function of temperature for
several gases.
Table 5.1 : Values of Henry’s Law Constant as a function of temperature
T Gases
°C CO2 CO C2H6 C2H4 He H2 H2S CH4 N2 O2
0 0.0728 3.52 1.26 0.552 12.9 5.79 0.0268 2.24 5.29 2.55
10 0.104 4.42 1.89 0.768 12.6 6.36 0.0367 2.97 6.68 3.27
20 0.142 5.36 2.63 1.02 12.5 6.83 0.0483 3.76 8.04 4.01
30 0.186 6.20 3.42 1.27 12.4 7.29 0.0609 4.49 9.24 4.75
40 0.233 6.96 4.23 – 12.1 7.51 0.0745 5.20 10.4 5.35
5.5 MINIMUM LIQUID/GAS RATIO FOR ABSORPTION
The inlet gas has a solute mole fraction of y1. The solute mole fraction is reduced to y2 at the
outlet. By material balance for the solute in the gas, the amount to be removed is G (y1 – y2). The
least amount of liquid Lmin that can remove this amount of solute is the minimum liquid rate,
often expressed in terms of a liquid-to-gas ratio, Lmin/G.
Understanding the effect of reducing liquid rate requires an analysis of the operating line
equation. This is shown in the Fig. 5.9.
Operating line at
minimum liquid rate
Mole fraction solute in vapour, y

Equilibrium
(bottom) E F M line
y1
(top) Mole
y2 Rotation fraction
D solute in
liquidr, x
x2 x1 x1, max
Effect of reducing liquid

rate : Analysis of operating line equation
Fig. 5.9 : effect of reducing liquid rate : Analysis of operating line equation
The condition at the top of the column (point D) is known : x2 the mole fraction of entering
liquid is known, and the mole fraction of gas leaving y2 is known. Hence point D is fixed.
The mole fraction of gas entering y1 is known. The mole fraction of liquid leaving x1
obviously depends on the liquid rate used. For the same amount of solute to be removed, using a
larger quantity of liquid will result in smaller value of x1, and vice versa. Hence, when the liquid
rate is changed, the condition at the bottom of the column varies along the horizontal line through
y1.
Recall that the operating line has a gradient of L/G. By reducing the liquid rate, we are
decreasing the slope of the operating line and increasing the exit concentration x1. Therefore the
operating line rotates around point D as L is decreased, e.g. from line DE to DF. Notice that the
operating line has moved closer to the equilibrium curve. When this happens, the driving force
for mass transfer is smaller, i.e. the absorption process becomes more difficult.
At point M, the operating line intersects the equilibrium line, and we have a condition of
operation at zero driving force. At this point, we cannot reduce the liquid rate anymore. Hence,
the liquid rate at this point of equilibrium is known as the minimum liquid rate, Lmin. At
minimum liquid, the outlet liquid concentration is a maximum, x1(max).
The minimum liquid rate results in infinite column height : infinite number of trays or packed
height required for separation (at zero driving force).
The minimum liquid rate, Lmin can be calculated from the gradient of the operating line :
Lmin =  y1 – y2  … (5.9)
 G  x1 (max) – x2
Note : x1(max) can also be calculated using Henry's Law.
The actual liquid rate to be used is specified as multiples of the minimum liquid rate. If the
liquid rate for absorption is initially unknown, then one must calculates the minimum liquid rate
first.
5.6 CHOICE OF SOLVENT FOR GAS ABSORPTION

If the principal purpose of the absorption operation is to produce a specific solution, as in the
manufacture of hydrochloric acid, for example, the solvent is specified by the nature of the
product, i.e. water is to be the solvent. If the principal purpose is to remove some components
(e.g. impurities) from the gas, some choice is frequently possible.
The factors to be considered are :
Gas Solubility :
The gas solubility should be high, thus increasing the rate of absorption and decreasing the
quantity of solvent required. Generally solvent with a chemical nature similar to the solute to be
absorbed will provide good solubility. A chemical reaction of the solvent with the solute will
frequently result in very high gas solubility, but if the solvent is to be recovered for re-use, the
reaction must be reversible.
For example, H2S can be removed from gas mixtures using amine solutions since the gas is
readily absorbed at low temperatures and easily stripped at high temperatures. Caustic soda
absorbs H2S excellently but will not release it in a stripping operation.
Volatility :
The solvent should have a low vapor pressure to reduce loss of solvent in the gas leaving an
absorption column.
Corrosiveness :
The materials of construction required for the equipment should not be unusual or expensive.
Cost :
The solvent should be inexpensive, so that losses are not costly, and should be readily
available.
Viscosity :
Low viscosity is preferred for reasons of rapid absorption rates, improved flooding
characteristics in packed column, low pressure drops on pumping, and good heat transfer
characteristics.
Others :
The solvent should be non-toxic, non-flammable and chemically stable.
Counter-Current Gas Stripping :
Important points to note :
• Mass transfer from the liquid-phase to the gas-phase.
• Sometimes gas stripping units go by the name of regenerators.
• Analysis is similar to counter-current gas absorption.
• Important difference : operating line lies below to equilibrium line.
See the Fig. 5.10.
y2
Mole fraction of solute in gas, y

(Top)
Equilibrium
line, y = m x
Operating
line, slope
= L/G
y1 (Bottom)
x1 x2
Mole fraction solute in liauid, x
Counter-current gas stripping
Fig. 5.10 : Counter-current gas stripping
5.7 HETP (HEIGHT EQUIVALENT TO A THEORETICAL PLATE)
As we have noted, instead of a tray (plate) column, a packed column can be used for various
unit operations such as continuous or batch distillation, or gas absorption.
With a tray column, the vapours leaving an ideal plate will be richer in the more volatile
component than the vapour entering the plate by one equilibrium "step".
When packings are used instead of trays, the same enrichment of the vapor will occur over a
certain height of packings, and this height is termed the height equivalent to a theoretical plate
(HETP). As all sections of the packings are physically the same, it is assumed that one equilibrium
(theoretical) plate is represented by a given height of packings. Thus the required height of packings for
any desired separation is given by (HETP × No. of ideal trays required).
HETP values are complex functions of temperature, pressure, composition, density, viscosity,
diffusivity, pressure drop, vapour and/or liquid flow rates, packing characteristics, etc. Empirical
correlations, though available to calculate the values of HETP, are restricted to limited
applications. The main difficulty lies in the failure to account for the fundamentally different
action of tray and packed columns.
In industrial practice, the HETP concept is used to convert empirically the number of
theoretical trays to packing height. Most data have been derived from small-scale operations and
they do not provide a good guide to the values, which will be obtained, on full-scale plant.
The Method of Transfer Units had largely replaced this method.
5.8 PACKING HEIGHT : THE METHOD OF TRANSFER UNITS
A newer concept in the analysis of packed column centered on the method of transfer units.
This method is more appropriate because the changes in compositions of the liquid and vapour
phases occur differentially in a packed column rather than in stepwise fashion as in trayed
column.
In this method, height of packings required can be evaluated either based on the gas-phase or
the liquid-phase. The packed height (z) is calculated using the following formula :
Z = N×H
where,
N = number of transfer units (NTU) − Dimensionless
H = height of transfer units (HTU) − Dimension of length
The number of transfer units (NTU) required is a measure of the difficulty of the separation.
A single transfer unit gives the change of composition of one of the phases equal to the average
driving force producing the change. The NTU is similar to the number of theoretical trays
required for trayed column. Hence, a larger number of transfer units will be required for a very
high purity product.
The height of a transfer unit (HTU) is a measure of the separation effectiveness of the
particular packings for a particular separation process. As such, it incorporates the mass transfer
coefficient that we have seen earlier. The more efficient the mass transfer (i.e. larger mass transfer
coefficient), the smaller the value of HTU. The values of HTU can be estimated from empirical
correlations or pilot plant tests, but the applications are rather restricted.
The calculation of packing height follows the same nomenclature as before and this is shown
in the Fig. 5.11.
G2 L2
y2 x2
G 1 Bottom of column
y
L 2 Top of column
x
G1 L1
y1 x1
Calculation of packing
height : Nomenclature
Fig. 5.11 : Calculation of packing height : Nomenclature

In this Section, we will focus on the applications of the equations rather than any derivation
of them. Determination of the packed height can be based on either the gas-phase or the
liquid-phase.
For the gas-phase, we have : z = NOG × HOG
y1 – y2
NOG = (y – y*) … (5.11)
LM
* *
(y1 – y1) – (y2 – y2)
(y – y*)LM = … (5.12)
(y1 – y*1)
ln  
 (y – y*) 
 2 
G
HOG = * … (5.13)
KY a (1 – y)LM
*
* (1 – y1) – (1 – y1)
(1 – y)LM = … (5.14)
(1 – y1)
ln  *
(1 – y1)
and KY is the overall gas-phase mass transfer coefficient. "a" is the packing parameter that we had
seen earlier (recall the topic on column pressure drop.
Normally, packing manufacturers report their data with both KY and "a" combined as a single
parameter. Since KY has a unit of mole/(area.time.driving force), and "a" has a unit of
(area/volume), the combined parameter KY a will have the unit of mole/(volume.time.driving
force), such as kg-mole/(m3.s.mole fraction). As seen earlier, other than mole fraction, driving
force can be expressed in partial pressure (kPa, psi, mm-Hg), wt% etc.
*
y1 is the mole fraction of solute in vapour that is in equilibrium with the liquid of mole
*
fraction x1 and y2 is mole fraction of solute in vapour that is in equilibrium with the liquid of
mole fraction x2.
* *
The values of y1 and y2 can be obtained from the equilibrium line as previously covered
(see section on Two-Film Theory). See Fig. 5.12.
Operating line
Mole fraction solute a in vapour, y
(bottom) Equilibrium
y1 line
P (x, y)
y1*
y2 (top)
y2*
x2 x1 Mole fraction
x2* x1* solute in liquid, x
* *
Fig. 5.12 : Calculation of y1 and y2 from equilibrium line
*
(y1 – y1 ) is the concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the gas phase at
*
point 1 (bottom of column) and (y2 – y2 ) is the concentration difference driving force for mass
transfer in the gas phase at point 2 (top of column).
[Point P (x, y) as shown is any point in the column. The concentration difference driving force
for mass transfer in the gas phase at point P is (y – y*) as shown previously, this time no
subscripts are shown].
Note :
• Both equilibrium line and operating line are straight lines under dilute conditions.
* *
• Alternatively, equilibrium values y1 and y2 can also be calculated using Henry's Law
(y = m x, where m is the gradient) which is used to represents the equilibrium
relationship at dilute conditions.
* *
• Thus, we have : y1 = m x1 ; y2 = m x2
Similarly for the liquid-phase we have :
z = NOL × HOL
x1 – x2
NOL = (x* – x) … (5.15)
LM
* *
(x1 – x1) – (x2 – x2)
(x* – x)LM = … (5.16)
(x*1 – x1)
ln  * 
(x – x2)
 2 
L
HOL = * … (5.17)
KX a (1 – x)LM
*
* (1 – x1) – (1 – x1)
(1 – x)LM = … (5.18)
(1 – x1)
ln  *
(1 – x1)
and KX is the overall liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient, and "a" is the packing parameter seen
earlier. Again, normally both KX and "a" combined as a single parameter.
*
Likewise, x1 is the mole fraction of solute in liquid that is in equilibrium with the vapour of
*
mole fraction y1 and x2 is mole fraction of solute in liquid that is in equilibrium with the vapour
* *
of mole fraction y2. Refer to Figure kp for finding values of x1 and x2 from the equilibrium line.
* *
Alternatively, x1 = y1 /m and x2 = y2 /m.
*
(x1 – x1) is the concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the liquid phase at
*
point 1 (bottom of column) and (x2 – x2) is the concentration difference driving force for mass
transfer in the liquid phase at point 2 (top of column).
Using either gas-phase or liquid-phase formula should yield the same required packing
height :
z = N × H = NOG × HOG = NOL × HOL … (5.19)
where,
N = Number of transfer units (NTU)
H = Height of transfer units (HTU)
Comparison between number of theoretical trays, HETP and Method of Transfer Units :
The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) and Height of Transfer Units (HTU) such as NOG, HOG
should not be confused with the number of theoretical trays (N), and the height equivalent to
theoretical plate (HETP) respectively.
When the operating line and equilibrium line are straight and parallel :
NTU = N; and HTU = HETP
Otherwise, the NTU can be greater than or less than N as shown in the Figure below :
y y y
Operating
Operating line
line Operating
line
Equilibrium Equilibrium Equilibrium

line line line
x x x
NTU = N NTU > N NTU < N
Fig. 5.13
When the operating line is straight but not parallel, we have the following relationships :
HETP = HOG (1 – A)/A

ln (1/A)
… (5.20)
 
NOG = N (1 – A)/A
ln (1/A)
… (5.21)
 
L
where, A = mG is the Absorption Factor.
5.9 NUMBER OF THEORETICAL TRAYS

The number of theoretical trays can be determined graphically using a method similar to the
McCabe-Thiele Method used in continuous distillation.
Refer to the Figure below that shows the graphical solution.
Note : We are following the consistent nomenclature of using subscript "1" to refer to
conditions at the bottom of the packed column, and subscript "2" to refer to conditions at the top
of the packed column.
Note the slight difference in the way the triangles are drawn : Start from point 1 and work the
way down towards point 2, and draw triangles between the operating line and equilibrium line.
In the above example, 5 triangles are drawn. Therefore 5 theoretical trays are required for the
separation. For the case of gas absorption, the last triangle represents a theoretical tray, not a
reboiler.
Gas out G2, y2 For dilute systems:
Column Liquid ~ ~
G1 = G2 = G = constant
top 2 in ~ ~
L2, x2 L1 = L2 = L = constant
1
Tray
y1
y decreases up the column

Operating
line
(a) e
yb
xa
(b)
yc
xb
(c)
d
(d)
(e) c
yc
Equilibrium
b line
yb
2 a
GAs in y2
x increases down the column
G1, y1
Column Liquid
out x2 xa xb x1
bottom 1
L1, x1
Fig. 5.14 : Number of trays calculation through graphical solution (similar to McCabe-Thiele Method
used in continuous distillation)
Analysis for the changes in gas phase and liquid phase compositions is similar to the
distillation process :
For example, consider tray (b) where the liquid concentration changed from xa at the inlet to
xb at the outlet, and the gas composition changed from yc at the inlet to yb at the outlet. (yc – yb)
showed the decreases in gas concentration as it passed through tray (b), and (xb – xa) showed the
increase in liquid concentration as it passed through tray (b).
The larger the triangle, the more effective the separation.
5.10 THE KREMSER-BROWN-SOUDERS (KBS) EQUATION
For dilute system, recall that both the operating line and equilibrium line is straight, even on
x-y co-ordinates.
In this case, the number of theoretical stages required for a given separation can be
calculated using the Kremser-Brown-Souders Equation as shown :
• Absorption
 y1 – mx2 
log y – mx  (1 – 1/A) + (1/A)
 2 2  
N = log (A) … (5.22)
where, A = L /mG is the absorption factor and is assumed constant.

• Stripping
log x – (y /m) (1 – A) + A

x2 – (y1/m)
 1 1  
N = log (1/A) … (5.23)
where, the stripping factor S = 1/A, is assumed constant.

Note : m = Henry's Law constant = slope of the equilibrium line.
5.11 INTRODUCTION
Gas absorption : Two component of a gas are separated by contact with a liquid (in which one
component is preferentially soluble).
Stripping : Two components of a liquid Gas out
are separated by contact with a gas. An
example of gas absorption is the removal of
ammonia from air by contact with liquid
water. Ammonia is very soluble in water Liquid
whereas air is only slightly soluble. Both gas in
absorption and stripping involve at least Liquid distributor
three components. Usually only one of these
Packing restrainer
components crosses the phase boundary. In
the example of ammonia and air, ammonia is
the component whose molar flow rate Shell
changes by the largest percentage of the inlet
value. Although some air will also dissolve in
water, and some water will evaporate into the Random packing
air, the molar flow rates of air and water
change by negligible fractions : their flows
can usually be considered constant. These are
the two main differences between them and
distillation : (i) at least three component.
Liquid
(ii) By contrast, in distillation, all of the re-distributor
components are present in both phases.
5.12 EQUIPMENT FOR ABSORPTION/
STRIPPING
Although liquid and gas streams for
absorption or stripping could be contacted
using a tray column (like that used in
distillation), tray columns are seldom used.
The reason is that tray efficiencies are
generally much lower for absorption and Packing support
stripping that for distillation (perhaps only
5% instead of 50%). Because of this very low Gas in
efficiency, very large numbers of trays are
required - perhaps 100's or 1000's. Fabrication
Liquid out
costs just become prohibitively expensive.
Fortunately, a viable alternative exists : the
packed tower. Fig. 5.15 : Packed Tower
A packed tower is simply a tube or pipe, which is filled with some sort of "packing." The
packing typically consists of particles around an inch in diameter. In commercial packed towers,
the usual choices are particles with one of three different shapes.
(a) Rashing (b) Lessing (c) Partition (d) Berl saddle (e) Intalox (f) Taller ette (g) Poll Ring
Ring Ring Ring saddle
Fig. 5.16 : Types of Packings
• Rasching ring (which is just a piece of pipe which has been cut into segments, whose length
and diameter are about the same)
1 1
L ≈ D ≈ 2 to 1 2 inches
• Berl saddle
• Pall ring
Although, in a pinch, almost anything you have lying around would do --Ping-Pong balls golf
balls, etc. The purpose of the packing is to promote good contact between the liquid and vapour
streams, which are being brought together to permit interfacial mass, transfer.
The liquid stream is usually fed into the top of the tower while the vapour is fed into the
bottom. Thus we have countercurrent flow of the two streams, which has the same advantages for
mass transfer as it did for heat transfer.
The packing promotes good contact between the phases by dividing the two feed streams into
many parallel-interconnected paths. Ideally, you would like the liquid to flow downward as a
thin film over the surface of the packing. This would give the maximum surface area of contact
between the gas and liquid.
If you just pour the liquid from the end of the pipe onto the top of the packing in tower
having' much larger diameter than the pipe, most of the packing will not even be wet. Only some
of the channels will be carrying flow. This is called as Channeling-maldistribution of liquid flow.
Liquid in
Dry
Packing
Iriggated
Packing
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.17 : Liquid Distribution and Packing Irrigation (a) Inadequate, (b) Adequate
So some sort of device to distribute the flow over the entire cross section of the tower is
needed. This device is called a distributor.
Even if the flow is evenly distributed at the top of tower, channeling might still develop as the
bed trickles down. When two thin films converge they tend for form a thick film and a dry patch,
which results in a reduction in contact area. So redistributors are placed every 10-15 feet along the
length of tile tower.
5.13 EQUILIBRIUM CURVE
In typical problem McCabe gives us equilibrium data in the form of partial pressure of
acetone in the gas phase, PA' as a function of the mole fraction of acetone in the liquid, x :
0 x
PA = P AY A … (5.24)
0 o
P A = Vapour pressure of acetone at 27 C = 0.33 atm
γA = Activity coefficient for liquid mixture
Activity coefficient is a measure of non-ideality of the liquid phase. For ideal solutions the
activity coefficient is unity :
γA = 1 (ideal solution)
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
y
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
x
Fig. 5.18 : Equilibrium Curve
For ideal solutions, equation (5.1), reduces to Raoult's law. Our solution of acetone in water is
not ideal, but McCabe kindly gives us a model.
2
lnyA = 1.95 (1 – x)
Note that γA → 1 (i.e lnyA → 0) as x → 1. This is a general rule : pure components also
behave ideally since non-ideal behaviour results from interactions between different molecules;
there are no different molecules when the fluid is pure. We can obtain an expression for the mole
fraction of acetone in the gas just by dividing the partial pressure by the total pressure :
PA 0.33 atm 1.95 (1 – x)2
y= P = 1 atm × e
Where we use P = 1 atm, Repeating this for different x's to obtain y's up to the feed
concentration), we obtain the curve at right, where
nd
x = mole fraction of acetone in the liquid (2 component is water)
nd
y = mole fraction of acetone in the gas (2 component is air)
Operating Line : Suppose we are trying to absorb acetone from a mixture of air and acetone
by contacting the air mixture with water.
Let, L, V = Total molar flowrate
X, Y = Mole fraction of transfer component
Where the transferable component is acetone in this example. Performing a component
balance on the transferable component about the top section of the tower yields :
LaXa + Vy = LX + Vaya … (5.25)
L Va ya – Laxa
Solving for y : y = V x+ V
This relationship y (x) between the mole fractions in the liquid and gas streams is again
known as the operating line, since the relationship is imposed by a component mole balance.
However as acetone is transferred from the gas to Liquid, L and V' change. In particular, their
ratio changes. Thus the operating line is not straight. This makes it difficult to determine the
minimum water flow rate.
Va La
Lean gas Weak liquor yb
OL's for Equilibrium Curve
inc L
L ya Operating Line
V
Lmin
Vb Lb
Rich gas Strong liquor xa
Fig. 5.19 (a) : Packed tower Fig. 5.19 (b) : Equilibrium curve
There are two limiting cases where we can easily predict the change in L and V.
Approx. #1 : Only One Transferable Component :
It is often possible to assume that only one component is undergoing transfer between the
liquid and gas streams. For example, in our problem acetone is being transferred from the air to
the water :
Transferable : acetone, Non-transferable : air, water
Although some of the water will evaporate when it contacts the air and some of the air will
dissolve in the water, the molar rates of transfer of these components can often (but not always)
be neglected compared to rate of acetone transfer. When you can neglect the molar transfer rate
of all but one component, then significant simplification can be made. If we can neglect
evaporation of water and dissolution of air, then the moles of water (the non-transferable
component) in the liquid stream must be the same at all elevations :
L'
(1 – x) L = L' constant so, L = 1 – x … (5.26)
Similarly, the moles of air in the gas stream must be the same at all elevations.
V
(1 – y) V = V = constant so, V = 1 – y … (5.27)
Put equation (5.26) and (5.27) into equation (5.25).
L'Xa V'y L'x V'ya
=1–X +1–y = 1–x +1–y
a a
Where L; V' are constants. If we now express concentrations in terms of mole ratios instead of
mole fraction :
x moles of A in liquid
X = 1–x = moles of non – A in liquid
y moles of A in gas
Y = 1 – y = moles of non – A in gas
Then this equation becomes very simple :

L' Xa + V'Y = L'X + V'Ya
Y = V' x + Ya – V' Xa

L' L'
Or, … (5.28)
 
Since L'V' = constant, this is the equation of a straight line. Thus for the special case of
one-transferable component, the operating line is straight one mole ratio co-ordinates. Note be
smaller than unity :
0≤x≤1
But 0 ≤ X≤ ∞
Y
(Xb, Yb)
e
Lin
i ng
e rat
Op
(Xa, Ya)
X
Fig. 5.19 (c) : Concept of operating line for one transferable component
Approx #2 : Dilute Solution :
In other problems, the solution might be very dilute. If the solutions are sufficiently dilute,
then mole ratios are virtually equal to mole fraction :
If x << 1
Then 1–x ≈ 1
x
and X = 1–x ≈x
When this is also true for the gas stream, the equation (5.28) can be approximated as
y = V' x + ya – V' xa

L' L'
… (5.29)
 
in fact, we can also drop the prime, since L' ≈ L :
y = V x + ya – V xa
L L
… (5.30)
 
Thus the operating line will also be linear on mole fraction co-ordinates, if the solutions are
sufficiently dilute. This linear operating line on mole fraction co-ordinates will also apply even if
we have more than one transferable component provided both phases are sufficiently dilute in all
the transferable components.
5.14 INTERFACIAL MASS TRANSFER : REVIEW

An important design parameter is the depth of packing
required. In distillation, the tower height was determined by the Th Heat
transport
number of plates required times the plate separation (which is
usually 1-2 feet). The operating and equilibrium lines determine T i
Liquid
the number of plates required for a given separation. For packed Gas
towers, the height also depends on the operating and equilibrium
lines, but in addition it is inversely proportional to the mass Tc
transfer coefficient, which in distillation plays only minor role in Fig. 5.20 : Interfacial mass
determining plate efficiency. transfer
Now that we have established the importance of interfacial mass transfer in packed towers,
let's discuss about modeling mass transfer across a phase boundary. Let's start by recalling the
driving force for heat transfer across an interface. Suppose we contact a hot gas with a cold liquid.
The temperature profile near the interface will look something like that show at right. There are
two characteristics of this sketch, which are important :
(1) Heat flows from high to low temperature.
(2) Temperature is continuous across the interface.
(3) Interfacial mass transfer is similar to interfacial heat transfer, but it is also different.
(4) Mass transfer occurs in the direction from high to low chemical potential (not necessarily
from high to low concentration).
(5) Chemical potential is continuous across interface (concentration is generally not
continuous).
The main difference is evident in the sketch of concentration profile near the interface. Note
the discontinuity in the mole fraction at the interface.
yI ≠ xI
Tyi = Txi = Ti
The reason for this discontinuity in concentration across the interface has to do with
thermodynamic criteria for phase equilibrium. Recall
v L
Phase equilibrium : µj = µj
v L
Thermal equilibrium : T = T
Where µj is called the chemical potential, which plays the role of temperature in mass
transfer. Unfortunately, there exists no "thermometer" for measuring chemical potential. Instead,
we are forced to measure chemical concentration. While chemical potential usually increases with
concentration within any given phase (this is why diffusion of a solute occurs from high to low
concentration), when comparing chemical potentials between two phases, there is no general
correlation between chemical potential and concentration. To illustrate this, consider the simplest
case of VLE : an ideal gas mixture in equilibrium with an ideal solution. This lead's to Raoult's
law :
p 0
yj = xj P J
0
yi pj
Note that : xj = p ≠1
Thus, yi ≠ xj for VLE

Even in the simplest case of vapour-liquid equilibrium, the mole fractions are not equal,
except the trivial case when we have only one component and the total pressure is the vapour
pressure.
5.15 DEFINITIONS OF TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
The local heat flux through the interface can be related to the local temperatures using any
one of three types of local heat transfer coefficients :
rate of heat transfer
interfacial area = hx (Th – Ti) = hy (Ti – TC) = U (Th – TC) … (5.31)
Where hx, hy one-phase local heat transfer coefficients
U = overall local coefficient.
Basically these equations say that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the driving force
(which is the departure from equilibrium) and the proportionality constant is the heat transfer
coefficient.
Similar definitions of transport coefficients can be made for mass transfer :
molar rate of transfer
interfacial area = kx (xi – x) = ky (y – yi) = kx (x* – x) = ky (y – y*) … (5.32)
Where kx, ty = one-phase local mass transfer coefficients
Kx, Ky = overall local mass transfer coefficients
Comparing the mass transport expressions in equation (5.32) with, their heat-transfer
analogues in equation (5.31), there is a good deal of similarity especially in the one-phase
relations. For a single phase, the driving force is the difference between the concentration or
temperature in the bulk and in the concentration or temperature at the interface.
But the driving force for the overall coefficient look a little different. The overall driving force
for heat transfer is just the difference between the temperature of the hot and cold fluid, (Th – Tc).
By simple analogy, we expect the overall driving force for mass transfer to be the difference in
concentration of the two phases :
y – x ≠ overall driving force
Instead y – y* and x* – x
Appear in equation (5.32) as the overall driving force.
Operating line
The *'s' are defined as shown on the Fig. 5.21. Basically
y – y* and x* – x are two different measures of the distance
between the operating line and the equilibrium curve at Equilibrium
that elevation in the packed bed where the liquid and gas y Curve
concentrations are (x, y). x-y does not represent the overall
y*
driving force for mass transfer, because the transport rate
does not go to zero when, x – y = 0. The transport rate is
x x*
zero only at equilibrium, and x – y ≠ 0 at equilibrium.
Fig. 5.21 : Driving force
Determining the Interfacial Concentrations : (xi, yi) : Although overall mass transfer
coefficients are the most easy to use in design, correlation's are usually more available in the form
of single-phase coefficients. Then we need to calculate overall coefficients Kx and Ky from the
single-phase coefficient kx and ky. As the first step, we will need to evaluate the interfacial
concentration xi and yi, which appear in the definitions above.
Example #1 :
Given : x, y, kx, ky and the equilibrium curve
Find : xi and yi.
Solution : Consider the rate of interfacial transport at xi Liquid

some arbitrary elevation in the absorber, where the
local concentrations in the liquid and gas are x and y x
and (x, y) is a point on the operating line. The profile of y Gas Mass Transport
concentration of the transferable component near the
interface at this location in the absorbed might look like
yi
the sketch as shown in Fig. 5.22.
Fig. 5.22 (a) : Profile of concentration of

transferable component near interface
At steady state, the flux of ammonia through the gas film must equal the flux of ammonia
through the liquid film :
NA = kx (xi – x) = ky (y – yi) … (5.33)
If the fluxes were not equal, we would have ammonia building up at the interface. We will
denote this interfacial flux by NA.
Now the bulk compositions x, y are known, together with the two single-phase mass transfer
coefficients. Think of the two interfacial concentrations as two unknowns. We need two
equations. One equation is provided by the requirement that (xi, yi) must lie on the equilibrium
curve. The second relation is equation (5.33), which can be re-written as a linear relationship
between xi and yi .
Y
(Xb, Yb)
e
Lin
ing
e rat
Op
y x
(Xa, Ya)
X
Fig. 5.22 (b) Fig. 5.22 (c)
The intersection of equation (5.34) and the equilibrium curve gives the interfacial
kx kx
concentrations. yi = k xi + y + k x … (5.34)
y y
slope intercept
Example # 2 :
Next, let's determine the value of the overall coefficient, which leads to the same flux for
these interfacial concentrations.
Given : kx and ky
Find : ky
Solution : Using the definitions of the k's and of Ky'
NA = kx (xi – x) = Ky (y – yi) ky (y – y*) … (5.35)
The relationship among the concentrations is shown in the Fig. 5.22 (d). Adding and
subtracting yi from the overall driving force y – y*;
y – y* = y – yi + yi – y* … (5.36)
NA NA
ky ky
Using (5.35) we can assign meaning to two of the three differences appear above, leaving :
NA NA
ky = k + yi – y* … (5.37)
y
(xi – x) m
Y
k
Slope = – —x
ky ine
in gl
e rat Equilibrium
y Op Curve
yi
y* Slope = m
X
x xi
Fig. 5.22 (d) : Relation among concentration
The remaining difference yi – y* can be related to xi – x and the local slope of the equilibrium
curve m :
NA
yi – y* (xi – x) m = k m … (5.38)
x
In the second equality above, xi – x is expressed in term of the remaining single-phase mass
transfer coefficient using equation (5.33). Substituting equation (5.38) into equation (5.37) and
dividing by NA we get,
1 1 m
ky = k + k … (5.39)
y x
yi – y*
where, m = x – x Average slope of equilibrium curve
i
Of course, if the equilibrium curve is straight (as it will be in dilute solutions), then m is its
slope.
Comment : This is similar to the expression for overall heat transfer coefficients for a
double-pipe heat exchanger :
1 1 1
U = h +h … (5.40)
x y
We said that 1/U represented the total resistance to heat transfer through the two phases,
which is just the sum of the resistances of each phase. The main difference between
equation (5.39) and equation (5.40) is the appearance of m in equation (5.39). For heat transfer, the
slope of the equilibrium line is unity (m = 1) because at thermal equilibrium Ty = mTx = Tx.
In short, (5.39) states that the total resistance to mass transfer equals the sum of the resistances of
the gas and liquid phases. We could also have showed, in a similar fashion. That
1 1 1
kx = mky + kx … (5.41)
y – yi
where, m = x* – x
i
If the operating line is straight, these two slopes would be they same and they could relate
two overall mass transfer coefficient :
1 m
Straight Equilibrium Curve : ky = kx
Equimolar Counter-Diffusion vs. Diffusion through Stagnant Fluid : In the form most
analogous to Fourier's law of heat conduction, Fick's law of diffusion of a binary mixture of
components A and B, the flux (moles/area/lime) of component A in the +z direction is given by :
dcA
J*AZ = –DAB d
z
Where CA is the molar concentration of component A and DAB is the diffusion coefficient. This
gives the flux of A relative to a reference frame, which moves, with the mole-average velocity
(i.e. the average of the species velocity of each component) of the mixture (A + B). Less
fundamental, but more useful in calculations is the molar flux of A relative to a stationary
reference frame is :
dcA NAZ + NBZ
NAZ = – DAB d + C CA … (5.42)
z
Where C = CA + CB is the total molar concentration.
Case I : If we use a capillary tube to connect two gas reservoirs having the same total
pressure but different amounts of gases A and B, we will obtain equimolar counter-diffusion of A
and B (i.e. NAZ = –NBZ). In this way, the mole-average velocity V = 0 and the total pressure in both
reservoirs remains constant. For NAZ = –NBZ, equation (5.42) gives
dcA
NAZ = – DAB d = J*AZ … (5.43)
z
Case II : If instead, we have diffusion of benzene vapour above its liquid through air (which
is virtually insoluble in the liquid), the air must remain stagnant (i.e. NBZ = 0) since it cannot enter
the liquid. This is diffusion of A through stagnant B. For NB = 0, equation (5.42) gives :
dcA CA dcA
NA = – DAB d + NAZ C or (1 – yA) NA = – DAB d
z z
J*AZ
Finally we have, NAZ = 1 – y … (5.44)
A
For the same driving force (concentration gradient), J*AZ is the same for both cases, but NAZ
are different. Since 1 – yA is always less than one, we see that Equimolar counter-diffusion is
slower than diffusion through a stagnant fluid.
This can be qualitatively understood as follows. Suppose that to get to class, you need to walk
down a corridor that's crowded with other students. If everyone else was standing almost still
(stagnant fluid), it would be easier to walk around them than if everyone is walking toward you
(counter diffusion).
All of the flux expressions above apply locally at every point in the fluid. For one dimensional
steady equimolar counter-diffusion (from a reservoir having CA1 to a second reservoir having
CA2), equation (5.43) integrates to,
DAB cDAB
NAZ = J* AZ = Z – Z (CA – CA ) = Z – Z (yA – yA ) = K'y (yA – yA ) … (5.45)
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
Where Z2 – Z1 is the length of the capillary through which diffusion is occurring and k'y is the
single-phase (gas) mass transfer coefficient to be used with mole fractions and equimolar-counter
diffusion. The analogous expression for diffusion through stagnant film of B is :
cDAB
NAZ = (Z – Z ) (1 – y ) (yA – yA ) = Ky (yA – yA ) … (5.46)
2 1 A M 1 2 1 2
(1 – yA) 1 – (1 – yA)2
(1 – yA)M = (1 – yA)1
ln (1 – y )
A 2
where, (1 – yA)M is the log-mean of yB evaluated at either end of the diffusion path. Comparing
equation (5.45) and equation (5.41), we see that
k' y
Ky = (1 – y )
A M
Similar relations exist for diffusion in the liquid phase :

k' y
Kx = (1 – y )
A M
And between the overall mass transfer coefficients for equimolar counter diffusion and
diffusion through a stagnant film :
k'y K'x
Ky = * and Kx = * … (5.47)
(1 – yA)M (1 – xA)M
* *
* (1 – yA) – (1 – yAG) * (1 – XA) – (1 – xAL)
where, (1 – yA)M = * and (1 – xA)M = * … (5.48)
(1 – yA) (1 – xA)
ln (1 – y ) ln (1 – x )
AG AL
*
and where yAG is the mole fraction in the bulk of the gas, yA is the mole fraction which would
*
be in equilibrium with the bulk liquid having a mole fraction of XAL, and XA is mole fraction in
the bulk of the liquid which would be in equilibrium with the bulk gas having a mole fraction of
yAG.
5.16 HEIGHT OF A PACKED TOWER
The analysis, which follows, has as its goal the Va La
determination of the height of packing required. The
ya xa
approach is similar to that used in the design of
double-pipe heat exchangers in which the goal is the
Dz
determination of the area of heat-exchange surface
required. The main complication arises from the fact that
ZT
the mass flux is not proportional to y − x; instead, the mass
flux is proportional to y – y*. Z
We have to chop up the tower into pieces, which are
small, enough so that the driving force is virtually uniform
Vb Lb
throughout each piece. Since the compositions change only
with z, we chop up the tower in such a way that we yb xb
produce pieces which have z const, which is a thin Fig. 5.23 : Height of Packed Tower
horizontal slice.
Now let's take a closer look at what happens inside the V(z+Dz) L(z+Dz)
slice of the tower. The slice contains solid packing as well
as liquid and gas streams. In what follows, we will ignore Gas Liquid
the solid and treat the liquid and gas phases as if they were NA Dz
completely separated, rather than interspersed in each
other.
V(z) L(z)
Fig. 5.24 (a) : Closed look inside slice
of tower
Let's do a mass balance on the acetone in the gas phase only contained within our slice of
column. Besides the liquid streams entering and leaving the slice, we have acetone crossing the
interface between the gas and liquid phases. The rate of absorption per unit area can be expressed
in terms of the local overall mass transfer coefficient :
molar rate of transfer
NA = interfacial area = Ky (y – Y*) … (5.49)
We could also have used one of the other expressions in equation (5.32); this one proves later
to be more convenient than some of the others.
Just like the overall heat transfer coefficient U0 depends on the flow rates of both fluids being
contacted in the heat exchanger, the overall mass transfer coefficient Kv depends on both flow
rates, Ky = Ky (L, V)
To obtain the rate of transfer across the interface in our slice of column, we need to multiply
equation (5.47) by the interfacial area in that slice.
In a heat exchanger, the heat transfer surface is fixed by the geometry of the equipment
selected : it is just the area of the pipe wall or the tubes. In particular, the heat transfer area does
not depend on the flow rates of the hot and cold streams. On the other hand, the boundary
between liquid and gas in a packed bed is very complex and very hard to measure directly. Most
importantly, the area also depends on the flow rates of the gas and liquid streams (L, V). The
interfacial area is usually expressed as a, the interfacial area per unit volume of packing :
interfacial area
volume of packing = a = a (L, V) … (5.50)
πD0 dZ 4
= D
π (D0 2)2 0
One empirical correlation relating area to flow rates is the Schulman Correlation :
α β
a = mG x Gy
Where Gx and Gy are the mass flow rates of the liquid or gas stream divided by the
cross-sectional area of the lower.
mass/time
G =
πD2/4
and where m, α, β are constants which depend on the type and size of packing used.
Multiplying equation (5.49) by (5.50) we get,
dq = U0 d A0 (Th – TC) … (5.51)
π D0dz
If we now multiply by the volume of this slice of tile packed column, we will obtain the rate
at which acetone crosses the interface in this slice :
Rate of transfer = r S ∆z
S = empty tower cross-section
2
πDT
= 4
where S ∆z = volume of slice

DT
DZ
Fig. 5.24 (b)

At steady state, the rate of transport of acetone into the vapour must equal the rate out :
In = out
(Vy) z = (Vy) z + ∆z + r S∆z … (5.52)
mpcp T (z) = mpcp T (z + ∆z) + dq
Dividing by –∆z and letting ∆z → 0 equation (5.50) becomes,

d (Vy)
dz = –rS … (5.53)
dT dq
mpcp dz = – dz
= π U0 D0 (Th – TC)
Now the total molar flowrate (V) will change as the gas phase loses acetone, but the flowrate
of acetone-free air (V') does not change with Z :
V' V'y
V = 1 – y → Vy = 1 – y
d (Vy) = d 1 – y V' d 1 – y
V"y y
   
dy dy
= …V' =V1–y
(1 – y)2
V dy
Equation (5.51) becomes, 1 – y dz = –rS = –Ky a (y – a*)S … (5.54)
The second equation is obtained by substituting our expression for the rate of absorption r
from equation (5.49). We can now solve this equation for the height dz of the slice :
–Vdy
dz =
(1 – y) (1 – y*) (Ky a)S
So, if we know the local mole fractions y and y* and the change in the mole fraction dy of the
gas phase which occurred between the top and bottom of this slice, we can calculate the height of
the slice. The total height of packing is the sun of the height of each slice :
Zr yb
–Vdy
ZT = ⌠ dz = ⌠
⌡ ⌡ (1 – y) (y – y*) (Ky a)S
0 ya
Factoring out the S, which is constant along the entire height of the packing, and changing the
order of integration (since yb > ya) :
yb
1 Vdy
ZT = S ⌠
⌡ (1 – y) (y – y*) (Ky a)
ya
Now Ky depends on Gx and Gy, which in turn depend on gas composition. For the case of a
dilute gas stream, we know that
y <<1 1 – y ≈ 1 V ≈ V' = constant Kya ≈ constant
After making these approximations, we have
yb
V dy
ZT = ⌠ y – y* … (5.55)
K aS ⌡
ya
Hoy N
oy
Which serves as the basic design equation for packed bed absorbers. For very dilute
solutions, this integral can be evaluated analytically (i.e. numerical integration is not required). If
both x << 1 and y << 1 hold, then the molar flow rates of the two streams won't change much as
the solute is transferred across the phase boundary. In particular, the ratio of the flowrates will be
constant :
Then L/V ≈ L'/V' = constant
This means that the operating line will be straight, even on mole fraction co-ordinates :
y = (L/V) x + [ya – (L/V) xa]
Also, for sufficiently dilute solutions, Henry's law always applies so that
y* = mx
Will also be a straight line. When both operating and equilibrium curves are straight, then the
integration can be done analytically instead of numerically. The result is :
Straight Operating Line and Equilibrium Curve :
yb – ya
Noy = (y – y*) … (5.56 (a))
L
* *
Where (y – y*)L is the jog-mean of yb – yb and ya – ya which represent the driving force at the
bottom and top of the tower, respectively.
5.17 TRANSFER UNIT
Meaning can be given to the integral. Even if the integrand varies significantly over the
domain of integration, we can still pull it outside the integral, provided we replace it with some
appropriate value, which can be thought of as the mean value for this range. Recall the Mean
Value Theorem of Calculus :
yb yb
dy 1 yb – ya
⌠ y – y* = (y – y*) ⌠ dy = (y – y*) …(5.57 (b))
⌡ av ⌡ avg
ya ya
Of course, it is not usually known what type of average to use, but the precise value is not
important. The integral can be thought of as the total change in gas mole fraction divided by the
average driving force.
(Gas phase) Transfer unit : A slice (not necessarily thin) of an absorber in which the gas
undergoes a change in y equal to (y – y*)avg which represents the average driving force over the
entire absorber.
NTU : The number of these it takes to make the entire absorber (not necessarily an integer).
HTU : Height of a slice of an absorber corresponding to one transfer unit.
From equation (5.56 (b)), we see that the integral clearly represents the number of transfer
units :
yb 0
dy
Noy = ⌠ y – y* … (5.57)
⌡
ya
This is called the number of overall gas phase transfer units since it is based on the overall
driving force expressed as the gas-phase mole fraction. Since the product in equation (5.28)
represents the total height of packing, the coefficient of this integral must represent the height of a
transfer unit : Hoy K a avg
V|S
 y 
So that our design equation can be rewritten as :
ZT = HoyNoy
Which is called the HTU method for sizing an absorber. Throughout the derivation above we
made use of one type of mass transfer coefficient :
r = Ky a(y – y*)
Of course, other types of mass transfer coefficient are commonly encountered and can also be
used to compute the height of packing required to mention a few :
r = Kx a(x* – x) = Kx (xi – x) = Ky(y – yi)
Of course, there are still more definitions based on driving forces expressed as differences in
molar concentration or partial pressure. Any one of these mass transfer coefficients can be used in
the HTU method :
ZT = HoyNoy = HoxNox = HXNX = HyNy
xa
⌠ x* – x ; Hox = K a
dx L/S
Where, Nox =
⌡  x  avg
xb
xa
⌠ x – x ; Hx = K a
dx L/S
Nx = … (5.58)
⌡ i  x  avg
xb
yb
⌠ y – y ; Hy = K a
dy V/S
Ny =
⌡ i  y  avg
ya
Note that the N's are not equal to each other; thus the number of transfer units depends on
which driving force we use.
Ny ≠ Noy
5.18 EVALUATION OF NTU INTEGRALS
When the equilibrium curve is non-linear, the NTU integral must be evaluated numerically
(or graphically); for example :
dy dx dy dx
⌠ ⌠ x – x' ⌠ y – y*' ⌠ x* – x' … (5.59)
⌡ y – yi' ⌡ i ⌡ ⌡
which represent areas under the curves :
1 1 1 1
y – yi vs y, xi – x vs x, y – y* vs y, x* – x vs x … (5.60)
The last two are particularly simple to do since vertical lines represent y – y* and horizontal
lines represent x* – x. The first two can be obtained by noting that :
y – yi kx
xi – x = k … (5.61)
y
which is a straight line of slope – kx/ky passing through (x, y) and (xi, yi). The former point lies on
the operating line (see point 1 above) and the latter on the equilibrium line (point 2 above). From
this it is possible to generate y – yi and xi – x.
Operating
Line
(y, x)
y
kx
ky
Equilibrium
(yi, xi) Curve
x
Fig. 5.25 : Evaluation of NTU integrals
When the equilibrium curve is linear (e.g., Henry's law), a special form can be obtained which
does not involve any numerical or graphical integration. This same concept applies in
countercurrent heat exchangers in heat transfer. The result is :
y
B
dy yB – yT
⌠ = … (5.62)
⌡ (y – yi) (∆y)lm
y
T
∆yB – ∆yT
where (∆y)lm is defined as : (∆y)lm = … (5.63)
∆yB
ln  
∆yT
and ∆y = y – yi
This only requires y and yi at the top and bottom of the tower. If (y – yi)T and (y – yi)B are
within a factor of two (2) of one another, then :
y
B
dy yB – yT
⌠ (y – y ) = (y – y ) … (5.64)
⌡ i i mean
y
T
where arithmetic mean, ∆ymean = (y – yi)mean, is a good approximation to logarithmic mean.
What is a "transfer unit ?" : For example, the average driving force for mass transfer based on
the gas phase is defined as :
y2
⌠ dy
y2 ⌡
y1
(y – y*)mean + ⌠ (y – y*) dy = … (5.65)
⌡ y2
dy
y1
⌠
⌡ (y – y*)
y1
If the denominator of this expression is set to be one (NTU)OG;

y2
dy
i.e. (NTU)OG + ⌠
⌡ (y – y*)
y1
then equation (5.65) becomes
y2
⌠ dy
⌡
y1 (y2 – y1)
(y – y*)mean = 1 (NTU) = 1 (NTU)
OG OG
(y2 – y1)
or (NTU)OG = (y – y*) … (5.66)
mean
This means that an NTU is defined at the point where the mean driving force over a transfer unit
becomes equal to the total change in concentration that occurs. This result leads to the graphical "Baker
construction" method for an NTU. This involves drawing in a curve midway between the
operating line and the equilibrium curve (when using an overall gas-phase driving force) and
performing the construction indicated below :
Baker Construction
y2 Baker Construction
Operating 50% Curve
Line (1/2 vertical distance)
y
Dy = y2 –y1
a
y1 b b
a
Mean Driving Force,
2a = (y –y*) mean
Equilibrium Curve
x
Fig. 5.26 : Baker construction method for NTU
By similar triangles :
a ∆y ∆y
b = 2b ⇒ a = 2 ⇒ 2a = ∆y, and thus
∆y = y2 – y1 = (y – y*)mean; which is an NTU.
Cocurrent Operation : Finally, it is pointed out that all of the above applies to countercurrent
flow of the gas and liquid streams. Sometimes, however, both streams flow concurrently
downward in a tower. In this case the only real change is in the slope of the operating line, such
that –
Operating Line Operating Line
y y
Pinch
(y – y*) (y – y*)
Equilibrium Equilibrium
Curve Curve
x x
Countercurrent Cocurrent
Fig. 5.27 : Graphical construction of Co-current and Co-current operations
Stripping Operations : Stripping is basically the opposite of gas absorption. The mass
transfer process is reversed; that is, the solute is removed from the liquid phase by contact with a
gas phase. In stripping operations, the gas phase may be steam or air and in order to effective, the
solute should only be sparingly soluble in the liquid. For example, volatile organics contaminants
(VOCs) in water. Consequently, mass transfer in stripping operations is typically liquid-film
controlling. For dilute systems, the mass balances on the tower still apply as before; that is :
Bottom : Gy + LXB = GyB + Lx (subscript B = bottom)
or y = (L/G) x + (yB – (L/G) xB) … (5.67)
Top : In the same way : y = (L/G) x + (yT – (L/G) xT) (subscript T = top) … (5.68)
However, in stripping, the liquid phase solute Counter Current Equilibrium Curve,
concentration must always be greater than the Stripping y = Hx
corresponding equilibrium value, in order to provide

the driving force for mass transfer from the liquid to
the gas phase; that is, x > x*. On a y-x diagram, this
means that the operating line must always lie below
y (L/G)max or (G/L)min
the equilibrium curve, rather than above it, as is the
Operating Lines
case for gas absorption.
Also, now one of the principal operating
parameters becomes the gas flow rate, G. As G is
decreased, the slope of the operating line increases Decreasing G
such that the intersection with the equilibrium curve
will occur at the top of the tower for countercurrent
XB XT
operation. This intersection will then define the x
minimum allowable gas flow rate (G)min, or Fig. 5.28 : Graphical analysis for counter
(L//G)max. Just as for gas absorption, a typical design current stripping operations
"rule of thumb" is to operate at a gas flow rate that is about 40% greater than (G)min. All other
design calculations are similar to those presented above for gas absorption.
5.19 CONCEPT OF HETP : (HEIGHT EQUIVALENT OF THEORETICAL PLATE)
This is the height of packing that will give the same separation as one theoretical plate
i.e. section of packing of a height such that the vapour leaving the top of the section will have the
same composition as the vapour in equilibrium with the liquid leaving the bottom of the section.
The HETP must be an experimental determined quantity characteristics of each packing. It
depends not only on the type and size of packing but also with the flow rate of each fluid and
concentration. The required height of packing for any desired separation is given by :
Z = (HETP) × (Number of theoretical stages required)
where, Z = height of packing.
This is a simple method representation which has been widely used as a method of design.
Murch's correlation for HETP : Murch has considered column from 50 – 750 mm diameter
and packed over heights of 0.9 – 3 mm with rings, saddles and other packings.
1
C3 3
α µL
C
HETP = C1 G' 2 d C Z … (5.67)
ρL
where, C1, C2 and C3 vary with type of packing. These values are available in the literature.
G' = Mass velocity of vapour in kg/m2sec of tower area.
dc = Column diameter in m
Z = Packed height in m
α = Relative Volatility.
µL = Liquid viscosity, N/S.m2
ρL = Liquid density, kg/m3
Elli's correlation for HETP : Elli derived a general equation which is consistent units for
HETP (Zt) of packed column using 25 and 50 mm Rasching rings :
Zt = 18 dr + 12 m  L' – 1
G'
… (5.68)
 
where dr = Diameter of the rings
m = Average slope of equilibrium curve
G' = Vapour flow rate
L' = Liquid flow rate
In industrial practices, the HETP concept is used to convert empirically the number of
theoretical stages to packing height.
5.20 ANALOGY WITH DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
Comparing equation (5.56 (a)) with equation (5.56 (b)), we see that for very dilute solutions.
The average driving force is the log-mean. This result is quite analogous to our design equation
for double-pipe exchangers. To see analogy, let's compute the total rate of ammonia transfer over
the entire packed tower :
qT = V (yb – ya) … (5.69)
Recall the design equation :
V|S yb – ya
ZT = Hoy Noy = K a Ky a (y – y*)L … (5.70)
y
r
This contains the product that appears in equation (5.42). Solving equation (5.43) for (y – y )
b a
.
V (yb – ya) = Ky a SZT (y – y*)L
total volume
of packing
where, SZT is the total volume of packing in the absorber and a is the interfacial area per unit
volume of packing. Thus,
aSZT = total interfacial area in entire
absorber = AT
and substituting in equation (5.42) yields :
qT = Ky AT (y – y*)L
Which is analogous to : qT = UAT ∆TL
1
InyN
y
yeq 2
0
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
In (y)
Fig. 5.29 : Analogy of double pipe heat exchanges
Thus, for dilute solutions, the design equation for an absorber is identical in form to that for
heat exchangers : with the overall mass transfer coefficient Ky analogous to the overall heat
transfer coefficient U and the log-mean of y – y* at the two ends of the absorber analogous to the
log-mean ∆T.
5.21 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG Hox, Hoy, Hx and Hy
We know a relationship between the overall mass transfer coefficient and the single-phase
mass transfer coefficients. This relationship can be easily modified to relate the corresponding
heights of transfer units.
Dividing both sides of equation (5.39) by a the (interfacial area per volume : of packing), we
obtain :
1 1 m
Kya = Kya + Kxa … (5.71)
Where m = (yi – y*) (xi – x) = avg. slope of equilibrium curve
Of course, if the equilibrium Curve is straight (as it will be in dilute solutions), then m is its
slope. This is similar to the expression for overall heat transfer coefficients for a double-pipe heat
exchanger :
1 1 1
U = hx + hy … (5.72)
We said that 1/U represented the total resistance to heat transfer through the two phases,
which is just the sum of the resistances of each phase. The main difference between
equation (5.71) and equation (5.72) is the appearance of m in equation (5.71). For heat transfer, the
slope of the equilibrium line is unity (m = 1) because at thermal equilibrium Ty = mTx.
In short, equation (5.44) states that the total resistance to mass transfer equals the sum of the
resistances of the gas and liquid phases. Using equation (5.16), we could also have showed, in a
1 1 1
similar fashion, that Kxa = mkya + kxa
Where now : m = (y – yi) (x* – xi)
If the operating line is straight, these two slopes would be the same and we could relate the
two overall mass transfer coefficient :
Straight equilibrium curve : 1/ky = mkx
If we now multiply equation (5.42) by V/S we have the height on an overall gas transfer unit
on the left-hand side :
V/S V/S mV/S V/s VL/S
Kya = Kya + kxa = K a + m LK a
y x
5.22 PRESSURE DROP IN PACKED BEDS

Usually, flow in a packed-bed absorber is countercurrent. Gravity causes the liquid to flow
down through the packing, whereas a small pressure drop drives the gas flow upward. This
pressure drop plays an important role in packed beds. Without liquid present, the pressure-drop
across dry packing increases approximately with the square of the gas flow rate.
2.0
Gx = ,000
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
0
3,00
6,00
9,00
6,0
5,0
20,0
0,0
15,0
12
=3
=2
=3
Dry
Gx =
Gx =
Gx =
Gx =
Gx =
x
x
x
G
1.0
Dp, Inches Water/ft packing
0.8
0.6 Column dia. = 30 in.

Packing height = 10 ft
0.4
0.2
3
Liquid rate,lb/ft – h
as parameter
0.1
100 200 300 400 600 1,000 2,000 5,000
3
Air Mass Velocity, Gx, lb/ft – h
Fig. 5.30 : Pressure drop in packed bed
lb/hr of gas MyV
Gy = mass velocity of gas = cross-section of lower = S
Where My is the average molecular weight of the gas.

Once liquid is flowing down the column as gas is flowing
up, some of the space between the packing particles is
taken up by liquid, leaving less space for the gas to flow.
Forcing the same gas flow through a smaller opening will Packing Gas Liquid
increase the frictional contribution to the pressure drop.
Thus the curves for increasing liquid flow are above that
wet for dry packing although the curves tend to be
parallel.
Note that the curves with liquid flow curl up at high gas
flow rates. This can be explained as follows : Fig. 5.31 : Packed bed
The upward flow of the gas exerts a shear force on the log (Dp) Flooding
liquid, retarding its downward motion. As the gas flowrate Loading
increases so does this shear force. When the shear force Constant
» 1.8 to 2.0
(Turbulent)
holdup
becomes comparable to gravity, the liquid flow might slow
down and liquid begins to accumulate in the tower.
Wet (Gx > 0) Dry (Gx = 0)
log (Gy)
Fig. 5.32 : Relation between ∆P and Gy
Packing Stagnant Packing

particle particle Flowing
air air
Fig. 5.33 : Effect of flow as shear force

(i) Liquid Holdup : Holdup refers to the liquid retained in the tower as films wetting the
pakcing and as pools caught in the crevices between packing particles. It is found that the total
holdup φL is made of two parts,
φLt = φLo + φLs
where, φLs = Static holdup (volume liquid/packed volume)
φLo = Operating or moving holdup (volume liquid/packed volume)
(ii) Interstitial volume : Fraction of interstitial volume occupied by liquid.
(iii) Pore Volume : "Empty" space between and inside packing particles; that volume
occupied by liquid or gas.
(iv) Loading : An increase in liquid holdup caused by an increase in gas flowrate. For given
liquid flowrate, there is a maximum flowrate of a gas, which can be forced through the column. If
you exceed this maximum the shear forces on the liquid are so high that they exceed the weight to
the liquid. Then the net force on the liquid is upward and you blow the liquid back out the top of
the column. This is called as loading.
(v) Flooding : Liquid downflow is essentially stopped by high gas upflow. Since you can't
get the liquid through the column, flooding is clearly a condition to be avoided. Generally, to get
a high area of contact between liquid and gas you want to operate will below the flooding
velocity :
At flooding : ∆pf/L ≈ 2 to 3 inch H2O/ft of packing
Loading : ∆pf/L ≈ 0.5 inch H2O/ft
Normal operating pressure ∆pf/L ≈ 0.25 to 0.5 inch H2O/ft
Normal operating pressure drops are just below those for which loading begins. Notice
Fig. 5.30 that when we increase the liquid flowrate, flooding occurs at lower gas flows. If we
increase the size of the packing particle, we can tolerate higher gas flows. While higher gas flows
can be obtained with larger packing particles, the amount of interfacial area generally less (i.e. a is
decreased).
Fig. 5.30 are for a particular packing (1" Intalox saddles) and for a particular temperature and
pressure (20 oC and 1 atm). A more general correlation of pressure drop is provided by Fig. 5.34.
The size and type of packing is accounted for in this correlation through the parameter.
Packing factor (Fp) :Values of the packing factor for various types of packing are given in
Table 5.2. The y-co-ordinate of this graph Fig. 5.34, is not dimensionless, so we need to use the
units summarized in the table as :
Symbol Units
Gx Gy 1b/ft2–s
µ CP
PxPy 1b/ft3
gc 32.2 1bf – ft/b1b – s2
0.60
0.40 Parameter of curves is pressure
drop in inches of water foot
of packed height
0.20
1.50
0.10 1.00
0.060 0.50
0.040 0.25
J
rG (rL – rG)
0.1
0.020
C1mL
0.010
0.2
0.010
G
0.006
0.004 0.05
0.002
0.001
0.01 0.02 0.040.060.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 10.0
L ra
G rL
Fig. 5.34
Table 5.2
Type Material Nominal Bulk density Total area Porosity Packing factors
1b/ft3 ft2/ft3
Fp fp
Rasching Ceramic 1 55 112 0.64 580 1.52 ξ
rings
2 42 58 0.74 155 1.36 ξ
43 37 0.73 95 1.0
1 41 28 0.74 65 0.92 ξ
1
12
2
Pall rings Metal 1 30 63 0.94 56 1.54
1 24 39 0.95 40 1.36
12
22 31 0.96 27 1.09
2
Plastic 1 5.5 63 0.90 55 1.36 ξ
1 4.8 39 0.91 40 1.18 ξ
12
Berl Ceramic 1 54 142 0.62 240 1.58 ξ
12
saddles 45 76 0.68 110 1.36 ξ
40 46 0.71 65 1.07 ξ
1
12
Intalox Ceramic 46 190 0.71 200 2.27
saddles
42 78 0.73 92 1.54
1 39 59 0.76 52 1.18
1 38 36 0.76 40 1.0
12
36 28 0.79 22 0.64
2
3
Super Ceramic 1 – – – 60 1.54
intalox 2 – – – 30 1.0
saddles
IMTP ® Metal 1 – – 0.97 41 1.74
1 – – 0.98 24 1.37
12
– – 0.98 18 1.19
2 – – – – –
Hy-Pak Metal 1 19 54 0.96 45 1.54
1 – – – 29 1.36
12
2 14 29 0.97 26 1.09
5.23 TOWER DIAMETER
Once the total molar liquid and gas flowrates (L and V) are known, we can choose the
diameter of tower we need. The diameter of the tower is usually chosen such that the pressure
drop is some prescribed value below flooding.
The pressure drop depends on the mass velocities :

dp ∆p
Choose DT such that : dz = Z ≈ 0.25 to 0.5 inch H2O/ft of packing
T
∆p
ZT = f (Gy Gx)
and where Mx is the average molecular weight of the liquid.
 mass flowrate of liquid  M xL M xL
where,Gx cross-sectional area of column = S = 2
  πD /4 T
MyV
Similarly, we have, Gy = S
So to get certain pressure drop for a certain set of flowrates, we must choose a particular
value for the tower diameter. Although it looks like you have to guess the diameter DT in order to
calculate Gx and Gy to get ∆p, a trial-and-error can be avoided by noting that the abscissa
(x co-ordinate) does not depend on the diameter :
Gx MxL/S M xL
Gy = MyV/S = MyV … (5.73)
Note that the unknown cross-sectional area S conveniently cancels out. What remains is
known so the procedure is as follows :
Given : L,V
Find : DT
Procedure :
(1) Calculate the abscissa.
(2) Locate the point on the curve of Fig. 5.30 which has the desired ∆p and this value of the
abscissa.
(3) Read the corresponding ordinate of this point from Fig. 5.30.
(4) Calculate Gy which gives this value for the ordinate.
(5) Calculate the desired tower diameter from
2
πDT MyV
4 = S = G
y
5.24 ABSORPTION WITH CHEMICAL REACTION

Absorption followed by reaction in the liquid phase is often used to get more complete
removal of a solute from a gas mixture. For example, a dilute acid solution can be used to scrub
NH3 from gas streams and basic solutions are used to remove CO2 and other acid gases. Reaction
in the liquid phase reduces the equilibrium partial pressure of the solute over the solution, which
greatly increases the driving force for mass transfer. If the reaction is essentially irreversible at
absorption conditions, the equilibrium partial pressure is zero, and N0y can be calculated just
from the change in gas composition. For y* = 0,
b
dy yb
N0y = ⌠ y = ln ya … (5.74)
⌡
a
A further advantage of absorption plus reaction is the increase in the mass transfer
coefficient. Some of this increase comes from a greater effective interfacial area, since absorption
can now take place in the nearly stagnant regions (static holdup) as well as in the dynamic liquid
holdup. For NH3 absorption in H2SO4 solutions, Kga was 1.5 to 2 times the value for absorption in
water. Since the gas-film resistance is controlling, this effect must be due mainly to an increase in
effective area. The values of Kga for NH3 absorption in acid solutions were about the same as
those for vapourisation of water, where all the interfacial area is also expected to be effective. The
factors Kgavap/Kgaabs and Kgareact/Kgaabs decrease with increasing liquid rate and approach unity
when the total holdup is much large than the static holdup.
The factor Kgavap/Kgaabs also depends on the concentration of reactant and is smaller when
only a slight excess of reagent is present in the solution fed to the column. Data on liquid holdup
and effective area have been published for Rasching rings and Berl saddles, but similar results for
newer pickings are not available.
When the liquid-film resistance is dominant, as in the absorption of CO2 or H2S in aqueous
solutions, a rapid chemical reaction in the liquid in the liquid can lead to a very large increase in
the mass transfer coefficient. When absorption is accompanied by a very slow reaction, the
apparent values of Kga may be lower than with absorption alone. An example is the absorption of
Cl2 in water, followed by hydrolysis of the dissolved chlorine. The slow hydrolysis reaction
essentially controls the overall rate of absorption.
5.25 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF PACKED ABSORPTION
COLUMNS
It involves three steps :
(a) Overall mole balance : This indicates the overall size of the process to be designed.
(b) Diameter of the column : For rapid mass transfer between the phases, intimate contact
between the gas and the liquid is desirable. This is made possible if the gas and liquid flow
through a narrow range inside the tower.
(c) Height of the column : The solute inside the column must be allowed sufficient time to
diffuse from the gas into the liquid. This time depends on the height of the column.
Overall mole balance : In the case of dilute gas, if the liquid is non-volatile and the inert gas
is practically insoluble in the liquid, we can take the gas and liquid flow rates to be constant
throughout the column. The overall mole balance at steady state becomes :
Solute entering – Solute leaving – Solute leaving  – Solute entering 

in gas stream  in gas stream  in liquid stream in liquid stream
i.e. GM (y1 – y2) = LM (x1 – x2) … (5.75)
where GM and LM are the molar flow rates of the gas and liquid respectively (k moles/sec.)
y1, y2 = Inlet and outlet concentrations of the solute in the gas, mole fraction.
x1, x2 = Outlet and inlet concentration of the solute in the liquid, mole fraction.
Diameter of Absorption Column : The diameter of absorber (or stripper) is generally
determined from following correlation which consists of a logarithmic plots of :
U2 α ρG 0.2 L ρG 
g · ∈3 ρ µ  Vs G  …( 5.76)
 C L   ρL 
0.4
Approximate
0.2 1200 flooding
0.2 0.1 800

m
400
rG
rL
0.04
200
Î3
a
0.02 100
2
9c
V
0.004 Gas pressure

2
drop, N/m /m
0.001
0.01 0.1 1.0 2 4 10
L rG
G rL
Fig. 5.35 : Determination of diameter of absorber/stripper

where, µ = Viscosity
ρG = Density of gas
ρL = Density of liquid
∈ = Porosity
operating velocity in the tower is usually 40 – 50% of the flooding velocity,
Volumetric gas flow rate
Therefore, cross-sectional area = Uopt
where Uopt = Operating velocity
5.26 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
(1) Height of an absorber/stripper :
Z = HTU × NTU … (5.77)
Case I : When the controlling resistance is offered by the gas film :
GM
Then, HTU = K a P … (5.78)
G T
y1
dy y1 – y2
and NTU = ⌠ y – y = (y – y ) … (5.79)
⌡ e e lm
y2
when equilibrium relation is a straight line.

(y1 – ye ) – (y2 – ye )
1 2
(y – ye)lm = … (5.80)
y –y  1 e 1
ln y – y 
 2 e 2
Note : When equilibrium relationship is other than straight line, equation (5.52) is evaluated
by graphical integration.
Case II : When the controlling resistance is offered by the liquid film :
LM
HTU = K a C … (5.81)
L T
x1
dx
NTU = ⌠ x –x … (5.82)
⌡ e
x2
x1
dx x1 – x2
where, ⌠ x – x = (x – x) … (5.83)
⌡ e e lm
x2
In terms of individual film coefficients and overall mass transfer coefficient, the HTU
expressions changes as under :
GM
(HTU)g = K a P … (5.84)
g T
GM
(HTU)OG = K a P … (5.85)
G T
LM
(HTU)l = K a C … (5.86)
l T
LM
(HTU)OL = K a C … (5.87)
L T
The equations (5.84) to (5.85) are interrelated as :
GM
(HTU)OG = (HTU)g + m L (HTU)l … (5.88)
M
LM
(HTU)OL = (HTU)l + m G (HTU)g … (5.89)
M
m GM
(HTU)OG = LM (HTU) OL … (5.90)
where, GM = Molar mass velocity of inert (MT–1 L–2)

LM = Molar mass velocity of absorbing liquid (MT–1L–2)
a = Interfacial area per unit volume (L2/L3)
m = Slope of equilibrium curve
5.27 TYPICAL ABSORBER DESIGN PROBLEM
Designing a randomly packed column is a subtle Liquid in Gas out
L in G out
blend of art and science. Packed columns are most y out
x in
frequently used to remove contaminants from a gas
stream (absorption). However, packed columns can
Absorber or
also be used to remove volatile components from a Striping
liquid stream by contacting it with an inert gas Column
(striping). They are also used in distillation
applications where the separation is particularly
difficult due to close boiling components. While we
Liquid out Gas in
will discuss all of these applications, we'll focus on L out G in
adsorption. However, the design methods are similar x out y in
for any of the scenarios.
Fig. 5.36 : Absorber or stripping column

The first step in designing a packed tower is more science than art. The equilibrium data
between the contaminant and the solvent (or the distillation components) is needed for the
analysis. If tabulated data for your system is unavailable and the total amount of the contaminant
is small (as it usually will be), Raoult's Law can be used to estimate the equilibrium data for
adsorption or stripping applications. For distillation, equilibrium data can be predicted by
selecting the appropriate thermodynamic model. The operating line for the tower is constructed
differently depending on whether you are dealing with distillation or adsorption/stripping. Since
we are focusing on adsorption, we will use it as an example. In adsorption/stripping, the
operating line is constructed differently depending on whether the contaminated stream can be
considered "dilute" or if it must be treated as a concentrated stream. Usually, it is safe to treat the
stream as dilute if the contaminant makes up less than 10 mole percent of the stream. For streams
that can not be considered dilute, the mass transfer coefficients must be evaluated in terms of the
gas and liquid flows. Then, graphical evaluation of several integral relationships must be
completed. Here we will consider dilute streams which are more common for packed tower
adsorption and stripping.
Dilute streams allow the column
designer to assume constant mass transfer L in = 8000 mol/h Gas out = 10,000 mol/h
x in = 0 y outm = 0.005
and the operating line can be constructed
in terms of the simplified balance shown
below :
Lout xout + Gout yout = Lin xin + Gin yin Absorber or
This relation is used in the following Striping
manner : Suppose you wish to remove Column
acetone from a gas stream of 10,000 mole/h
in a packed column. The inlet gas
constrains 2.6 mole percent acetone and the L out = 8000 mol/h G in = 10,000 mol/h
outlet gas stream can contain no more than x out = ? y in = 0.026
0.5 mole percent acetone. Assume a pure Fig. 5.37 : Absorber or Stripping Column
water stream enters the packed tower at a
rate of 8,000 mole/h.
Lout xout + Gout yout = Lin xin + Gin yin
(8000) xout + (10000) (0.005) = (8000) (0) + (10000) (0.026)
xout = 0.02625
The equilibrium and operating lines are constructed as follows :
0.03 Tower Bottom
Operating Line
y 0.02 Equilibrium Line
0.01
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

x
Fig. 5.38 : Construction of equilibrium and operating lines
Just as in the McCabe – Thiele analysis of distillation, the equilibrium stages are stepped-off
between the two lines. Note that for stripping, the operating line would be on the other side of the
equilibrium line. Once the theoretical number of stages have been determined, you can proceed
with the design of the column by following the three steps that we will outline as shown in
Fig. 5.38.
To best illustrate the other steps in the process, we will use the following example :
Specify the packing type and column dimensions for a column that will be used to remove
chlorine from a gas stream using an organic solvent. Assume the separation requires
20 theoretical stages. The vapour flow is 7000 kg/h, the average vapour density is 4.8 kg/m3. The
liquid flow is 5000 kg/h, the average liquid density is 833 kg/m3. The liquids' kinematic viscosity
is 0.48 centistokes (4.8 × 10–7 m2/s).
Step 1 : Selecting a Type and Size of Packing : This is where the art of designing packed
columns beings. Some people believe that there are stringent rules surrounding the choice
between random and structured packing. We can think of random packing as the type that comes
in a sack and it is simply dumped into the column. Structured packing may come in bales or
intricate designs that are stacked in specific patterns. This is probably one of those areas of
engineering where past experience in the application is the best guide. Two "areas of choice"
where structured packing is used are in very low pressure drop applications and for increasing
the capacity of an existing column. Since we are considering a new design with no serious
pressure drop constraint, we will choose the more economical random packing. Below are charts
showing both English and Metric unit packing factors. The most common random packing types
are shown here :
Table 5.3 : Packing Factors for Column Packing
Packing Type Material Nominal Packing Size, in
1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 3 3 1/2
Hy-Pack Metal 43 18 15
Super Intalox Saddles Ceramic 60 30
Super Intalox Saddles Plastic 33 21 16
Pall Rings Plastic 97 52 40 24 22 16
Pall Rings Metal 70 48 33 20 37 16
Intalox Saddles Ceramic 725 330 200 145 92 52 40
Rasching Rings Ceramic 1600 1000 580 380 255 155 125 95 65 32
Rasching Rings Metal, 1/32 in 700 390 300 170 155 115
Rasching Rings Metal, 1/16 in 410 290 220 137 110 83 57
Berl Saddles Ceramic 900 240 170 110 65 45
Tellerettes Plastic 38 19
Mas Pac Plastic 32 20
Quartz Rock 160
Cross Partition Ceramic 80
Flexipack Metal 33 22 16
Interlox Metal 41 27 18
Chempak Metal 29
Table 5.4 : Packing Factors for Column Packing

Packing Type Material Nominal Packing Size, in
6.35 9.53 12.70 15.88 19.05 25.40 31.75 38.10 50.80 76.20 88.90
Hy-Pack Metal 43 18 15
Super Intalox Saddles Ceramic 60 30
Super Intalox Saddles Plastic 33 21 16
Pall Rings Plastic 97 52 40 24 22 16
Pall Rings Metal 70 48 33 20 37 16
Intalox Saddles Ceramic 725 330 200 145 92 52 40
Rasching Rings Ceramic 1600 1000 580 380 255 155 125 95 65 32
Rasching Rings Metal, .79 700 390 300 170 155 115
mm
Rasching Rings Metal, 1.6 410 290 220 137 110 83 57
mm
Berl Saddles Ceramic 900 240 170 110 65 45
Tellerettes Plastic 38 19
Mas Pac Plastic 32 20
Quartz Rock 160
Cross Partition Ceramic 80
Flexipack Metal 33 22 16
Interlox Metal 41 27 18
Chempak Metal 29
Generally, the column diameter to packing size ratio should be greater than 30 for Rasching
rings, 15 for ceramic saddles, and 10 for rings or plastic saddles. The geometry of your packing
will typically be a function of the needed surface area and/or allowable pressure drop. If several
packings meet your requirements, you will typically choose the least expensive so long as it has
an acceptable operating life. For our example, we will choose Pall rings (plastic). For columns
over 24 inches in diameter, No. 2 or 2 inch packing should be examined first. By looking at our
flowrates, the chances of our column having a diameter of at least 24 inches are good, but we will
verify this later. For now we will settle on 2 inch plastic Pall rings for our initial analysis.
Step 2 : Determine the Column Diameter :
Most methods for determining the size of randomly packed towers are derived from the
Sherwood correlation. A design gas rate, G, can be determined with the help of the Fig. 5.39
which is based on correlation from the Sherwood equation.
Each line on the graph is marked with an acceptable pressure drop in inches of water per foot
of packing (number sin parenthesis are in mm of water per meter of packing). Guidelines are as
follows :
Moderate to high pressure distillation = 0.4 to 0.75 in water/ft packing
= 32 to 63 mm water/m packing
Vacuum Distillation = 0.1 to 0.2 in water/ft packing
Absorbers and Strippers = 0.2 to 0.6 in water/ft packing
10.0
6.0
4.0
1.5
(12
2.0 5)
10
(83
0.50( )
42)
1.0
0.10(8
)
0.6
0.05(4
)
PV(PL – PV)
0.4
0.1
CG FV
2
0.2
0.1
0.06
Property Symbol British Units Metric Units
0.04
Gas rate V lb/n kg/n
Liquid rate L lb/n kg/n
Gas density PV lb/n3 kg/n3
Liquid density PL lb/n3 kg/n3
0.02 Liquid viscosity n centistokes centistokes
Conversion factor C 10 10.764
Packing factor F – –
Specific gas rate G lb/(ft2)(s) lb/(m2)(s)
0.01
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 10 20 40 60 100
L rV
V rL
Fig. 5.39 : Procedure for determination of column diameter
These guidelines are designed around "flooding pressure drops" documented in literature.
In other words, for most cases, designing with these pressure drops should help you avoid
flooding. In the alter stages of design, we may want to therefrom a through flooding calculation.
Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook covers this topic well. Since we are designing an absorber,
we will design for 42 mm water/m packing (we could design for a lower pressure drop, but the
column will increase in diameter and most likely cost). First, we will evaluate the x-axis of the
graph above :
(L/V) (vapour density/liquid density)0.5 = (5000/7000) (4.2/833)0.5 = 0.0507
Note that 4.2 kg/m3 was used for the vapour density. The average vapour density was given
as 4.8 kg/m3. However, at the top of the column, the vapour will be less dense and at its' highest
velocity. This is what you should design for. As a rule of thumb, we reduce the average vapour density
by about 15% for design, however if you can get real data from a similar tower, certainly do so ! Reading
the intersection of the 42 mm water/m packing line and 0.05 on the axis, we find a value of 1.5 for
the y-axis.
10.0
6.0
4.0
1.5
(1 2
2.0 5)
10
(83
0.50( )
42)
1.0
0.10(8
)
0.6
0.05(4
)
PV(PL – PV)
0.4
0.1
CG FV
2
0.2
0.1
0.06
Property Symbol British Units Metric Units
0.04
Gas rate V lb/n kg/n
Liquid rate L lb/n kg/n
Gas density PV lb/n3 kg/n3
Liquid density PL lb/n3 kg/n3
0.02 Liquid viscosity n centistokes centistokes
Conversion factor C 10 10.764
Packing factor F – –
Specific gas rate G lb/(ft2)(s) lb/(m2)(s)
0.01
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 10 20 40 60 100
L rV
V rL
Fig. 5.40 : Procedure for determination of column diameter

From the previous charts, we read a packing factor of 24 for 2 inch plastic Pall rings. All other
information is know so we can solve for G as shown on the y-axis of the graph :
G = [1.5 [(4.2) (8.44 – 4.2)]/[(10.764) (24) (0.48)0.1]] 0.5 = 4.66 kg/m2 s
Now, we solve for the column cross sectional area :
Ax = vapour flow/G = 7000 kg/h/](4.66 kg/m2 s) (3600 s/hour)] = 0.42 m2
and the column diameter is calculated by :
Diameter = [Ax/(Pi/4)]0.5 = [0.42/(Pi/4)]0.5 = 0.73 m or 2.4 ft
So our assumption of at least a 24 in column diameter is accurate. If it had not been accurate,
G would be recalculated using a smaller packing which would also correspond to a larger
packing factor.
Step 3 : Determine the Column Height : Perhaps the most interesting step in designing a
packing column is deciding how tall to build it. You should first ask yourself "What stage of the
design are we currently working on ?" If the seeing is preliminary, the general HETP (Height
Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate) will work well. If the design requires a higher degree of
accuracy, we recommend consulting the packing manufacturer or a book entitled Distillation

Design by Henry Kister (McGraw – Hill. Distillation Design contains an exhaustive list of HETP
values based on the components of the system and the type of packing used. As for preliminary
estimates, the following HETP values should be used.
Table 5.5 : HETP values for various mass transfer operations
SETUP HETP expressed as ft (meters)
Method Packing Size (in)
1.0 1.5 (0.46)
Distillation 1.5 2.2 (0.67)
2.0 3.0 (0.91)
1.0 2.0 (0.67)
Vacuum Distillation 1.5 2.7 (0.82)
2.0 3.5 (1.06)
Absorption/Stripping All Sizes 6.0 (1.83)
To determine the height of the adsorption tower in our example, we multiple the
20 theoretical stages by 6 ft or 1.83 m. We estimate the height of the tower to be 120 ft or about
37 meters.
Short-cut design guidelines for packed bed absorbers :
(A) Information available :
1. Feed gas flow rate and composition, V1, y1.
2. Feed liquid quality (x2).
3. Pressure at the top of the column (P) and operating temperature (T).
4. Information on gas-liquid equilibrium (equilibrium relation y vs. x @ P and T).
(B) Information that might be available …… …… what do to if it is not available
5. Exit gas composition (y2) (goal of Assume 99% recovery of solute :
V1y1 – V2y2
the separation process) V1y1 = 0.99
6. Feed liquid flow rate (L2) Use 1.5 times the minimum :
L2 = 1.5 L2, min
7. Column diameter (D) Assume gas superficial mass flow rate
to be 50 to 80% of the flooding value.
(C) Report design parameters :
1. Use graphical correlation to estimate flooding superficial flow rate (Gy, F) and set
Gy (0.5 to 0.8)Gy, F. Calculate column diameter from Gy.
2. Calculate height of packed bed from appropriate design equation. Estimate height of
transfer units using empirical correlations.
3. Use actual gas and liquid superficial mass flow rates to determine total pressure drop
from graphical correlation.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) A mixture of acetone vapour and air containing 5% by volume of acetone is to be freed
of its acetone content by scrubbing it with water in a packed bed absorber. The flow
rate of the gas mixture is 700 m3/hr of acetone-free air measured at NTP and that of
water is 1500 kg/hr. The absorber operates at an average temperature of 20 oC and a
pressure of 101 kPa. The scrubber absorbs 98% acetone. The equilibrium relation for
the acetone vapour-water system is given by :
Y* = 1.68 x
where, Y = k mole acetone/k mole dry air
X = k mole acetone/k mole water
Calculate : (a) Mean driving force for absorption, (b) Mass transfer area if the overall
mass transfer coefficient is –
kG = 0.4 k mole of acetone/m2. hr (k mole acetone/per k mole dry air)
Sol. :
Y2 = 0.00105 LS
Gg X2 = 0
Packed
Bed
Absorber
Y1 = 0.0526 X2= 0.0193

kmol dry air kmol/water
Gg = 31.25 LS = 83.33
hour hour
Fig. 5.41 : Absorption of acetone vapour and air in packed bed
700 k mole dry air
Gas Rate = Gg = 22.4 = 31.25 hour
1500 k mole water
Liquid Rate = LS = 18 = 83.33 hour
y1 = 0.05
y1 0.05
So, Y1 = 1 – y = 1 – 0.05 = 0.0526
1
Y2 = 0.02 y1 = 0.02 × 0.0526 = 0.00105

X2 = 0 since the entering water is pure.
Material Balance :
Gg (Y1 – Y2) = LS (X1 – X2)
Gg (Y – Y ) = 0.0193
∴ X1 = L  1 2
 S
The quantity of acetone absorbed is,
k mole acetone
m = Gg (Y1 – Y2) = 1.611 hour
The driving force for the absorption process is :

(i) at the bottom of the tower :
*
∆Y1 = Y1 – Y1
= Y1 – 1.68 X1
= 0.0526 – 1.68 × 0.0193
= 0.0202
(ii) at the top of the tower :
*
∆Y2 = Y2 – Y2
= Y2 – 1.68 Y2
= 0.00105 – 0
= 0.00105
So, the mean driving force is,
∆Y1 – ∆Y2 0.0202 – 0.00105
∆Y = =
∆Y1 ln 0.00105
0.0202
ln ∆Y   
 2
k mole acetone
= 0.0065 k mole dry air (Ans. : a)
and the required mass transfer area is,
m 1.611
A = =
kG · ∆Y 0.4 × 0.0065
A = 619.6 m2 (Ans. : b)
(2) 5000 kg/hr. of a SO2 – air mixture containing 5% by volume of SO2 is to be scrubbed
with 2,00,000 kg/hr of water in a packed tower. The exit concentration of SO2 is reduced
to 0.15%. The tower operates at 1 atm. The equilibrium relation is given by :
Y = 30 X
Mole SO2
where Y = Mole air
Mole SO2
X = Mole water
If the packed height of tower is 0.42 m, calculate the height of transfer unit.
Sol. :
Y2 = 0.0015 LS
Gg X2 = 0
Packed
Bed
Absorber
Y1 = 0.0526 X2= 0.0007

kg mole kg mole
Gg = 154.5 LS = 11,111
hour hour
Fig. 5.42 : Absorption of SO2 - air mixture in packed bed tower

Average molecular weight of SO2 – Air mixture is,

(64 × 0.05) – (29 × 0.95) = 30.75
5000
Total gas rate = 30.75 = 162.6 kg mole/hour
Inert gas rate = Gg = Total gas rate × 0.95 = 154.5 kg mole/hour
5
Y1 = 100 – 5 = 0.0526
0.15
Y2 = 1 – 0.15 = 0.0015
Amount of water = 2,00,000 kg/hour
2‚00‚000
∴ LS = 18 = 11,111 kg mole/hour
Material Balance :
Gg (Y1 – Y2) = LS (X1 – X2)
X2 = 0, Since entering pure water to the tower.
∴ 154.5 (0.0526 – 0.0015) = 11,111 X1
X1 = 0.0007
∴ Ye = 30 X
1
where Ye = equilibrium value
So, Ye = 30 × 0.0007
1
= 0.021
... X2 = 0 , Ye = 0
2
Y1 – Y2
(Y1 – Ye ) – (Y2 – Ye )
1 2
Thus, NTU =
(Y1 – Ye )
1
ln (Y – Y )
 2 e2 
0.0526 – 0.0015
NTU = (0.0526 – 0.021) – (0.0015 – 0)
ln 
0.0526 – 0.021
 0.0015 
NTU = 5.17
Thus, Height of tower = Z = HTU × NTU
0.42 = HTU × 5.17
0.420
HTU = 5.17 = 0.0812 m (Ans.)
(3) A packed tower is designed to recover 98% CO2 from a gas mixture containing
10% CO2 and 90% air using water. The equilibrium relation is given as
y = 14 X.
kg CO2
where, y = kg dry air
kg CO2
X = kg water
The water to gas rate is kept 30% more than the minimum value. Calculate the height
of tower if (HTU)0G = 1 m.
10
Sol. : Y1 = 100 – 10 = 0.1111
Y2 = 100 – 10 × 0.02 = 0.0022

10
 
X2 = 0 Since entering water is pure,
y = 14 X in mole fraction term,
y X
44 14
1 = 14 1 in mole ratio term.
29 18
On simplification we get, y = 8.69 X (y and X are mole ratios)
y1
For minimum liquid rate, X1 = 8.69 = 0.0128
Material Balance :
G (Y1 – Y2) = Lmin . X1 (... X2 = 0)
Y1 – Y2
L = =
0.1111 – 0.0022
= 8.5
∴
G X1 0.0128
min.
L = 1.3 G

L
G  
Actual min.
= 1.3 × 8.5 = 11.05

∴ Liquid concentration is,
Y1 – Y2 '
= X1
L
G
Actual
' 0.1111 – 0.0022

X1 = 11.05 = 0.0098
'
Ye = 8.69 X1
1
= 8.69 × 0.0098 = 0.085

Ye = 0, since X2 = 0
2
Y1 – Y2
(Y1 – Ye ) – (Y2 – Ye )
1 2
∴ NTU = = 11.29
Y1 – Ye
 1
ln Y – Y 
 2 e 2
So, height of packed tower, Z = HTU × NTU = 1 × 11.29
Z = 11.29 m (Ans.)
(4) Gas from a petroleum distillation tower has its concentration of H2S reduced from
k mole H2S
0.03 k mole inert hydro carbon gas to 1% of this value by scrubbing with
triethanolamine water solvent in a counter-current tower operating at 300 K and at
1 atm. H2S is soluble in such solution and equilibrium relation may be taken as,
Y = 2X
k mole H2S
where Y = k mole inert gas
k mole H2S
X = k mole solvent
The solvent enters the tower free of H2S Y2 = 0.0003 LS
Gg X2 = 0
and leaves having concentration 0.013 k mole
of H2S/k mole of solvent. If the flow of inert
hydrocarbon gas is 0.015 k mole/m2 sec. of
Packed
tower cross section and the gas phase Tower
resistance controls the process, calculate,
(a) the height of absorber necessary.
(b) the number of transfer units
required.
Y1 = 0.03 X2= 0.013
Data : The overall coefficient for k mole
Gg = 0.015 LS
absorption KG · a may be taken as 0.04 k m2 .s
mole/s.m3 of tower volume. (Unit driving Fig. 5.43 : Absorption of gas from petroleum
force in Y). distillation tower
Driving force at the top of the column :
= Y2 – Ye
2
= (0.01 × 0.03) – 0 (... X2 = 0, Ye = 0)

2
= 0.0003
Driving force at the bottom of the column :
= Y1 – Ye
1
= 0.03 – 2 × 1 (from equilibrium relation)
= 0.03 – 2 × 0.013 = 0.004
(Y1 – Ye ) – (Y2 – Ye )
1 2
Logarithemic mean driving force = = 0.00143
Y –Y  1 e1 
ln Y – Y 
 2 e 2
Material Balance :
G g (Y 1 – Y 2 ) · A = k G · aP (Y – Y e ) ln · A · Z
i.e. Gg (Y1 – Y2) = kG· aP (Y – Ye)ln · Z

= 0.015 (0.03 – 0.0003)
= 0.04 × 0.00143.Z
Z = 7.79 ≅ 7.8 m
Gm
Height of transfer units = (HTU)oG = k .a
G
0.015
= 0.04 = 0.375 m
So, Number of transfer units,
Z 7.8
(NTU)oG = (HTU) = 0.375 = 20.8 ≅ 21 (Ans.)
oG
(5) The acetone from an acetone-air mixture is scrubbed with water in a packed
absorption tower using 1" Rasching rings. The entering gas mixture has 2 mole % of
acetone and the gas leaving the tower is expected to have acetone only to the extent of
0.2 mole %. The gas rate and liquid rate are 160 and 290 kg/hr. m2 respectively. The
temperature is 25 oC and pressure is 1 atm. The equilibrium relationship is given by :
Y = 2.53 X
Following expressions are available to calculate the height of transfer units as under
0.5
(in feet) : HG = 6.41 G0.32 L–0.51 (NSC) g
0.22
HL = 0.01 µ (2.42)
L 0.5
(NSC) l
 
where G = lb/hr. ft2 (gas)
L = lb/hr. ft2 (liquid)
µ = Viscosity = 0.82 Cp
(NSC)g = Schmidt number for gas phase = 1.6
(NSC)l = Schmidt number for liquid phase = 690
Determine the height of pakced tower.
2
Sol. : Y1 = 100 – 2 = 0.0204
0.2
Y2 = 99.8 = 0.002
Y = 2.53 X is the equilibrium relation
G = 160 kg/hr. m2 = 32.77 lb/hr. ft2
L = 290 kg/hr. m2 = 59.40 lb/hr. ft2
0.50
HG = 6.41 G0.32 L–0.51 · (NSC)9
= 6.41 (32.77)0.32 (59.4)–0.51 (1.6)0.5
= 3.08
0.22
HL = 0.01 µ (2.42)
1 0.50
and (NSC)L
 
59.4 0.22
= 0.01  [690]0.50
0.82 × 2.42
= 0.555
Average molecular weight of gas
= 0.02 × 58 + 0.98 × 29 = 29.58
160
Total gas rate = 29.58 = 5.409 kg mole/hr. m2
Gm = 0.98 × 5.409 = 5.301 kg mole/hr. m2

Liquid rate = 290 kg/hr. m2
= 16.11 kg mole/hr. m2
From solute balance,
Gm (Y1 – Y2) = L (X1 – X2)
... X2 = 0
∴ Gm (Y1 – Y2) = LX1
Gm 5.301
So, X1 = L (Y1 – Y2) = 16.11 (0.0204 – 0.002)
= 0.00605
Gm X1
L = Y1 – Y2 = 0.329
from equilibrium relation,
Y = 2.53 X
Y = mX + C
So, m = 2.53
(HTU)G = HG + M
Gm H
L L
∴
= 3.08 + 0.329 × 2.53 × 0.555 = 3.54 feet = 1.08 m
Ye = 2.53 X1
1
= 2.53 × 0.00605 = 0.0153
Y1 – Y2
(Y1 – Ye ) – (Y2 – Ye )
1 2
NTU = Y –Y  1 e1
ln Y – Y 
2 e 2
0.024 – 0.002
= (0.0204 – 0.0153) – (0.002 – 0) = 5.56
ln 
0.0204 – 0.0153
 0.002 
So, height of packed tower = Z = HTU × NTU
= 1.08 × 5.56 = 6 m (Ans.)
(6) A soluble gas is absorbed from a dilute gas air mixture by counter-current scrubbing
with solvent in a pakced tower. If the liquor led to the top of the tower contains no
solute, show that number of transfer units required is given by :
N = 
1  ln 1 – mGm y1 + mGm
 mG m
  Lm  y2 Lm 
1 – L 
 m 
where, Gm and Lm = flow rates of the gas and liquid in k mole/S.m2 of tower area
y1, y2 = mole fraction of the gas at the inlet and outlet of the column.
The equilibrium relation is given as,

ye = mx
where, ye = mole fraction in the gas is equilibrium with x mole fraction in the liquid.
Sol. : By definition,
y2
dy
(NTU)0G = ⌠ y–y …(1)
⌡ e
y1
A mass balance between the top and some plane in the tower where the mole fraction are
x and y gives,
Gm (y – y2) = Lm (x – x2) …(2)
If we assume the inlet liquid is solute free,
x2 = 0
Gm
and x = L (y – y2) …(3)
m
If the equilibrium data is represented as,
ye = mx
Gm
So, ye = m · L (y – y2) …(4)
m
Put equation (4) in equation (1)
y1
dy
(NTU)0G = ⌠
⌡ m · Gm
y2 y– L (y – y2)
m
y1
dy
= ⌠
⌡  mG m mGm
y2 y 1 – L  + L y2
 m  m
on integration we get,
 1   mGm y1 mGm
(NTU)0G =  mGm ln 1 – Lm  y2 + Lm  (Ans.)
1 – L 
 m 
(7) Some experiments are made on the absorption of CO2 air mixture is 2.5 N caustic soda
using a 250 mm diameter tower pakced to a height of 3 m with 19 mm Rasching rings.
In one experiment at 1 atm, the following results were obtained :
gas rate = G' = 0.34 kg/m2. s
liquid rate = L' = 3.94 kg/m2.s
The CO2 in the inlet gas is 3.15 PPM and in the exit gas 31 PPM. Estimate the value of
overall gas transfer coefficient, kGa.
Sol. : G' = 0.34 kg/m2. sec

Gm = ?
–6 2
Y2 = 31 × 10 L' = 3.94 kg/m .s
X2 = 0
Packed
Tower
–6
Y1 = 315 × 10 X1 = 0
2
Gg = 0.34 kg/m .sec Lm = ?
Gm = ?
Fig. 5.44 : Absorption of CO2
Conditions at the bottom of the tower :
y1 = 315 × 10–6
G' = 0.34 kg/m2.s
0.34
Gm = Average molecular weight of air
0.34 k mole
= 29 = 0.017
m2 .S
Conditions at the top of the tower :
y2 = 31 × 10–6
x2 = 0
L' = 3.94 kg/m2 sec
2.5 NaOH contains 2.5 × 40 gm/lit. = 100 kg/m3 NaOH
(... Molecular weight of NaOH = 40)
NaOH  + Water 
100 × 40 900 × 18
Mean molecular weight of liquid = 1000
= 20.2 kg/k mole
3.94 k mole
So, Lm = 20.2 = 0.195 2
m . sec
(
Material balance over the tower ... y ≅ y for dilute gases )
Gm (y1 – y2) A = kG a P (y – ye)ln · Z · A … (1)
We assume that all resistance to transfer lies in the gas phase
∴ Driving force at the top of the tower
= y2 – ye
2
–6
= 31 × 10 – 9 (... x2 = 0, ye = 0)
2
–6
= 31 × 10
Driving force at the bottom of the tower,

= y1 – ye
1
= 315 × 10–6 – 0
= 315 × 10–6
(315 – 31) × 10–6
∴ Log. mean driving force, = (y – ye)ln =
315 × 10 
–6
ln  –6 
 31 × 10 
= 122.5 × 10–6
Put all these values in equation (1),
0.0117 (315 – 31) × 10–6 = kG a × 101.3 × 122.5 × 10–6 × 3
∴ kG.a = 8.93 × 10–5 k mole/m3.s (kN/m2) (Ans.)
(8) Ammonia is to be removed from its mixture with air by scrubbing with water in a
packed tower. A gas mixture entering the column contains 6% NH3 (vol.) and rest air
(vol.) water free of NH3 enters in the column in counter-current direction. If 90% of
the ammonia is to be removed using NH3 free water at the rate of 2 mole water per
mole of air. Determine the exit concentration of ammonia. The gas-liquid equilibrium
relationship is y = 0.08 x, where y = moles of NH3/mole air,
mole of NH3
x = mole H O .
2
6
100
Sol. : Y1 = 6 = 0.06382
1 – 100
0.1
6 × 100
Y2 = = 0.0060362
6 × 0.1
1 – 100
LS
X1 = 0 , G = 2
m
Material Balance :
Gm (Y1 – Y2) = LS (X2 – X1)
1
So, X2 = 2 (0.06382 – 0.0060362)
= 0.0288 moles of NH3/mole water
∴ Exit concentration of NH3 in water
moles of NH3
= 0.0288 moles of water (Ans.)
(9) Equilibrium relationships for the system heptane-oil-air is given by y = 2X (Y and X
are kg heptane/kg air and kg heptane/kg oil respectively). Oil containing 0.005
– kg heptane/kg oil is being used as solvent for reducing the heptane content of air
from 0.10 to 0.02 kg-heptane per kg air in a continuous counter-current packed bed
absorber. What column height is required to treat 1400 kg/(hr) (m2 of empty tower
cross-section) of pure air containing heptane if the overall gas mass transfer coefficient
is 320 kg/hr) (m3) per unit gradient of y. The oil rate employed is 3100 kg/(hr) (m2)
solve analytically.
Sol. :
Air (Y)
dh
Oil (X)
Fig. 5.45 : Continuous countercurrent packed bed absorber
Writing material balances for heptane across the dotted boundary, we get,
X (X – 0.005) = Y (Y – 0.02)
where X and Y are the compositions of the liquid and air streams, leaving and entering
the differential element of height dh.
Y
∴ X = X (Y – 0.02) + 0.005
X = 0.452 (Y – 0.02) + 0.005 … (1)

We have for the differential element,
kg· dH (y – y*) = y dy
∴ Integrating both the sides, we get,
y2
Y dy
H = k ⌠ (y – y*)
g ⌡
y1
Now, since, y* = 2x (given), we have,

y2
Y dy
H = k ⌠ y – 2x
g ⌡
y1
Now put value of x from equation (1)

y2
Y dy
= k ⌠
g ⌡ (y – 2) (0.452 (y – 0.002) + 0.005)
y1
y2
Y dy
= k ⌠
g ⌡ 0.1 y + 8.1 × 10–2
y1
–2
Y y2 + 8.1 × 10  1400  0.1 + 8 × 10 
–2
= (0.1) k ln   = ln  
g
–2
y1 + 8.1 × 10  (0.1) (320) 0.02 + 8 × 10–2
= 25.7 m
∴ H = 25.7 m (Ans.)
(10) Carbon disulphide is to be absorbed from a dilute gas mixture of CS2 – N2 into a pure
non-volatile oil at atm. pressure in a counter-current absorber. The mole fraction of
CS2 in inlet gas stream is 0.05 and the flow rate of gas stream, G is 1500 k mole/hr. the
equilibrium relation is given by :
y = 0.5 x
where x = mole fraction of CS2 in liquid stream. It is desired to reduce the mole
fraction of CS2 in the exit gas stream to 0.005.
L
(a) Calculate the minimum value of G where L is the liquid flow rate in k mole/hr.
L
(b) Derive the equation for the operating line if G is equal to 1.5 times the minimum
value.
Sol. :
y2 = 0.005 x2 = 0
Countercurrent
Absorber
x1 = ?
y1 = 0.05
Fig. 5.46 : Absorption of Carbon Disulphide in Countercurrent Absorber
Data given : G = 1500 k mole/hr.
The equilibrium relation, y = 0.5 x
Material Balance :
Gm (y1 – y2) = LS (x1 – x2)
y1 – y2  LS 
∴ = G 
x1 – x2  m
 . y = 0.5 
. .
y1 – y2
at L = y ∴ x = y 
G 1
 0.5
min.
0.5 – x2
Putting values in above equation, we get,
L =
0.05 – 0.005
G 0.05
0.5 – 0
min.
L = 0.45 (Ans.)

G
min.
L
When G is 1.5 times L = 1.5 × 0.45
G
min.
= 0.675 (Ans.)
The equation of the operating line for a dilute mixture is,
Y = 1.5 G
L
(x1 – x2) + y2 (Ans.)
 
min.
(11) A counter-current plate absorber is to be installed for scrubbing of an air mixture

containing 5% ammonia by volume. The scrubber is fed with water containing
0.002 mole NH3 per mole of water. The scrubbing water flows at a rate of 1 mole water
per mole air. It is necessary to absorb 85% of the ammonia present in the gas by
operating the absorber at 20 oC.
mole NH3
k = 0.80 mole NH /mole H O
3 2
Calculate the concentration of NH3 in the outgoing liquid and estimate number of
stages necessary for this operation.
Sol. : y = 0.80 x
0.05
y2 = 1 – 0.05
mole NH3
= 0.0526 mole of air
y1 = (1 – 0.85) (0.0526)
mole NH3
= 7.89 × 10–3 mole of air
L mole of water

= 1 mole of air
G
mole NH3
x1 = 0.002 mole of H
2
–3
x1 = 0.02 y1 = 7.80 × 10
L G
1
y2 = 0.0526 L
G1 x2 = ?
Fig. 5.47 : Counter-current Plate Absorber for Ammonia-Air Mixture
So, L (x2 – x1) = G (y2 – y1)
G (y2 – y1)
x2 = L + x1
∴ x2 = (0.0526 – 0.00789) = 0.04471

L 1
Now A=m = 0.8 = 1.25 → Absorption factor.
G
Assuming Kresmer equation to be valid for this dilute system,
yNP + 1 – mx 1 – 1  + 1 
ln  y – mx  A A 
 1 
NP = ln A
ln 0.05260 – 0.8 × 0.002 1 – 1  + 1 

0.00789 – 0.8 × 0.002  1.25 1.25 
= ln (1.25)
NP = 3.96 ≅ 4
∴ Number of plates = 4 (Ans.)

(12) In an experiment 200 liters of air – SO2 mixture per minute is scrubbed continuously
by water in counter-current fashion in a packed tower. The mixture contains 10% SO2
by volume and is admitted at 20oC and 1000 mm Hg pressure into the tower. During
absorption the tower temperature is maintained constant at 20 oC by means of cooling
arrangement. Determine the tower diameter required for absorbing 95% SO2. It may
be assumed that the height of the tower may have no limitation. Vapour pressure of
SO2 (gas) over aqueous SO2 solution at 20 oC is given below :
% concentration of SO2 in water 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0

(weight %)
Partial pressure of SO2 mm Hg 26 59 123 191 336 698
Additional Data : Maximum allowable flow rate of water is 200 litres per hour per m2.
Sol. : The equilibrium data are to be converted as :

0.5
mole SO2 64
X = mole water = 99.5 = 0.0014
18
mole SO2 Partial pressure of SO2
Y = mole air = Partial pressure of air
26
= 1000 – 26 = 0.0267
As shown above, the values are converted and the equilibrium relationship is obtained
as :
x 0.0014 0.0028 0.0057 0.0087 0.0148 0.0313
y 0.0267 0.0627 0.1403 0.2362 0.5061 2.31

These values are plotted as shown in Fig. 5.48.

0.24
0.20
0.16
0.12
Y Y1
0.08
0.04
X1
0.03 0.006 0.009
X
Fig. 5.48 : Plot of Y versus X
10
y1 = 100 – 10 = 0.1111
y2 = 0.05, y1 = 0.0055
P = 1000 mm Hg
T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
PV
n = RT = 1000 × 0.2
 760  0.082 × 293 = 0.011 kg mole/min.
Inert rate = 0.011 × 0.9 ≅ 0.01 kg mole/min.
It is given that no limitation for scrubber height, minimum liquid can be used. When
minimum liquid is used, the liquid concentration is obtained from the equilibrium plot.
∴ X1 = 0.0045 (from Fig. 5.48 corresponding to Y1 = 0.1111)
Overall material balance :

Gm (Y1 – Y2) = Lm X1 (... X2 = 0)
Gm (Y1 – Y2)
∴ Lm = X1
0.01 (0.1111 – 0.0055)
= 0.0045
= 0.231 kg mole/min.
Maximum flow rate of water = 200 lit./hr. m2
200
=
60 × 18
= 0.185 kg mole/min. m2
Cross sectional area of scrubber,

0.231
= 0.185 = 1.249 m2
π
∴ Scrubber diameter = 4 · D2 = 1.249
1.249 × 4
∴ D = π
D = 1.25 m (Ans.)
(13) An effluent gas containing 0.15% by volume of a very soluble gas A is scrubbed
counter-currently with pure water in a packed column at 298 K and atmospheric
pressure to reduce the soluble A content to 0.01%. Find the number of theoretical
plates in the column for a water flow rate of 1.7 times the minimum value. Take
equilibrium data as : y* = 0.03 x.
Sol. : Assume the molar balance about the column to be DILUTE;
i.e. G1 ≈ G2 ≈ Gand L1 ≈ L2 ≈ L
∴ L (x1 – x2) = G (y1 – y2)
y1 = 0.0015, y2 = 0.0001
Liquid solvent (water) contains no solute on entry so x2 = 0
Operating line of minimum gradient crosses equilibrium line at either entry or exit
* 0.0015
conditions. For this, we see that x1 would be 0.0.3 = 0.05.
y1 – y2
L = *
  min
G x1 – x2
0.0015 – 0.001
= 0.05 – 0 = 0.028
L = 1.7 G

L
∴
  actual
G   min
= 1.7 × 0.028
= 0.0476
y1 – y2
∴ 0.0476 = x – x
1 2
0.0015 – 0.0001
= x1 – 0
0.0014
∴ x1 = 0.0476
= 0.0294 mole fraction A

0.16
0.14
Mole ratio A to S in gas phase
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04 eqm
y(L/G)min
y(L/G)act
0.02 Steps
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mole ratio A to S in liquid phase
Fig. 5.49 : Graphical Solution for Problem (13)
The operating line is drawn between (0, 0.0001) and (00294, 0.0015). When drawn on the
graph, the gap between this operating line and the equilibrium data needs four steps to
pass from the top of the line to below the bottom. (Ans.)
(14) A plate absorption column is used to reduce the concentration of a pollutant A in an
air stream from 5.4% to 0.3% v/s by counter-current scrubbing with solvent "S". This
solvent is fresh on entering the top of column and the gas stream enters at the bottom
of the column at a flow rate of 2.4 m3/s at the column operation conditions of 293 K
and 1 atmosphere. Equilibrium data is given by :
X (k mole A/k mole S) 0 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.045
Y (k mole A/k mole air) 0 0.002 0.005 0.015 0.032 0.053 0.065
(a) Determine the minimum flow rate needed for fresh solvent S.
(b) If the actual fresh solvent flow rate is 1.1 times the minimum, estimate the
number of ideal plates needed.
Sol. : (a) Rather than use mole fractions, use mole ratios (equilibrium data is in ratio).
Y1 = y1/(1 – y1) = 0.054, (1 – 0.054) = 0.0571
Y2 = y2/(1 – y2) = 0.003, (1 – 0.003) = 0.0030
Mass balance :
GS (Y1 – Y2) = LS (X1 – X2)
From ideal gas equation :
PV'
G1 = RT
(101.325 × 2.4)
=
(8.3144 × 293)
= 0.0988 k mole/s
GS = G1 (1 – y1) = 0.0988 (1 – 0.054)
= 0.0944 k mole/s air
Minimum liquid flow occurs when inlet gas and outlet liquid are in equilibrium. From
*
graph, this gives x1 = 0.042.
 LS  ∆Y 0.0571 – 0.0030
G  = = = 1.288
 S min
∆X* 0.042 – 0
(LS)min = 1.288 × GS = 1.288 × 0.0944 = 0.122 k mole/s
 LS   LS 
(b) G  = 1.1 × G  = 1.1 × 1.288 = 1.417
 S actual  S min
 LS  ∆Y 0.0541
∴ G  = = X – 0 = 1.417
 S actual
∆X 1
X1 = 0.054, 1.417 = 0.038
Operating line links points (0.038, 0.0571) and (0, 0.0030 <the space> between which and
the equilibrium curve gives 5 ideal plates. (Ans.)
0.07
0.065
0.06
Mole ratio A to S in gas phase
0.055
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02 eqm
0.015 (L/G)minimum
0.01 (L/G)actual
0.005 Steps
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045
Mole ratio A to S in liquid phase
(15) A gaseous mixture of ammonia and air is scrubbed counter-currently in a plate column
with fresh water. The ammonia concentration is reduced from 7.0 mole% to 0.5 mole%
and the inlet water and gas rates are respectively 450 and 370 kg/m2s. Calculate using
the data below, the number of actual plates required for the absorber.
Equilibrium data for the system at 20 oC and 1 atm is :
X (k mole NH3/k mole H2O) 0.0050 0.0164 0.0252 0.0349 0.0455 0.0722
Y (k mole NH3/k mole air) 0.0054 0.0210 0.0320 0.0420 0.0533 0.0800
Take molar masses of air, ammonia and water as 29, 17 and 18 kg/k mole respectively.
State any assumptions made.
Plate efficiency = 67% for all plates in column.
Sol. : Equilibrium data for the system at 20 oC and 1 atm is :
x (mole % NH3) 0.4675 1.6135 2.4580 3.3723 4.3520 6.7338
y (mole % NH3) 0.5371 2.0568 3.1008 4.0307 5.0603 7.4074
Assume that the solubility of air in water is negligible compared to the solubility of
ammonia. Molecular weight of inlet gas = (0.93/29) + (0.07/17) = 28.16 kg/k mole.
So, G1 = (370/28.16) = 13.14 k mol/m2s, of which 93% (12.22 k mole/m2s)
is air and
G2 = (12.22/0.995) = 12.28 k mole/m2s
of which 99.5% (12.22 k mole/m2s) is air. The inlet liquid is pure water so
L2 = (450/18)
= 25 k mole/m2s.
So, L1 = L2 + (G1 – G2) = 25 + (13.14 – 12.28)
= 25.858 k mole/m2s
Compare liquid and gas flow rates at both top and bottom before deciding if system is
L2 25
dilute or not : G2 = 12.28
= 2.0358
L1 26.858
G1 = 13.14
= 1.9679
These values are close enough to justify an approximation of liquid-to-gas ratio of 2.0019
throughout the column.
y1 = 7%, y2 = 0.5%
Liquid solvent (water) contains no solute on entry so x2 = 0.
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
Mole % ammonia in air
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2 eqm
1.5
y(L/G)actual
1
Steps
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mole % ammonia in water
When drawn on the graph, the gap between this operating line and the equilibrium data
gives 3 theoretical plates. As the efficiency for all plates is 67%, this means that 5 actual
plates are needed. (Ans.)
(16) For a certain soluble gas/water system Henry's Law holds and y* = 0.15 x. Estimate the
number of theoretical stages required to reduce the soluble content of a gas stream
from 4.8% to 0.5% if the water flow is one fifth of the non-soluble gas flow.
Sol. : Assume that the system is dilute.

i.e. G1 ≈ G2 ≈ and L1 ≈ L2 ≈ L
∴ L (x1 – x2) = G (y1 – y2)
y1 = 4.8 , y2 = 0.5
Assume that the water used is fresh so x2 = 0
y1 – y2
L =
G x1 – x2
min
4.8 – 0.5 4.3
= x1 – 0 = x1 = 0.2
So, x1 = 21.5%
5
4.5
3.5
Mole % solute in gas
2.5
2
eqm
1.5 y(L/G)act
1 Step
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mole % solute in water
When we draw on the graph, the gap between this operating line and the equilibrium
data gives 4 theoretical plates. (Ans.)
(17) An acetone-air mixture containing 0.015-mole fraction of acetone has the mole fraction
reduced to 1% of this value by counter-current absorption with water in a packed
tower. The gas flow rate G is 1 kg/m2s of air and the water entering is 1.6 kg/m2s.
Calculate, using the data below :
(a) The number of overall transfer units NOG,
(b) The height of packing required.
Equilibrium relation : y* = 1.75x where y* is the mole fraction of acetone in vapour in
equilibrium with a mole fraction x in the liquid. The overall coefficient for a
absorption KGa = 0.06 k mole/m3s (unit mole fraction driving force)–1.
Molar mass of air = 29 kg/k mole
Molar mass of water = 18 kg/k mole
Sol. : y1 = 0.015
y2 = 0.015' 0.01 = 0.00015
x2 = 0
x1 = ?
G = 1 kg/m2s = (1, 29) k mole/m2s = 0.0345 k mole/m2s
L = 1.6 kg/m2s = (1.6, 18) k mole/m2s = 0.0889 k mole/m2s
Overall Mass Balance gives :
G (y1 – y2) = L (x1 – x2)
0.0.345 (0.015 – 0.00015) = 0.0889 (x1 – 0)
x1 = 0.00576
*
y1 = 1.75 x1 = 0.0101
*
y2 = 1.75 x2 = 0
*
Dy = y1 – y1 = 0.015 – 0.0101 = 0.0049 top driving force
1
*
Dy = y2 – y2 = 0.00015 bottom driving force
2
lm (y – y*) = (0.0049 – 0.00015), ln (0.0049, 0.00015) = 0.00136

NOG = (0.015 – 0.00015), 0.00136 = 10.92 (Ans. : a)
Z = (G/KGa) NOG = (0.0345, 0.06) 10.92 = 6.28 m (Ans. : b)
(18) A rotary film washer is used for a the removal of ammonia from coal gas at 20 oC. The
washer is made up of eight brush compartments and is designed to treat 3700 m3/hr of
gas with 1.5 times the theoretical amount of wash water. If the coal gas contains
1.3% NH3 on entering the scrubber and 0.3% NH3 on leaving, calculate :
(a) The mass of water used per hour,
(b) The number of theoretical stages,
(c) The overall stage efficiency,
(d) The NH3 content of the exit water.
Equilibrium data at 20 oC : y* = 0.8 x
Sol. : Assume that the system is dilute.
i.e. G1 ≈ G2 ≈ Gand L1 ≈ L2 ≈ ≈ L
∴ L (x1 – x2) = G (y1 – y2)
y1 = 1.3% , y2 = 0.3%
Assume that the water used is fresh so x2 = 0
Operating line of minimum gradient crosses equilibrium line at either entry or exit
*
conditions. For this, we see that x1 would be (1.3 ÷ 0.8) = 1.625%
y1 – y2
L =
1.3 – 0.3
= 1.625 – 0 = 0.615
Gmin *
x1 – x2
L = 1.5 G

L
∴
 actual
G   min = 1.5 × 0.615 = 0.923
(a) Assuming that the system is dilute, the wash water molecular weight will
approximate to 18 kg/k mole. Also, if the gas is assumed to be ideal at atmospheric
pressure and 20 oC : pV = nRT
n p 101325
∴ V = RT = = 0.04159 k mole/m3
8314.4 × 293
∴ G = 3700 × 0.04159 = 153.89 k mole/hr
∴ L = 0.923 × 153.89 = 142.06 k mole/hr (Ans.)
(b) When drawn on the graph, the gap between this operating line and the equilibrium
data gives 3 theoretical plates. (Ans.)
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
Mole % ammonia in coal gas
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 eqm
0.5 y(L/G)min
0.4 y(L/G)act
Steps
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Mole % ammonia in wash water
Fig. 5.53 : Graphial Solution for Problem (18)
(c) The actual number of plates will give the efficiency :

Theoretical number of plates
Actual number of plates = Efficiency
Theoretical number of plates
∴ Efficiency = Acutal number of plates
3
∴ Efficiency = 7 = 0.43 (Ans.)
(d) The liquid-to-gas ratio will give the exit concentration :
 L  = 0.923 = y1 – y2 = 1.3 – 0.3

G x1 – x2 x1 – 0
0.923
∴ x1 = 10 = 0.923 mole fraction NH3 (Ans.)
(19) An experiment is carried out on the counter-current absorption of acetone from air at
298 K and 1 atm. using pure water. The following data is obtained :
Packed height 4.0 m
Gas flow rate 2.0 k mole/hr
Water fluorite 5.6 k mole/hr
Inlet gas mole fraction acetone 0.01
Outlet gas mole fraction acetone 0.00075
Outlet liquid mole fraction acetone 0.0004
Equilibrium relationship y* = 1.18 x
Calculate :
(a) The number of transfer units, NOG
(b) The height of a transfer unit, HOG
(c) The overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient, KGa.
Sol. : (a) The compositions at entry and exit points will give the number of stages :
y1 = 0.01, y2 = 0.00075, x1 = 0.0004, x2 = 0
* = 1.18 x1
y1 = 0.000472
* = 1.18 x2
y2 =0
y1 *
= y1 – y1 0.01 – 0.000472 = 0.009528 Bottom driving force
y2 *
= y2 – y2 = 0.00075 – 0 = 0.00075 Top driving force
ln ∆ y1 – ln ∆ y2 (y1 – y2)
NOG = (y1 – y2) = lm (y – y*)
∆ y1 – ∆ y2
ln (0.009528/0.00075)
= (0.01 – 0.00075) 0.009528 – 0.00075 = 2.6786 meters
(b) z = HOG NOG
z 4
HOG = N = 2.6786 = 1.4933 meters (Ans.)
OG
(c) G (y1 – y2) = Kg aPT lm (y – y*) Az
G (y1 – y2)
∴ Kga = P lm (y – y*) Az
T
2 (0.01 – 0.00075) ln (0.009528/0.00075)
= × 0.009528 – 0.00075
1 × (π/4) 0.22 × 4
= 42.63 k mole/m3 hr. atm (Ans.)
(20) Minimum Liquid Rate for Absorption
The carbon dioxide issuing out of a fermenter contains 0.01 mole fraction of ethanol,
which has to be reduced to 0.0001 mole fraction by scrubbing with water in a
countercurrent packed tower. The gas flow rate is 227.3 kmol/hr and may be assumed
constant throughout the tower. The equilibrium mole fraction of ethanol in the gas
phase y* is related to that in the liquid x as
y* = 1.07 x
Determine the minimum liquid rate needed, and the number of overall gas-side
transfer units needed at 1.5 times the minimum liquid rate. The entering liquid may
be assume to be free of ethanol.
Solution :
Mole fractions x, y and mole ratios X, Y are related as :
Y X
y = 1+Y and x = 1 + X
y x
In reverse, Y = 1–y and X = 1 – x
Therefore, equilibrium relation becomes
Y* X
1 + Y* = 1.07 1 + X
Inversing the above equation,
1 + Y* 1 1+X
Y* = 1.07 X
1 1 1
Y* = 1.07 X + 1.07 – 1
0.9346
X = – 0.0654
0.9346 – 0.0654 X
= X
X
Y* = 0.9346 – 0.0654 X … (1)
Nature of curve of equation (1)
X *
Y
0.1 0.108
0.2 0.217
0.3 0.328
Y y2 x2
G2 L2
Operating line
Equilibrium curve
y1 x1
G1 L1
0 X
Fig. 5.54 : Graphical analysis in Problem (20)
These values indicates that, the equilibrium curve in terms of moles ratios Y* vs. X is
concave upward.
The operation line Y vs. X is straight line. The minimum liquid-gas ratio then corresponds
to an exit liquid concentration in equilibrium with the entering gas (i.e., the point of
intersection of operating and equilibrium lines).
Entering mole ratio of gas

0.01
Y1 = 1 – 0.01 = 0.0101
*
Exit liquid concentration X2 in equilibrium with Y1 is obtained from equation (1) as :
*
X2
0.0101 = *
0.9346 – 0.0654 X2
* *
0.00944 – 0.00066 X2 = X2
*
X2 = 0.00943
Minimum liquid rate Lmin :
0.0001
Y2 = 1 – 0.0001 = 0.0001
*
G (Y1 – Y2) = Lmin (X1 – X2)
0.0101 – 0.0001
Lmin = 227.3 0.00943 – 0
= 241.04 kmol/hr
Operating liquid rate :
L = 1.5 Lmin = (1.5) (241.04) = 361.56 kmol/hr
Absorption factor A :
Slope of operating line
A = Slope of equilibrium curve
L
= mG
361.56
= (1.07) (227.3) = 1.4455
1
A = 0.692
For absorption of dilute solutions, overall number of transfer units NtNOG is given by
y1 – mx2 1
lny – mx 1 – A + A
1
 2 2   
NtOG = 1 … (2)
1–A
Subtituting for the values in equation (2),
ln 0.0001 (1 – 0.692) + 0.692

0.01
  
NtOG = 1 – 0.692
= 11.2
Number of overall gas-side transfer units = 11.2. … (Ans. )
(21) Height of Absorption Column

Equilibrium relationship for the system helptane-oil-air is given by Y = 2X (Y and X
are kg-heptane/kg-air and kg=heptane/kg-oil respectively). Oil containing 0.005
kg-heptane/kg-oil is being used as solvent for reducing the heptane content of air
from 0.10 to 0.02 kg-heptane/kg-air in a continuous countercurrent packed bed
absorber. What column height is required to treat 1400 kg/(hr.m2 of empty tower cross-
section) of pure air containing heptane if the overall gas mass transfer coefficient is
320 kg/ (hr.m3.∆
∆Y). The oil rate employed is 3100 kg/(hr.m2). Solve analytically.
Solution :
Material balance for absorber :
Ls (X1 – X2) = Gs (Y1 – Y2)
3100 (X1 – 0.005) = 1400 (0.1 – 0.02)
X1 – 0.005 = 0.03613
X1 = 0.04113
Y Y2 X2
Gs Ls
0.1
Operating line
Equilibrium curve
Y1 X1
X Gs Ls
0 0.04113
Fig. 5.55 : Graphical analysis in Problem (21)
Equation of operating line :
Ls
Y1 – Y2 = G (X – X2)
s
3100
Y – 0.02 = 1400 (X – 0.005)
Y = 2.2143 X + 0.0089 … (1)
Number of overall gas transfer units NtOG is related to gas-phase mole ratios as
Y2
⌠ dY 1 1 + Y2
NtOG = 
⌡ Y – Y* + 2 ln 1 + Y1 … (2)
Y1
where, Y* = equilibrium gas composition in mole ratio. Given :

Y* = 2X
Susbtituting for Y* in equation (2) and from equation (1), equation (2) becomes
Y1
⌠ dY 1 1 + Y2
NtOG = 
⌡ 0.2143X + 0.0089 + 2 ln 1 + Y1 … (3)
Y2
From equation (1), Y = 2.2143X + 0.0089

differentiating, dY = 2.2143 dX.
Using this and changing the integration limits in terms of X, equation (3) becomes
X2
⌠ 2.2143 dX 1 1 + X2
NtOG =  + ln
⌡ 0.2143X + 0.0089 2 1 + X1
X1
2.2143 0.2143 X1 + 0.0089 + 1 ln 1 + X2

Integrating, NtOG = 0.2143 ln 0.2143 X + 0.0089  2 1 + X … (4)
 2  1
Substituting for X1 = 0.04113 and X2 = 0.005, in equation (4)
NtOG = 0.2143 ln  (0.2143) (0.005) + 0.0089  + 2 ln 1 + 0.04113

2.2143 (0.2143) (0.04113) + 0.0089 1 1 + 0.005
 
= 5.9375 – 0.0177 = 5.9198
Height of overall gas transfer unit HtOG is given by
Gs
HtOG = K a (1 – Y) … (5)
Y *M
where, Kya = overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient, and
(1 – Y)*M = mean of logarithmic averages of (1 – Y) and (1 – Y*) between
terminals of tower, given as
1  (1 – Y)1 – (1 – Y*)1 (1 – Y)2 – (1 – Y*)2 
(1 – Y)*M = 2 ln [(1 – Y) /(1 – Y*) ] + ln[(1 – Y) /(1 – Y*) ]  … (6)
 1 1 2 2 
From the diagram shown, it can be visualised that when

*
Y1 = 0.02 Y1 = 0
*
and when Y2 = 0.1 Y2 = 2 × 0.04113 = 0.08226
(1 – Y)*M = 2 ln[(1 – 0.02)/(1)] + ln[(1 – 0.1)/(1 – 0.08226)] 

1 (1 – 0.02) – 1 (1 – 0.1) – (1 – 0.08226)
 
= (0.5) + (0.99 + 0.9088) = 0.9494
Then, from equation (5),
1400
HtOG = (320) (0.9494)
= 4.6081
Height of column = NtOG HtOG
= 5.9198 × 4.6081 = 27.29 m (Ans. )
o
(22) Experimental data on absorption of dilute acetone in air by water at 80 F and
1 atmosphere in a packed tower with 25.4 mm Raschig rings were obtained. The inert
2 2
gas flow was 95 lb-air (h.ft ) and the pure water flow was 987 lb/(h.ft ). The
3
experimental mass transfer film coefficients are kG a = 4.03 lb-mol/(h.ft .atm) and
–1
kLa = 16.6 h . The equilibrium data can be expressed by CA = 1.37 pA, where pA is in
3 3
atm and CA is in lb-mol/ft . The density of water is 62.216 lb/ft .
(a) What are the heights of a gas and a liquid film mass tranfer unit ?
(b) What is the height of an overall gas mass transfer unit ?
' '
(c) Calculate kx a and ky a.
' '
(d) How would you expect kxa and kya to vary if the operating temperature is
dropped by a few degrees ? Do you expect any changes in the equilibrium line
and how if there is ?
Solution :
2 2 3
V' = 95 lb-air (h.ft ), L' = 987 lb/(h.ft ), kGa = 4.03 lb-mol/(h.ft .atm.)
–1 * 3
kLa = 16.6 h , CA = 1.37 pA, p = 62.216 lb/ft
P 62.216 3 3
P = 1 atm., C = M = 18.015 lb-mol/ft = 3.453566 lb-mol/ft
95
V V' 28.966
(a) hG = ' ≈ k aP = ft = 0.88362 ft
G t 4.03 × 1
kya
987
L L' 18.015
hL = ' ≈ k aC = ft = 0.95567 ft
L 16.6 × 3.453566
kxa
1 1 m' 1 3.453566 3
(b) K a = k a + k a = + h.ft /lb-mol
y y x 4.03 × 1 1.37 × 16.6 × 3.453566 × 1
3
= 0.29211 h.ft /lb-mol
3
⇒ Kya = 3.42336 lb-mol/(h.ft )
V 95/28.966
HOG = K a ≈ 3.42336 ft = 0.958037 ft.
y
' 3 3
(c) kx a ≈ kxa = 16.6 × 3.453566 lb-mol/(ft .h) = 57.329 lb-mol (h.ft )
' 3
ky a ≈ kya = 4.03 lb-mol/(h.ft )
' ' ' '
(d) T↓ , DAB ↓ ⇒ kx a↓, ky a↓ (As 'T' decreases, so DAB decreases, hence kxa and kya also
decreases).
T↓, p*↓ ⇒ lower vapour composition is expected higher equilibrium liquid composition.
(23) An absorber, packed with pall rings to the height of 8 meters, is currently being used
o
at 20 C and 2 atmospheres to remove a pollutant from an exhaust gas stream. Eight
hundred cubic meters per hour of the exhaust gas containing 2.9% (volume) pollutant
is fed to the bottom of the tower. By feeding a recycled non-volatile solvent steam
(containing 0.4% by mol of pollutant) to the top of tower, the pollutant concentration
in the existing gas stream is reduced to 0.15%. The solvent stream leaves the bottom of
the tower containing 4.6% pollutant. The equilibrium data (X vs. Y) for the particular
o
pollutant-solvent pair at 20 C and 1 atmosphere may be plotted on the graph.
Calculate the following :
(a) What is the molar rate of the gas stream entering the tower, in mol/h ?
(b) What is the operating line ? Show that the operating line is given by :
L'
Y = Y2 + V' , (X – X2)
(c) What is the inert liquid solvent rate, mol/h, through the tower ?
(d) What is the ratio of (L//V/)/(L//V/) min ?
(e) What is the connecting line ? Show that the connecting line is given by
'
kxa
1 + Xi '
Yi = (1 + Y) 1 + X kya – 1
 
(f) Estimate the number of gas mass transfer units if the liquid film mass transfer
resistance is negligible using three integration points.
(g) Calculate a kG' if the column has a diameter of 2 meters.
Solution :
o
Z = 8 m, T = 20 C, Pt = 2 atm
2
QG1 = 800 m3/h, yA1 = 0.029
XA2 = 0.004, yA2 = 0.0015
Z
XA1 = 0.046
Fig. 5.56 : Absorber packed with pall rings

in Ex. (23)
QG1P 800 × 2 × 101325
(a) V1 = RT = 8314 × 293.15 kmol/h (Ans.)
4
= 6.652 × 10 mol/h
(b) Operating line is derived from the mole balanced between the tower end and some
middle point in tower.
Between z and 2 :
In = V'Y + L'X2
Out = V'Y2 + L'X
∴ V'Y + L'X2 = V'Y2 + L'X

L'
⇒ Y = Y2 + V' (X – X2) (Ans.)
(c) V' = V1 X (1 – y1)

4
6.652 × 10
= (1 – 0.029) mol/h
4
= 6.4589 × 10 mol/h
L' Y1 – Y2
V' = X –X
1 2
0.002987 – 0.001502
= 0.04822 – 0.004016
= 0.64175
XA1
X1 = 1 – X
A1
= 0.04822
X2 = 0.004016
YA1
Y1 = 1 – Y
A1
= 0.02987
Y2 = 0.001502
∴ L' = 0.64175 V'

4
= 4.145 × 10 mol/h (Ans.)
o o
(d) Equilibrium line was for T = 20 C and P = 1 atm. To convert to T = 20 C and
P = 2 atm, only the Y scale needs to be changed.
o
* p
y1 atm = 1 atm ,
o
* p
y2 atm = 2 atm
*
* y1 atm
y2 atm = 2
y2 atm
Y2 atm = 1 – y
2 atm
y1 atm
2
= y1 atm
1– 2
y1 atm
= 2–y
1 atm
Y1 atm
1 + Y1 atm
= Y1 atm
2 – 1+Y
1 atm
Y1 atm
= 2 (1 + Y
1 atm) – Y1 atm
Y1 atm Y1 atm
= 2–Y ≈ 2
1 atm
L'
Operating line Y = V' (X – X2) + Y2
*
Y1 ⇒ X1 = 0.05
Y1 – Y2
 L'  =
∴
V'min *
X1 – X2
0.02987 – 0.001502
= 0.0485 – 0.004016
= 0.6177
 L' 
V' 0.64175
∴ = 0.6177 = 1.0063 (Ans.)
 
L'
V'min
0.06 0.03093
Y1
0.05 0.02564
0.04 0.02041
Y
0.03 0.01523
0.02 0.01010
0.01 0.005025
0
0.00 o
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
X1
Fig. 5.57 : Graphical solutions for example (23)
(e) Contacting line is the flux condition of the interface. Mass transfer flux from the gas
phase to the interface is the same as the mass transfer flux from the interface to the
liquid phase.
kxa (xi – x) = kya (y – yi)
' 1–x ' 1 – yi
⇒ kx a ln 1 – x = ky a ln 1 – y
i
X Y
x = 1+X , y = 1+Y
' 1 + Xi ' 1+Y

∴ kx a ln 1 + X = ky a ln 1 + Y
i
'
k xa
– '
⇒
1 + Xi kya – 1
Yi = (1 + Y) 1 + X (Ans.)
 
(f) (X1 = 0.04822, Y1 = 0.02987)
(X2 = 0.004016, Y2 = 0.001502)
Middle point X = 0.026118, Y = 0.015686
* 1 + Y*
Y1 = 0.02987, Y1 = 0.02961 ⇒ = – 3846
(Y* – Y) (1 + Y)*m
*
Ymid = 0.015686, Ymid = 0.0102 ⇒ – 182
*
Y2 = 0.001502, Y2 = 0.00065 ⇒ – 1173
Y2
⌠ 1 + Yi
NG =  dY
⌡ (Y – Y) (1 + Y)
*
Y i im
1
0.001502 – 0.02987
= 3 × (– 3846 – 4 × 182 – 1173)
= 54.3 (Ans.)
(g) Z = HG NG
Z 8
∴ HG = N = 54.3 m = 0.1473 m
G
V V
HG = ' = '
kya Ac kGa Ac P
6.4589 × 10 × 1 +
4 0.02987 + 0.001502
' V  2  mol/h
∴ kG a = A P H = π
c G 2 3
4 × 1 × 2 atm × 0.1473 m
= 283.5 kmol/(h.atm.m3)
= 0.07876 kmol/(s.atm.m3) (Ans.)
(24) Pressure Drop and Tower Diameter : Ammonia is being asborbed in a tower using
o
pure water at 25 C and 1.0 atm. abs. pressure. The feed rate is 2000 lbm/h (908 kg/h)
and contains 3.0 mol% ammonia in air. The process design specifies a liquid-to-gas
mass flow rate ratio GL/GG of 2.2 and flow rates at 60% flooding level. Use 1" Intalox
packing. Calculate the (a) Pressure drop, (b) Gas and liquid flows and (c) Tower
diameter
o
Sol. : GG = 908 kg/h, 25 C, 1 atm, MG = 29.97 × 0.97 + 0.03 × 17 kg/kmol = 28.61 kg/kmol.
PMG 101325 ∞ 28.61
pG = 3 3
RT = 8314 ∞ 298.5 kg/m = 1.169 kg/m
µL = 0.8937 CP, ρL = 987.08 kg/m3, FP = 134 m–1 (1" Intalor packing)
∆Pflooding
(a) – Z = min {167‚ 417 F0.7
P } mm H O/m 2
= 128.6 mmH2O/m
= 1.54 in-H2O/ft
GL ρa 1.169
GG = 2.2 × 897.08 = 0.07533
ρL
From graph ⇒ A  p 
GG H2 0.05 Fp
≈ 0.46
C  L pG (pL – pG)
(5.41) at flooding
o
Using 60 C flooding ⇒ GG = GG flooding × 0.6
GG µL0.05 Fρ
⇒ AC ρL  ρG (ρL – ρG)
= 0.46 × 0.6 = 0.276
∆p mmH2O
From graph, – Z ≈ 0.25 in H2O/ft = 20.8 m (Ans.)
(5.41)
GG µL–0.05 × ρG (ρa – ρG)
(b) AC = 0.276 ρL  Fρ
0.8937 × 10 
–2 –0.05
1.169 ∞ (987.08 – 1.169) kg
= 0.276 ×  997.08 
 
× 134 m2.s
= 1.4546 kg/(m2.s)
GL = 2.2 GG = 1997.6 kg/h
GL GG
2
AC = 2.2 AC = 3.2 kg/(m .s) (Ans.)
DP
— = 2 in H2O/ft
Z
0.6
0.6 –1.05
1.5
,m s
0.5 1.0
Flooding
rG(rL– rG)
0.4 0.5
FP
0.3 0.25
60% flooding
0.05
0.2 0.10
( )
GG mL
rL
0.05
C
0.1
A
0.0
0.01 0.1 1
GL rG
GG rL
Fig. 5.58 : Random Packing
(c) GG = 908 kg/h = 0.2522 kg/s
GG 0.2522
∴ AC = G /A = 1.4546 m2 = 0.1734 m2
G C
π 2
AC = 4 D
4 4
π AC =
D = π × 0.1734 m = 0.4699 m (Ans.)
(25) Minimum Liquid Flow in a Packed Tower : The gas stream from a chemical reactor
contains 25 mol% ammonia and the rest inert gases. The total flow is 181.4 kmol/h to
5
an absorption tower at 303 K and 1.013 × 10 Pa. pressure, where containing 0.005 mol
% ammonia is the scrubbing liquid. The outlet gas concentration is to be 2.0 mol %
'
ammonia. What is the minimum flow Lmin ? Using 1.5 times the minimum, plot the
equilibrium and operating line.
Equilibrium Data for Ammonia-Water System
Mole fraction of NH3 in Partial Pressure of NH3 in Vapour phase, pA,
aqueous phase, xA mmHg
o o
20 C (293 K) 30 C (303 K)
0 0 0
0.0126 − 11.5
0.0167 − 15.3
0.0208 12 19.3
0.0258 15 24.4
0.0309 18.2 29.6
0.0405 24.9 40.1
0.0503 31.7 51.0
0.0737 50.0 79.7
0.0960 69.6 110
0.137 114 179
0.175 166 260
0.210 227 352
0.241 298 454
0.297 470 719
Source : J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
Solution : V'Y2 + L'X = V'Y + L'X2
Y – Y2 L'
∴ X – X2 = V' = constant
operating line is straight on (X, Y) plane.
V1 L1
V2 L2
Fig. 5.59 : Minimum liquid flow in a packed tower
0.25
y2 = 0.25 ⇒ Y2 = 1 – 0.25 = 0.333
0.00005
x1 = 0.00005 ⇒ X1 = 1 – 0.00005 = 0.0000500025
0.02
y1 = 0.02 ⇒ Y1 = 1 – 0.02 = 0.020408
The equilibrium data is first converted to X and Y

XA yA PA o
X = 1–X , Y = 1 – y = P – p , at 30 C
A A t A
XA 0 0.0126 0.0167 0.0208 0.0258 0.0308 0.0405 0.0503 ……

X 0 0.01276 0.016 98 0.02124 0.02648 0.031 80 0.04221 0.052% ……
PA, 0 11.5 15.3 18.3 24.4 28.6 40.1 51.0 ……
mmHg
Y 0 0.01536 0.02054 0.02606 0.03317 0.04052 0.05570 0.07193 ……
(A) Plot the equilibrium line on (X, Y) plane.
(B) Locate the tower Top operating point (X1, Y1)
(C) Draw a line (horizontal) at Y2 = 0.333
(D) The pinch line (minimum slope or maximum gas rate) is the line pass (X1, Y1) and
intercept with the equilibrium line only once between Y1 < Y < Y2. As shown by the long
dashed line. (See Fig. 5.60).
(E) Read the pinch point : X2,Y2 ( *

)
*
X2 = 0.1664
'
Lmin Y1 – Y2
∴ V' = *
X1– XL
0.333 – 0.02041
= 0.1664 – 0.00503
= 1.9392
'
⇒ Lmin = 1.9392 V'
= 1.9392 × 181.4 (1 – 0.25) km = 263.8 kmol/h

'
L' Lmin
V' = 1.5 V' = 2.90875
L' Y1 – Y2
V' = X –X
1 2
V'
⇒ X2 = X1 – L' (Y1 – Y2)
0.333 – 0.02041
= 0.00503 + 2.90875
= 0.1126
Draw the operating line by connecting the two end points = Top (X1, Y1) and bottom
(X2, Y2).
0.35
Bottom
0.30
0.25
0.20
Y
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
X
Fig. 5.60 : Graphical analysis for example (25)
(26) Design of Absorption Tower Using Transfer Units.

The gas SO2 is being scrubbed from a gas mixture by pure water at 303 K and 1.013 ×
5
10 Pa. The inlet gas contains 6.00 mol % SO2 and the outlet 0.3 mol% SO2. The tower
cross-sectional area of the packing is 0.426 m2. The inlet gas flow is 13.65 kmol inert
air/h and the inlet water flow is 984 kmol inert water/h. The mass transfer coefficients
–7
are HL = 0.436 m and kGa = 6.06 × 10 kmol/(m3.s.Pa) and are to be assumed constant
in the tower of the given concentration range. Calculate the member gas transfer units
NG and the tower height.
Equilibrium Data for SO2-Water System
Mole fraction of Partial Pressure of SO2 in vapour, mmHg
SO2 in liquid 20°°C (293 K) 30°°C (303 K)
0 0 0
0.0000562 0.5 0.6
0.0001403 1.2 1.7
0.000280 3.2 4.7
0.000422 5.8 8.1
0.000564 8.5 11.8
0.000842 14.1 19.7
0.001403 26.0 36
0.001965 39.0 52
0.00279 59 79
0.00420 92 125
0.00698 161 216
0.01385 336 452
0.0206 517 688
0.0273 698 –
(Source : T. K. Sherwood, Ind. Eng. Chem., 17, 745 (1925)]
5
Sol. : A = SO2, T = 303 K, P = 1.013 × 10 Pa
y2 = 0.06, Y2 = 0.06383, x1 = X1 = 0
y1 = 0.003, Y1 = 0.003009
Ac = 0.426 m2, V' = 13.65 kmol/h
' –7
L' = 984 kmol/h, HL = 0.436 m, kG a = 6.06 × 10 kmol/(m3.s.Pa)
L ' '
HL = ' kya = kGa Pt
kxa Ac
Fig. 5.61 : Design of Absorption tower using transfer units

Mole balance in the tower

Y'V' + L'X2 = X.L' + V'Y2
L'
⇒ Y = Y2 + V' (X – X2) straight line on (X, Y) plane
V'
X2 = X1 + L' (Y2 – Y1)
13.65
= 0 + 984 × (0.06383 – 0.003009) = 0.0008437
' ' –7 5
⇒ kya = kGa Pt = 6.06 × 10 × 1.013 × 10 kmol/(m3.s)
–2
= 6.139 × 10 kmol/(m2.s)
' L 984 × (1 + 0.0008437/2)
kx a = H A = kmol/(m3.s)
L C 0.436 × 3600 × 0.426
= 1.4722 kmol/(m3.s)
V
HG = '
kya Ac
13.65 × [1 + (0.003 + 0.06)/2]/3600
= –2 m = 0.1496 m
6.383 × 10 × 0.426
(A) Convert the equilibrium data to (X, Y)
XA 0 0.0000562 0.0001403 0.000280 0.000422 0.000564 0.000842 …
XA 0 0.0000562 0.0001403 0.0002801 0.0004222 0.0005643 0.0008427 …
X=1–X
A
pA, mmHg 0 0.6 1.7 4.7 8.1 11.8 18.7 …

PA 0 0.0007901 0.002242 0.006223 0.01077 0.01577 0.02661 …
Y=P –P
t A
(B) Plot equilibrium line.

(C) Plot operating line by connecting (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2).
(D) Choose three points for integration. Plot the connecting line passing (X1, Y1),
(X2, Y2) and

X1 + X2 , Y1 + Y2  to intercept with the equilibrium line. The connecting line
 2 2 
is specified by the flux condition :
kxa (X1 – X) = NAa ℑ through liquid film = NAaℑthrough gas film = kya (y – yi)
' 1 – xi ' 1 – yi
⇒ kx a ln 1 – x = ky a ln 1 – y
i
' 1 + Xi ' 1+Y

⇒ kx a ln 1 + X = ky a ln 1 + Y
i
'
kxa
⇒
1 + Xi– '
Yi = – 1 + (1 + Y) 1 + X kya
 
1 + Xi239
= – 1 + (1 – Y) 1 + X
 
0.07
Bottom
0.06
0.05
Y 0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
Top
0.00
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
X
Fig. 5.62 : Graphical solution for example (26)
(E) Tabulate the operating and interface conditions
X 0 0.0008437 0.00042185
Y 0.003009 0.06383 0.033419
Yi 0.00123 0.04985 0.02449
1 + Yi 562 71.06 111.5
(Y – Yi) (1 + Y)lm
Y2
⌠ 1 + Yi
NG = 
⌡ (Y – Yi) (1 + Y)lm dY
Y1
0.06383 – 0
= × (71.06 + 4 × 111.5 + 562)
3×2
= 11.48
Z = N G HG
= 11.48 × 0.1496 m
= 1.72 m (Ans.)
(1) A mixture containing 10 mole % solute and rest inert is fed to a packed tower in which
90% of the solute is absorbed. Solute-free water used for absorption contains 5% (mole)
solute when it leaves the tower at the bottom. If the equilibrium relationship is
Ye = 0.05 Xe and Hy = 0.5 m, Hx = 0.4 m, determine the height of packed section.
(Ans. : NTU = 2.34, (HTU)G = 0.51, Height (Z) = 1.19 m)
(2) A gas mixture containing 31 weight % ammonia and 69 weight % air is absorbed in a
water in a counter current packed tower. The gas and liquid flow rates on solute free
basis are 2150 moles/hr. m2 and 5276 moles/hr. m2 respectively. The inlet water is pure
and the exit gas contains 1.5% of the ammonia entering the tower. The equilibrium
relation is, Y* = 1.6 X
kg ammonia
where Y* = kg air
kg ammonia
X = kg water
Compute the number of overall gas phase transfer units. (Ans. : NTU = 6.14)
(3) You are testing a new packed tower to strip oxygen from water using excess nitrogen.
The oxygen-free water is to be used in microelectric manufacture. Your tower is small,
about 2 m high and 0.6 m in diameter, filled with 1 inch Hy-pack rings. you expect the
value of mG for oxygen is large and the dominant transfer coefficient in the liquid will be
2.2 × 10–3 cm/sec. The water flow rate is to be 300 cm3/sec. Estimate the value of oxygen
that can be removed from this tower.
(Ans. : 98% of the oxygen)
3
m
(4) A gas absorber has to be designed to handle 900 hr of coal gas containing 2% (v/v)
benzene. Coal gas enters at a temperature of 300 K and 805 mm Hg. 95% of benzene
should be recovered by the solvent. The solvent enters at 300 k containing 0.005 mole
fraction of benzene and has an average molecular weight of 260. Calculate the circulation
rate of solvent per second if the column is to be operated at 1.5 times the minimum LS.
Y X
Equilibrium data : 1+Y = 0.125 1 + X
where, Y = Mole ratio of benzene to dry gas

X = Mole ratio of benzene to solvent
(Ans. : Circulation rate = 0.43 kg/sec.)
(5) Acetone is to be recovered from an air stream by scrubbing counter-currently with pure
water in a plate column. The air stream has a flow rate of 0.1 kg/s and contains 2 mole %
by volume acetone. The liquid flow rate is 1.4 times the minimum liquid flow rate. Dilute
mixtures of acetone in water obey Henry's Law, y* = 1.2x, where y and x are the mole
fractions of acetone in the gas and liquid phases respectively. The column has to recover
98% of the acetone from the gas stream. If the overall plate efficiency is 60%, estimate :
(a) The required water flow rate in kg/s;
(b) The actual number of plates required in the column.

(Ans : (a) water flow rate = 0.099 kg/s; (b) Actual number of plates required in the
column = 15)
(6) An effluent gas, containing 0.15% SO2 is scrubbed with water in a packed column at
25°C to reduce the SO2 content to 100 PPM. Find the number of theoretical stages in the
column for a water flow 1.7 times the minimum value. Equilibrium data : y = x/36
(Ans : The number of theoretical stages in the column = 4)
(7) Sulphur dioxide is to be removed from an air stream in which it is present at a
concentration of 2.96 %v/v. A packed absorption tower will be used of such a diameter
2
that the gas flow is 0.00922 kmol/m s. Pure water will be fed to the top of the tower and
2
it will descend at 0.437 kmol/m s counter-current to the gas. At 293 K and 1 atm., the
3
following data are available : KGa = 0.019 kmol/m s.atm y* = 29.6x.
Calculate the height of the packing needed to remove 95% of the entering SO2 under
these conditions. (Ans : Height of packing = 2.7089 meters)
(8) An absorber of packed height 10.7 m is used to reduce the ammonia concentration in an
air stream from 4.93% v/v to 0.2% by counter-current absorption with fresh water. The
2
inlet gas rate is 0.136 kmol/m s, based on the tower cross-sectional area, and the inlet
water flow rate is 1.4 times the minimum required for the separation. The operating
conditions are 298 K, 1 atmosphere and equilibrium is given by y* = 1.08x.
Determine :
(a) The absorption rate of ammonia;
(b) The concentration of ammonia in the exit liquid stream;
(c) The overall mass transfer coefficient (KGa) under these conditions.
−3 2
(Ans : (a) 6.43 x 10 kmol/m .s; (b) x1 = 3.26% ; (c) KGa = 0.0519 kmol/m3.s.atm.)
(9) An air stream that is 40% saturated with acetone at 20°C and one atmosphere total
pressure is to be treated with fresh water in an absorption column in order to recover
90% of the acetone. For water flow 1.8 times the minimum value, calculate the number of
overall gas phase mass transfer units required. Saturated vapour pressure of acetone
@ 20°C = 48.3 mm Hg. Equilibrium data y* = 1.75x, where y* is the mole fraction of
acetone in the gas stream in equilibrium with mole fraction x in the liquid stream.
(Ans : The number of overall gas phase mass transfer units required = NOG = 3.897)
(10) A packed column is used to remove ammonia from the gas purged from an ammonia
plant in order to reduce the effluent to 0.10 mole% NH3. The gas to be treated contains
2.0-mole% ammonia, 32-mole% nitrogen and 66-mole% hydrogen. It will be scrubbed
with pure water in a counter-current absorber packed with 25 mm Berl saddles using an
2
inlet gas rate of 1.13 kg/m s and a pure water flow rate of 1.6 times the minimum value.
Assume isothermal operation at 293 K and 1 atmosphere, since heat of solution and
cooling due to water evaporation offset each other at this NH3 concentration.
Equilibrium can be approximated to y* = x under these conditions. Neglect small
3
absorption of nitrogen and hydrogen. The value of KGa is 7.9 10–4 mol/m s. Pa. Find :
(a) How many equilibrium stages (theoretical plates) are required ?
(b) How many overall transfer units, NOG is required ?
(c) How many meters of packing are required ?
Hint : calculate average molecular weight of inlet gas mixture and use this to calculate
2
the inlet gas flow rate in kmol/m s. For this dilute mixture the gas flow rate can be
assumed constant throughout column in mass balance.
(Ans : (a) 5 equilibrium stages; (b) NOG = 5.889; (c) z = 7.829 meters)
(11) An absorber, packed to the height of 2.4 m, is employed to reduce the solute (A)
concentration in a gas stream from 6.5 to 1.0%. An aqueous stream, initially containing
1.0% A, is fed to the top of the tower. The feed the tower is twenty thousand cubic meter
per hour of the gas mixture at 60 oC and 1 atm. The equilibrium data for this system are :
XA 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
YA 0.00 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.021 0.036 0.055 0.079
3
(12) 5.66 m per minute of an air-SO2 mixture containing 10% SO2 by volume at 287K and
1 atm are to be scrubbed with water in a counter current packed tower for the purpose of
recovering 95% of the SO2. Cooling coils will be installed in the tower to maintain the
liquid temperature constant at 287 K. Determine the minimum water rate at which the
tower would operate as planned, assuming there is no limitation on the height of packing
3
available. Assume density of SO2 = 2.94 kg/m .
Vapour pressure of SO2 over aqueous SO2 solution at 287K is given below
Concentration kg SO2/ 100 kg water 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0
Partial Pressure SO2, mm Hg 26 59 123 191 336 698
[Solution notes :
Step 1 : Determine partial pressure of SO2 for the feed mixture.
Step 2 : Determine the amount of SO2 to be absorbed in mass units (gm) = A.
Step 3 : At minimum water rate, the gas and solution will be in equilibrium at the
bottom of the column.
Given the SO2 partial pressure (of the gas), determine from the equilibrium data the
corresponding solution concentration = B. Minimum amount of water = 100A/B.]
(13) Vapour-liquid equilibrium data in mole fraction for the system acetone-air-water at 1 atm
are as follows :
y, acetone in air 0.004 0.008 0.014 0.017 0.019 0.0200
x, acetone in water 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.0120
(a) Plot the data (1) as graph of moles of acetone per mole air versus moles of acetone per
mole water. (2) Partial pressure of acetone versus gm acetone per gm water. (3) y versus x.
(b) If 20 moles of gas containing 0.015 mole fraction acetone is brought into contact with
15 moles of water in an equilibrium stage, what would be composition of the discharge
3 3
streams ? Assume density of air = 1.225 kg/m and density of acetone = 790 kg/m .
[Solution notes : For part (a), convert the supplied data to the variables needed for the
plots in 1 and 2. For part (b), following steps are needed
Step 1 : Use plot (1) to solve the problem graphically.
Step 2 : Locate feed point F in the figure from step (1).
Step 3 : Determine the slope of the operating line = – L/G.

Step 4 : Extend the line starting from point F to meet the equilibrium curve at point A.
Step 5 : For point A, read
The x-axis value = A moles acetone/mole water. The y-axis value = B moles
acetone /mole gas. Convert the product compositions to mole fractions.]
(14) Ninety-five percent of the acetone vapour in an 85-vol % air stream is to be absorbed by
counter-current contact with pure water in a value tray column with an expected overall
tray efficiency of 50%. The column will operate essentially at 20°C and 1 atm.
Equilibrium data for acetone-water at these conditions are :
Mole % acetone in water 3.30 7.20 11.7 17.1
Acetone partial pressure, (mm Hg) 30 62.8 85.4 103.0
Calculate (use 100 kmol/h of feed mixture as a basis)
(a) The minimum value of L/G (the ratio of moles of water per mole of air).
(b) The number of equilibrium stages required using a value of L/G of 1.25 times the
minimum.
(c) The number of stages by using the Kremser method.
(d) The concentration of acetone in the exit water stream.
[Solution notes :
(1) Convert the equilibrium data to X-Y form.
(2) Locate the column top condition - point D (for gas-stream 95% of acetone has been
removed; liquid stream is pure water).
(3) Draw the operating line joining point D and intersecting the equilibrium curve
(problem a).
(4) Draw the operating line for the specified slope (L/G is 1.25 times the minimum) and
mark out the number of stages (problem b).
(5) To use the Kremser method, compute Ai and fraction solute recovered. By trial and
error, find the number of stages.
Fraction of solute absorbed = (Ai (N + 1) − Ai)/(Ai (N + 1) – 1)
(6) Convert the X-value (obtained from the graphical solution in b) at the bottom of the
column to mole fractions to define the Concentration of acetone in the exit water
stream.]
(15) Gas, from a petroleum distillation column, has its concentration of H2S reduced from
0.03 kmol H2S per kmole of inert hydrocarbon gas to 1% of this value by scrubbing with a
triethanolamine-water solvent in a counter-current tower operating at 300K and 1 atm.
The equilibrium relation may be assumed to be given by Ye = 2X. The solvent enters the
column free of H2S and leaves containing 0.013 kmol of H2S/kmol of solvent. If the flow
2
of inert gas is 0.015 kmol/s m of column cross-section, calculate, (a) The height of the
absorber necessary for the desired separation. (b) The number of transfer units. The
3
overall coefficient for absorption KG a may be assumed to be 0.04 kmol/s m .
[Solution notes : (1) Determine driving force at top, (2) Determine driving force at
bottom. (3) Determine logarithmic mean driving force, (4) Apply the mass-balance
equation and compute the column height, (5) Determine the height of a transfer unit.
(6) Determine the number of transfer units.]
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols Meaning
a Specific interface surface, area/packed volume, m2/m3
A Absorption factor, L/mg, dimensionless
AE Effective absorption factor, dimensionless
A, B, C Components A, B and C
C Concentration, moles/volume, mole/m3
ds Equivalent diameter of packing, m
D Diffusivity, m2/s
DL Liquid diffusivity, m2/s
e 2.7183
Eo Overall tray efficiency, fractional
FG, J mole
Gas phase mass transfer coefficient for component J,
m2.s
FL, J mole
Liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient for component J,
m2.s
Fo Overall mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
G Total gas rate for tray towers, mole/s; for packed towers, superficial molar
mass velocity, mole/m2.s
GJ Gas molar mass velocity of component, J, mole/m2 .s
G' Gas mass velocity, kg/ m2. s
h Heat-transfer coefficient, w/m2.s K
h' Heat-transfer coefficient corrected for mass transfer, w/m2·s K
k Thermal conductivity
kG Gas mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (N/m2)
kL Liquid mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (mole/m3)
kx Liquid mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (mole fraction)
ky Gas mass transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s (mole fraction)
K overall mass transfer coefficient (units indicated by subscripts, as for k's)
Symbols Meaning
L Total molar liquid rate, for tray towers, mole/s
L' Total liquid mass rate (tray towers), kg/s; total mass rate per unit Tower
cross section (packed towers), kg/m2.s
Ls Solvent mass rate (tray towers), kg/s; total mass rate per unit tower cross-
section (packed towers), kg/m2.s
m dy*
Slope of the equilibrium curve, dx ; equilibrium distribution ratio, y*/x,
dimensionless
M Molecular weight, kg/mole
NJ Mass transfer flux of component J, mole/m2.s
NP Number of equilibrium trays
NTU Number of transfer units
(NTU)o Number of overall transfer units
P Vapour pressure, kN/m2
–
p Partial pressure, kN/m2
Pt Total pressure, kN/m2
Pr Prandtl number, Cpµ/K, dimensionless
S Stripping factor, dimensionless
SC Schmidt number, µ/ρD, dimensionless
t Temperature, K
x Concentration in the liquid, mole fraction, mole/mole
X Concentration in the liquid, mole/ mole solvent, mole/mole
X' Concentration in the liquid, mole/mole entering liquid, mole/mole
y Concentration in the gas, mole fraction, mole/mole
Y Concentration in the gas, mole/mole carrier gas, mole/mole
Y' Concentration in the gas, mole/mole entering gas, mole/mole
Z Height of packing, m
Greek letters :
∆ Difference
∈ Volume fraction of voids, dry packing, m3/m3
∈ο Volume fraction of voids, irrigated packing, m3/m3
ρ Density, kg/m3
φt volume liquid
Fractional total liquid holdup, volume packed space
Symbols Meaning
Subscripts :
av Average
A, B, C, J Component A, B, C, J
G Gas
i Interface
L Liquid
M Logarithmic mean
n Effluent from tray n
Np Effluent from tray Np
O Overall
r Reference substance
0 Liquid entering top tray
1 Bottom of a packed tower; effluent from tray 1 (tray tower)
2 Top of a packed tower, effluent from tray 2 (tray tower)
Superscript :
* In equilibrium with the other phase.
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
7. Seader and Henley, “ Separation Process Principles”, John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
8. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering” (Vol, 1 and 2), Third Edition,
9. J.R. Welty, R.E. Wilson and C.E. Pikes, “ Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
,,,
6
CHAPTER
HUMIDIFICATION
AND
DEHUMIDIFICATION OPERATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 General Principles of Humidification and Dehumidification
6.3 Vapour Gas Mixture
6.4 Definitions of Humidity Terms
6.5 Adiabatic Saturation Process
6.6 Theory of Wet Bulb Temperature
6.7 Humidity Chart
6.8 The Lewis Relation
6.9 Gas Liquid Contact Operations
6.10 Adiabatic Operations
6.11 Humidification and Dehumidification Equipments
6.11.1 Cooling Tower Overview
6.11.2 Operating Principle of Cooling Towers
6.11.3 Cooling Tower Selection
6.11.4 Hot Water Distribution Systems
6.11.5 Air Flow Distribution Systems
6.12 Cooling towers : Design and Operational Considerations
6.12.1 Types of Cooling Towers
6.12.2 Cooling Tower Theory
6.12.3 Design Considerations
6.13 Height of Cooling Tower
Solved Problem
Nomenclature
References
(6.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 6.2 Humidification and Dehumidification Operations
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The operations considered in this chapter are concerned with the interface transfer of mass
and of energy, which result when a gas is brought into contact with a pure liquid in which it is
essentially insoluble. While the term humidification operations is used to characterize these in a
general fashion, the purpose of such operations may include not only humidification of the gas
but dehumidification and cooling of the gas, measurement of its vapour content, and cooling of
the liquid as well. The matter transferred between phases in such cases is the substance
constituting the liquid phase, which either vaporizes or condenses. As in all mass transfer
problems, it is necessary for a complete understanding of the operation to be familiar with the
equilibrium characteristics of the systems. But since a simultaneous transfer of heat energy will
invariably accompany the mass transfer in these cases as well, some consideration must also be
given to the enthalpy considerations of the systems.
6.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HUMIDIFICATION AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
Humidification and dehumidification operations are used frequently in industrial and
domestic applications (e.g. : air conditioning). Typically in these operations, air or some other gas
is contacted with water for the purpose of changing the humidity of the gas or lowering the
temperature of either the gas or the water. The major industrial applications may be classified as
follows :
(a) Water-cooling : This is by far the most important operation where it is used to cool
water from heat exchangers, condensers etc., for eventual reuse by contacting it with
atmospheric air. The cooling effect is due mainly to the latent heat of vaporization.
(b) Gas cooling : The gas is cooled by sensible heat transfer to the water and simultaneously
humidified to some extent.
(c) Gas humidification and dehumidification : The principal process here is the transfer
of water from or to the gas. Simultaneous heat transfer in either direction always takes
place as well. The main purpose is the control of moisture content and temperature for
reasons of comfort or to meet industrial process requirements.
Most industrial humidification/dehumidification operations are carried out by direct contact
of the gas with water. Large packed towers fitted with grids or other high voltage packing is the
preferred contacting device for air-water systems.
It is essential to appreciate the fundamental properties of air-water systems. The important
concepts are those of "dry bulb" and "wet bulb" temperatures, "relative humidity" or "saturation"
and "dew point". In the experiment it will be necessary to measure temperatures and air
humidities needed for the operating diagram. The “dry bulb” thermometer, air humidity by the
“wet bulb” thermometer, measures air temperature. Knowing air temperature and humidity, air
enthalpies can be directly read from a psychometric chart.
6.3 VAPOUR GAS MIXTURES
Character of the System : A system of two components, only one of which will condense in
the range of operation. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer between liquid and gas phase.
A : is condensable component (vapour and liquid) found in both gas and liquid phase.
B : is no condensable component (gas), found in gas phase only.
Basic Assumptions : The total pressure in such systems is usually fairly low. In addition, the
vapour (condensable component) exists at its pure component pressure, which is lower yet. Then,
we normally assume ideal gases, so that :
partial pressure = pure component pressure
–
– – pA
pt = p A + p B → yA = p … (6.1)
t
– –
pB pt – pA
yB = p = pt
t
6.4 DEFINITIONS OF HUMIDITY TERMS

(1) Absolute Humidity or Molar Absolute Humidity :
– –
moles A yA pA pA
(a) Molar : Y = moles B = y =– = – … (6.2)
B pB pt – pA
–
(b) Mass :
mass A
Y' = mass B
MA MA pA
= Y M  = M  … (6.3)
 B   B  pt – p– A
(2) Saturated Vapour-Gas Mixtures : If an insoluble dry gas B is brought into contact with
sufficient liquid A, the liquid will evaporate into the gas until ultimately (at equilibrium) the
partial pressure of A in the vapour-gas mixture reaches its saturation value, i.e. the vapour
pressure pA at the prevailing temperature. For saturation values at a given temperature T, replace
–
p A in above expressions by the equilibrium vapour pressure pA.
pA
YS = p – p
t A
pA MA
and Y'S = p –p M  … (6.4)
t A  B
(3) Dry-bulb temperature tG : Thermometer reading in vapour-gas mixture phase.
(4) Relative Saturation or Relative Humidity φ :

mole fraction of A at T and pt in gas-vapour phase
φ = mole fraction of A at T and p in saturated gas-vapour phase
t
– –
pA pA
φ = p → φ% = 100 p … (6.5)
A A
(5) Percentage Saturation or Percentage absolute Humidity, S :

–
Y Y' pA pt – pA Y Y'
S = Y = Y' = p – → S% = 100 Y = 100 Y' … (6.6)
S S A p –p S S
t A
(6) Humid Volume vH : Volumes – always associated with 1 kg of dry gas.

3
Dry Volume :
RT
vG = p M (=) m of dry gas
t B  kg of dry gas 
Humid Volume = volume of 1 kg of dry gas + volume of associated vapour
m3 of mixture
vH = p M + Y' p M = p M + M  (=)  kg of dry gas 
RT RT RT 1 Y'
t B t A t  B A  
tG + 273
vH = 8315  1 + Y'  for ideal gas … (6.7)
pt MB MA
vH = (0.00283 + 0.00456 Y') (tG + 273)
for the air (B) – water (A) system
at 1 std. atm. pressure
3
RT
vHS = p  1 + Y'S  (=) m of mixture … (6.8)
t MB MA  kg of dry gas 
Total volume of gas-vapour mixture :
V = vH (mass of dry gas ) (=) [m3]
Plot vG and vHS lines against tG on psychometric chart. Any other vH can be obtained from
these two by linear interpolation between the values at the same temperature according to
percentage saturation.
(7) Dew-Point, tDP : The temperature at which condensation begins (i.e. the vapour-gas
mixture is saturated) when cooled at constant total pressure.
(8) Humid Heat, CS : The heat capacity of 1 kg of dry gas + the associated vapour. The heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry gas and its accompanying vapour one degree at
constant pressure.
CS = CB + Y' CA (=) 
J for mixture 
… (6.9)
kg dry gas oC
(9) Enthalpy, H' : The (relative) enthalpy of a vapour-gas mixture is the sum of the (relative)
enthalpies of the gas and of the vapour content. Choose the reference temperature t0, then the
enthalpy of :
Dry gas HB = CB (tG – t0) … (6.10)
Vapour HA = CA, L (tDP – t0) + λDP + CA (tG – tDP) … (6.11)
Gas-vapour mixture
H' = HB + Y'HA
= CB (tG – t0) + Y' [CA, L (tDP – t0) + λDP + CA (tG – tDP)] … (6.12)
or with insignificant error
H' = CB (tG – t0) + Y' [CA (tG – t0) + λ0] = (CB + CA Y') (tG – t0) + Y' λ0 … (6.13)
H' = CS (tG – t0) + Y' λ0 (constant CA, CA, L and CB are assumed) … (6.14)
H'S = (CB + CA Y'S ) (–t0) + Y'S λ0 (=)  kg dry gas 

J for mixture
… (6.15)
 
Enthalpies for unsaturated mixtures on the psychometric chart can be interpolated between
'
the saturated. Hs and dry gas, HB, values at the same temperature according to the percent
saturation.
6.5 ADIABATIC SATURATION PROCESS
Fig. 6.1 : Adiabatic Saturation Process

where,
G'S = superficial mass velocity of gas, kg dry2 air
 sm 
L' = superficial mass velocity of liquid, kg liquid 
 s m2 
H' = enthalpy of vapour - gas mixture,  J 
kg dry air
HL = enthalpy of liquid,  J 
kg liquid
= latent heat of vapourisation,  J 
λ
kg liquid
If the air at (1) is not saturated, water will evaporate from the reservoir (water in the reservoir
cools down) and energy will be transferred from the air to the water reservoir; Therefore the air
temperature will decrease. Now, suppose we operate this equipment, so that the air at (2) is
saturated (sufficiently large contact area) and the temperature of the make up water in the
reservoir is adjusted to tG . Then, we have a steady flow process and tG is called Adiabatic
2 2
Saturation Temperature :
Adiabatic Process ⇒ 1st Law ⇒ ∆EH = 0 … (6.16)
Mass balance, L' = G'S (Y'2 – Y'1) … (6.17)
Energy balance G'S HL' + L'HL = G'
S H'2 … (6.18)
Substituting equation (6.17) into equation (6.18),
H'1 + (Y'2 – Y'1 ) HL = H'2 … (6.19)
If equilibrium is reached at point 2, then :
tG = tL = tas and equation 4 can be written as :
2
(HB + Y'1 HA ) + (YaS' – Y'1 ) HL aS= (HB aS + YaS' HA aS) … (6.19 a)
1 1
or (HB – HB aS) + Y'1 (HA – HA aS + HA aS – HL aS) = YaS' (HA aS – HL aS) … (6.19 b)
1 1
and (HB – Y'1 HA ) – (HB aS + Y'1 HA aS) = (YaS' – Y'1 ) (HA aS – HL aS) … (6.19 c)
1 1
Recall the following relationships :
(HA aS – HL aS) = λaS ;
(HB + Y'1 HA ) = CS (tG – t0) + Y'1 λ0
1 1 1 1
and (HB aS + Y'1 HA aS) = CS (taS – t0) + Y'1 λ0
1
and substitute them into equation (6.19 c),

CS (tG – t0) – CS (taS – t0) = (YaS' – Y'1 ) λaS … (6.20)
1 1 1
One can rearrange equation (6.20) to obtain the expression for the adiabatic saturation curve.
λaS (YaS' – Y'1) CS
1
taS = tG – (YaS' – Y'1) C ⇒ (t – t ) = – … (6.21)
1 S aS G λaS
1 1
To determine taS for given conditions of gas-vapour mixture tG ‚ Y'1‚ CS

[ 1 1 ] we must do a little
trial and error.
Guess taS ⇒ look up λaS and paS ⇒ calculate YaS' and check taS
However, taS is a unique temperature. This temperature is a constant for this process.
6.6 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE, tWB :
If air is not saturated, liquid will evaporate form wick and wick will cool. We then have a
temperature difference between the air and the wick, so heat transfer occurs. Eventually, a steady
state will be reached there the heat transfer from the air to the wick just supplies the energy
needed for vapourization. The temperature of the wetted wick as indicated by the thermometer is
the wet-bulb temperature, tWB.
Fig. 6.2 : Wet-bulb temperature

Rate of heat transfer to wick = hG A (tG – tWB)
Rate of mass transfer to wick = kY, A (YWB
' – Y')
Energy needed for vapourization = λWB kY, A (YWB
' – Y')
At steady state, hG A (tG – tWB) = λWB kY, A (YWB
' – Y')
(YWB
' – Y') λWB (YWB
' – Y') (hG/kY')
or tWB = tG – (hG/kY') ⇒ (t – t ) = – … (6.22)
WB G λWB
Equation (6.22) is very similar to equation 6.21. Note that tWB and taS would be identical if
hG
CS = k .
1 Y'
hG Sc 0.567
In general, = CS Pr … (6.23)
kY'  
6.7 HUMIDITY CHART

While humidity charts for any vapour gas mixture can be prepared when circumstances
warrant, the system air-water occurs so frequently that unusually complete charts for this mixture
are available. Fig. 6.3 shows such a chart for SI system. It is prepared for a total pressure of 1 std.
atm. It should be noted that all the quantities (absolute humidity, enthalpies, humid volumes) are
plotted against temperature. For the enthalpies, gaseous air and saturated liquid water at 0°C
were the reference conditions, so that the chart can be used in conjunction with the stream tables.
The data for enthalpy of saturated air were then plotted with two enthalpy scales o provide for
the large range of values necessary. The series of curves marked ì adiabatic saturation curves on
the chart were plotted according to equation. For most purposes these can be considered as
curves of constant enthalpy for the vapour-gas mixture per unit mass of gas.
Fig. 6.3 : Psychrometric chart for air-water vapour, 1 std atm abs, in SI Units
6.8 THE LEWIS RELATION
We have seen that for the system air-water vapour, hGky is approximately equal to CS, or,
approximately, hG/kyCS = 1. This is the so-called Lewis relation (after W.K. Lewis). Not only does
it lead to near equality of the wet-bulb and adiabatic saturation temperatures (as in the ease of air
water vapour) but also to other simplifications to be developed later. For air water system
(hG/kY') ≈ 0.227. However, for the same air water system, CS is very close to 0.227 at moderate Y'.
It is customary to just set,
CS ≈ (hG/kY') and say tWB = taS … (6.24)
Le is essentially unity for air-water vapour but not for other systems.
6.9 GAS LIQUID CONTACT OPERATIONS
Common Use of Gas Liquid Contact : Direct contact of gas with pure liquid may have any of
several purposes :
Adiabatic operations Non-adiabatic operations
Cooling a liquid Evapourative cooling
Cooling a hot gas Dehumidification
Humidification
Dehumidification
Cooling a liquid ⇒ transfer of sensible heat from liquid to gas + evaporation.

Cooling a hot gas ⇒ transfer of sensible heat from gas to liquid + evaporation.
Humidification ⇒ transfer of mass from liquid to gas by vapourisation + heat
transfer.
Dehumidification ⇒ transfer of mass (vapour) from gas to liquid by condensation.
6.10 ADIABATIC OPERATIONS
Derivation of General Equation : Consider a section of a continuous contact-tower between
z and z + dz. Arbitrary take that : tG > ti . tL (G = gas, i = interface, L = liquid). (equations will
come out the same no matter what assumption we make here). Also, we will consider
counter-current contact and base our calculations on 1 [m2] of area normal to the flow
(actual column cross section, not free area).
Fig. 6.4 : Different section of a continuous counter current adiabatic gas liquid packed tower
Control Volume I – Mass and Energy Balance of the Gas Phase (differential volume) :
δme = – G'S dY' … (6.25)
– G'S dH' + HA G'S dY' – hG' aH (tG – ti) dz = 0 … ( 6.26)
dH' CS dtG + HA dY' … ( 6.27)
–G'S CS dtG = hG' aH (tG – ti) dz … (6.28)
Control Volume II – Mass and Energy Balance of the Liquid Phase (differential volume) :
dL' = – δmi = G'S dY' (from equation (6.25) … (6.29)
d (L' HAL) + HALi δmi + hL aH (ti – tL) dz = 0 … (6.30)
L' CL dtL = (G'S CL dY' – hL aH dz) (ti – tL) … (6.31)
Control Volume III – Overall Mass and Energy Balance (differential volume) :
dL' = G'S dY'
d (L' HAL) = G'S dH' … (6.32)
L' CAL dtL = G'S CS dtG + G'S [CA (tG – t0) + λ0 – CL (tL – t0)] dY' … (6.33)
Now let us apply these general relationships to several specific cases. In each case we will
look at typical temperature and concentration profiles. We will also make some simplifying
assumptions. As we will see, in the last specific case to be considered the simplifying assumptions
do not have to be made, but, without them calculations become increasingly complicated.
Evapourative Cooling of Water with Air : The purpose of this operation is to decrease tL by
evapourating water. Latent heat of vapourization, λ, is very compared to the sensible heat effects.
Therefore, small evapouration produces large cooling effects. Amount of water evapourated is
usually very small compared to the water flow rate L', usually less than 3%. We will assume that
L' = constant.
Overall Energy Balance CV III :
Fig. 6.5 : Differential section of a continuous countercurrent adiabatic gas-liquid packed tower for
evaporative cooling of water
d (L' HAL) = G'S dH' (remember L' = constant → dL' = 0) … (6.34)
L' CAL dtL = G'S dH' … (6.36)

L' CAL (tL – tL ) = G'S (H'2 – H'1) … (6.35)
2 1
Equation (6.35) is an operating line; straight line in H' versus tL chart :
Fig. 6.6 : H' versus tL Chart
A mass balance in the control volume I (CV I) will yield;

'
G'S dY' = kY aM (Y'i – Y') dz … (6.36)
An energy balance on the interface (CV II) at steady state will give :
'
hL aH (tL – ti) dz = hG aH (ti – tG) dz + HA kYaM (Y'i – Y') dz … (6.37 a)
i
HA = HAL + λ0 + CA (ti – t0) … (6.37 b)

i 0
but λ0 >>> CA (ti – t0) and HAL0 = 0 (liquid water at reference temperature)
∴ HA Å λ0 … (6.37 c)
i
Now we can substitute equation (6.37 c) into equation (6.37 a) to obtain,

hL aH (tL – ti) dz = hG aH (ti – tG) dz + λ0 k' Y aM (Y'i – Y') dz Equation (6.22)
A mass balance in the control volume III will give :

G'S dY' = dL' (remember L' Å constant → dL' = 0) ⇒ G'S dY' = 0 … (6.37 d)
Also, from equation (6.36) we have,
L' CAL dtL = G'S dH' … (6.38)
Now, we can substitute equation (6.37), equation (6.36) and equation (6.37d) into equation
(6.31).
L' cL dtL = CL (g'S dY') (ti – tL) + hL aH (tL – ti) dz (6.31)
Also, G'S dH' = hGaH (ti – tG) dz + λ0 kY' aM (Y'i – Y') dz
Now, assume aH = aM = a, hG = kY' CS and CS = constant for air water system
G'S dH' = kY' a [CS (ti – tG) + λ0 (Y'i – Y')] dz
= kY' a {[CS (ti – t0) + λ0 Y'i] – [CS (tG – t0) + λ0 Y']} dz
G'S dH' = kY' a [H'i – H'] dz = hL a (tL – ti) dz … (6.39)
Now we can integrate equation (6.39),
G'S dH' = kY' a [H'i – H'] dz … (6.39 a)
2 2 2
dH' kY' a kY' a G'S dH'
⌠ H'i – H' = G'S
⌠ dz = C' z ⇒ z = k ' a ⌠ H' – H' … (6.40)
⌡ ⌡ S Y ⌡ i
1 1 1
Also, from equation (6.39) we can obtain,
H'i – H' hLa
ti – tL = – k' a … (6.41)
Y
Equation (6.41) relates points on interface to points on operating line.
' '
' ' H2 – H1 L' CAL
L' CAL (tL – tL ) = GS (H2 – H'1) ⇒ t – t = '
2 1 L2 L1 GS
The interface represents saturated conditions. Therefore, the values needed for integration of
equation (6.40) can be obtained as shown on the diagram below :
Fig. 6.7 : H' versus tL Diagram

Number of Gas-Enthalpy Transfer Units Height of Gas - Enthalpy Transfer Unit
'
H2
dH' H'2 – H'1 G'S
⌠ (H' – H') = (H' – H') = NtG HtG = k ' a
⌡ i av i av Y
'
H1
where,
kg dry air kg of vapour m2 interface
G'S (=) ; kY' (=) ; a (=)
s m2 of tower 3
m2 interfaces  kg dry air 
kg vapour m of tower packing
 
Height of the active part of a cooling tower, Z :
Z = HtG NtG
Recirculating Liquid – Gas Humidification – Cooling : This is a special case where the
liquid enters the equipment at the adiabatic saturation temperature of the entering gas. This can
be achieved by continuously reintroducing the exit liquid to the contact tower without addition or
removal of heat. In such a system, the temperature of the entire liquid will fall to and remain at,
the adiabatic saturation temperature. The gas will be cooled and humidified, following along the
path of the adiabatic saturation curve on the psychometric chart which passes through the
entering gas conditions.
If mass transfer is used as a basis for design :
G'S dY' = kY' aM (Y'i – Y') dz … (6.42)
But, Yi = YaS' and ti = taS and aM = aH = a

G'S dY' = kY' aM (YaS' – Y') dz
'
Y2 Z
dY' kY' a YaS' – Yi Z
⌠ = G' ⌠ dz ⇒ ln Y ' – Y'2 = kY' a G'
⌡ YaS' – Y' S ⌡ aS S
' 0
Y 1
(YaS' – Yi) – (YaS' – Y'2)

G'S (Y'2 – Y'1) = kY' a Z YaS' – Y'1
ln Y ' – Y'
aS 2
G'S (Y'2 – Y'1) = kY' a Z AEYln'
Y'2 – Y'1 YaS' – Y'1
NtG = AEY ' = ln Y ' – Y'
ln aS 2
G'S
and HtG = k ' a … (6.43)
Y
thus Z = HtG NtG
If heat transfer is used as the basis for design :
– G'S CS dtG = hG aH (tG – ti) dz;
assume constant CS = CB + Y' CA
– G'S CS dtG = hG a (tG – taS) dz … (6.44)
Fig. 6.8
Fig. 6.9
tG
2 z (tG – taS)
dtG hG a G'S CS 1
⌠ = ⌠ dz ⇒ Z = h a ln (t – t )
⌡ tG – taS G'S CS ⌡ G G2 aS
tG 0
1
(tG – taS) – (tG – taS)

1 2
G'S CS (tG – tG ) = hG a Z tG – taS
1 1 2
1
ln t – taS
G2
G'S CS (tG – tG ) = hG a Z AEln and Z = HtG NtG

1 1 2
General Case : (L' – constant) Take a dehumidifier as an example. We want to develop a

method which involves numerical solution.
Fig. 6.10
Note that tL – taS, so even though the process is adiabatic, we do not know tL throughout the
2
column. Also, we are not assuming L' = constant. Thus our unknowns are :
L'1 Z tL tG
2 2
Overall mass balance on column yields,

dL' = G'S dY' ⇒ L'1 – L'2 = G'S (Y'1 – Y'2) (solve for L'1) … (6.45)
Overall energy balance on column yields, we get,
d (L' HAL) = G'S dH' ⇒ L'1 HAL – L'2 HAL = G'S (H'1 – H'2) … (6.46)
1 2
but, HAL = CL (tL – t0)
H' = CS (tG – t0) + Y' λ0
2 [
L'1 CL (tL – t0) – L'2 CL (tL – t0) = G'S (CS (tG – t0) + Y'1 λ0) – (CS (tG – t0) + Y'2 λ0)
1 1 1 2 2 ]
… (6.47)
Equation (6.47) contains two unknowns, tL and tG . We have a trial and error solution. Note
1 2
that we do not know the path between the two ends of the column. As a matter of fact we do not
really know one of the end points.
Now, we can make energy balance on the interface :
hG aH (tG – ti) dz + λi kY' aM (Y' – Y'i ) dz = hL aH (ti – tL) dz … (6.48)
λi is an approximation for (H' – HL ); very small sensible heat term is ignored.
i
Now assume, aH = aM
and kY' a CS = hG a for air water system
Fig. 6.11
hG a
Then; hG a (tG – ti) + λi C (Y' – Y'i) = hL a (ti – tL) … (6.49)
S
dtG AEtG hG a (tG – ti)AVG
dz Å AEz = G'S CSAVG … (6.50)
dY' AEY' kY' a (Y'i – Y')AVG

dz Å AEz = G'S … (6.51)
dtL AEtL G'S hL a (ti – tL)AVG
dz Å AEz = LAVG
' (ti – tL) AVG LAVG ' CL … (6.52)
Where subscript AVG indicates the average conditions over the increment AEZ
dY' dL'
G'S dz = dz
AEY' AEL'
or G'S AEZ = AEZ … (6.53)
At a point where we know tG, Y' and tL, only the conditions at the interface are unknown.
Thus, we could start by guessing ti and then :
(a) evaluate interfacial conditions at point (1) from equation (6.49) (establish ti and Y'i ).
1 1
(b) find (tG – ti)1 , (Y'i – Y')1, (ti – tL)1, CS , L'1 and use these values as average the AVG. value
1
in equation (6.33), (6.34) and (6.35) to obtain tG, Y' and tL at the end of the increment AEZ.
Also calculate L' form equation (6.53).
(c) Repeat step (a) for the values determined in (b), i.e. for the end of the increment AEZ.
(d) Look at the average of the corresponding values calculated in (a) and (c) and see if they
are close enough to values used in (b). If not, reiterate using a new average. The result
will be a set of average values AEZ meters up the column.
(e) Return to step (a) with these values at Z = Z + AEZ and do not next increment to get to
Z = Z + 2 AEZ.
(f) Continue until tL = known tL . Now check your values of Y'2 and tG (assumed).
2 2
If everything checks, your original assumption was correct. If not, change assumed tG
2
(calculate tL from equation 6.47 and repeat the whole procedure.)
1
6.11 HUMIDIFICATION AND DEHUMIDIFICATION EQUIPMENTS
(A) Cooling Tower (B) Tray Towers
(C) Spray Chambers (D) Spray Ponds
Out of these equipments, Cooling Towers are most important. This is discussed in detail.
6.11.1 Cooling Tower Overview
The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. This heat rejection is
accomplished through the natural process of evapouration that takes place when air and water
are brought into direct contact in the cooling tower. The evapouration is most efficient when the
maximum water surface area is exposed to the maximum flow of air, for the longest possible
period of time.
Cooling towers are designed in two different configurations, Counterflow and Crossflow. The
specific configuration indicates the direction of airflow through the tower relative to the direction
of the water flow. Cooling tower water and air distribution systems are designed in concert, with
each playing an equally important role in determining the efficiency and proper application of the
cooling tower.
6.11.2 Operating Principle of Cooling Towers
Just like air, water is one of our most important natural resources and vital to all our lives.
The world’s growing water consumption combined with its increasing scarcity is making it
more important than ever to use water intelligently and carefully.
The re-cooling and recycling of water as a transport medium for waste heat for which there is
no further intelligent use should therefore be the first rules of economy and ecology.
Water-cooling systems : Water-cooling systems can be subdivided into various categories on
the basis of the cooling water temperatures they require. At temperatures of below approx.
+ 20°C refrigeration machines are generally used. Above this temperature cooling towers are
used. At temperature over 45 °C dry-type cooling units can also be employed.
Types of cooling towers : Cooling towers are distinguished according to various criteria :
(1) The forced of the air-stream : Naturally ventilated cooling towers (natural draught
cooling towers). Artificially ventilated cooling towers (mechanical draught cooling
tower). Fans may be of the induced or forced draught type design.
(2) The relationship of the air-stream to the water flow : Counter-flow cooling towers,
Cross-flow cooling towers, Combination of these two designs.
(3) The design of the fill material : Open systems in which the water is cooled by direct
contact with the surrounding air (wet-type cooling towers).
Closed systems in which the medium to be cooled does not come into direct contact with the
surrounding air. Hybrid cooling towers, a combination of open and closed systems. Wet-type
cooling towers are able to achieve water temperatures below the ambient temperature, the
decisive factor being the so-called wet-bulb temperature. This represents a physical value for the
relationship between ambient temperature and relative air humidity.
Wet-type cooling towers can reach the minimum cold water temperatures of approx. 3-4 K
above the wet-bulb temperature. In India standard wet-bulb temperatures are dependent on the
location.
(4) Open wet-type cooling towers : The water to be cooled is sprayed and trickled over fill
material by a water distribution system, which, owing to its shape and position,
guarantees high water and air contact times. At the same time, the surrounding air is fed
through the tower in counter-flow, thereby evapourating a small part of the circulating
water. The heat required for this evapouration process is drawn-off by the cooling water
and provides the majority of the cooling capacity. The remainder of the cooling capacity
is created by the convection of the warm water to the cold air. The re-cooled water
collects in the collecting basin from where it is fed back to the cooling points. The saving
in terms of cooling water in comparison with continuous flow cooling can be up to 97%
of the circulation water, the remainder being required to compensate for the water loss
due to evapouration and bleed-off.
(5) Closed-type cooling towers and coolers : The medium to be cooled flows through a
closed heat exchanger and does not come into direct contact with the surrounding air.
Water is trickled over the heat exchanger by a water distribution system (secondary
circuit) in order to use the evapouration heat.
(6) Dry-type coolers : The medium to be cooled flows through a heat exchanger just as for
closed cooling towers. Heat is removed by means of convection to the surrounding air
thus allowing the system to attain cooling water temperatures in excess of ambient
temperature.
6.11.3 Cooling Tower Selection
Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in various sizes and configurations.
Recognizing and understanding the different configurations and the advantages and limitations
of each is essential to specifying the most cost effective solution for the end user. The purpose of
this bulletin is to highlight the differences between Crossflow and Counterflow cooling towers
and to describe applications where each configuration should be specified.
6.11.4 Hot Water Distribution Systems

The overall efficiency of a cooling tower is directly related to the design of the tower's hot
water distribution system. The primary consideration in selecting the type of hot water
distribution system for a specific application is pump head. The pump head imposed by a cooling
tower consists of the static lift (related to the height of the inlet) plus the pressure necessary to
move the water through the distribution system and over the fill. The pump head varies
according to the cooling tower configuration.
Counterflow towers use a high-pressure spray nozzle hot water distribution system to
achieve water coverage of the fill. The nozzle spray pattern is sensitive to changes in water flow,
and consequent change in nozzle pressure. The air movement is vertically upward through the
fill, counter to the downward fall of the water (Figure 6.12). Counterflow towers typically have a
smaller footprint than Crossflow towers, but require additional height, static lift, and dynamic
head to achieve the same cooling effect.
Crossflow towers utilize a distinctly different type of water distribution system. Hot water is
distributed to the fill by gravity through metering orifices in the floor of the inlet basin. There is
no pressure spray distribution system. The air movement is horizontally through the fill, across
the downward fall of the water (Figure 6.13). In Crossflow towers, the internal pressure
component of pump head is insignificant because maximum flow is achieved by gravity.
Compared to Crossflow towers, Counterflow towers may require up to five or six psig added
pump head to achieve the proper spray distribution. The high Counterflow pumping head
requirement (tower height plus nozzle pressure) leads to a higher may result in inadequate hot
water flow, reducing tower efficiency and performance. First cost pumping system and
significantly higher annual pump energy consumption and operating costs. If the system
condenser pumps are not properly sized, the additional pump head required in Counterflow
towers
6.11.5 Air Flow Distribution Systems
Cooling tower performance is also related to the amount of air moving through the tower and
coming into direct contact with the water. In Counterflow towers the air movement is vertically
upward through the fill, counter to the downward fall of the water. This configuration, along
with the finer water droplet size available from pressurized spray nozzles, allows Counterflow
towers to make more efficient use of available air. However, the resistance to upward air travels
against the falling water results in higher static pressure loss and greater fan horsepower than a
Crossflow system.
Crossflow towers have a fill configuration through which air flows horizontally across the
downward flow of the water. Crossflow towers utilize essentially the full tower height for inlet
louvers, reducing air inlet velocity and minimizing recalculation and drift loss. The air inlet
louvers in Counterflow towers are restricted to the tower base, increasing inlet velocities and
susceptibility to airborne trash and other debris.
Crossflow :
Advantages of Crossflow : Cooling towers due to their gravity flow hot water distribution
system :
(a) Low pumping head.
(b) Lower first cost pumping systems.
(c) Lower annual energy consumption and operating costs.
(d) Accepts larger variation in water flow without adverse effect on the water distribution
pattern (flat plate heat exchanger operation in winter).
(e) Easy maintenance access to distribution nozzles.
Fig. 6.12 : Crossflow cooling towers

Disadvantages of Crossflow : Cooling towers due to their gravity flow hot water distribution
system :
(a) Low-pressure head on the distribution pan may encourage orifice clogging and less water
breakup at spray nozzle.
(b) Exposure to air in the hot water basin may accelerate algae growth. Larger footprint.
Counterflow :
Advantages of Counterflow : Cooling towers due to their pressurized spray water
distribution system :
(a) Increased tower height accommodates longer ranges and closer approaches.
(b) More efficient use of air due to finer droplet size from pressure sprays.
Fig. 6.13 : Counterflow cooling towers

Disadvantages of Counterflow : cooling towers due to their pressurized spray water
distribution system :
(a) Increased system pumping head requirements.
(b) Increased energy consumption and operating costs.
(c) Distribution nozzles difficult to inspect and clean.
(d) Requires individual risers for each cell, increasing external piping costs.
Conclusions and Recommendations :

The air and water distribution systems for counterflow and crossflow cooling towers have
advantages and disadvantages inherent in their respective designs. It cannot be said that one is
better than the other. Rather, with the proper application, both configurations are cost effective
and can serve the end user well.
Crossflow cooling towers should be specified when the following criteria and limitations are
important :
(a) To minimize pump head.
(b) To minimize pumping and piping first costs.
(c) To minimize operating costs.
(d) When condenser water flow variance is expected.
(e) When ease of maintenance is a concern.
6.12 COOLING TOWERS : DESIGN AND OPERATION CONSIDERATIONS
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water.
Fig. 6.14 : Closed loop cooling tower system

The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evapouration. Hot water from
heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to
the exchangers or to other units for further cooling.
6.12.1 Types of Cooling Towers
Cooling towers fall into two main sub-divisions : natural draft and mechanical draft. Natural
draft designs use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media. Due to the
tremendous size of these towers (500 ft high and 400 ft in diameter at the base) they are generally
used for water Flowrates above 200,000 gal/min. Usually these types of towers are only used by
utility power stations in the United States. Mechanical draft cooling towers are much more
widely used. These towers utilize large fans to force air through circulated water. The water
falls downward over fill surfaces, which help, increase the contact time between the water and
the air. This helps maximize heat transfer between the two.
Types of Mechanical Draft Towers :
Fig. 6.15 : Mechanical draft Fig. 6.16 : Mechanical draft

counterflow tower cross flow tower
Mechanical draft towers offer control of cooling rates in their fan diameter and speed of
operation. These towers often contain several areas (each with their own fan) called cells.
6.12.2 Cooling Tower Theory
The transfer of sensible and latent heat transfers heat from water drops to the surrounding
air.
Fig. 6.17 : Water Drop with Interfacial Film

This movement of heat can be modeled with a relation known as the Merkel Equation :
T1
KaV dT
= ⌠ h –h … (6.54)
L ⌡ w a
T2
T1
T1 – T2
KaV dT
⌠ h –h =  1 + 1 + 1 + 1 
=
⌡ w a ∆h ∆H ∆j ∆h 
L 4  1 2 3 4
T2
… (6.55)
where,
∆h1 = Value of hw – ha at T2 + 0.1 (T1 – T2)
∆h2 = Value of hw – ha at T2 + 0.4 (T1 – T2)
∆h3 = Value of hw – ha at T1 – 0.4 (T1 – T2)
∆h4 = Value of hw – ha at T1 – 0.1 (T1 – T2)
where,
KaV/L = Tower characteristic
K = Mass transfer coefficient (lb water/h ft2)
a = Contact area/tower volume
V = Active cooling volume/plan area
L = Water rate (lb/h ft2)

T1 = Hot water temperature (oF or oC)
T2 = Cold water temperature (oF or oC)
T = Bulk water temperature (oF or oC)

Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at bulk water
hw = temperature (J/kg dry air or Btu/lb dry air)
Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at wet bulb

ha = temperature (J/kg dry air or Btu/lb dry air)
Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from water must be equal to the heat
absorbed by the surrounding air :
L (T1 – T2) = G (h2 – h1)
L h2 – h1
So, G = T –T … (6.56)
1 2
where, L/G = Liquid to gas mass flow ratio (lb/lb or kg/kg)

T1 = Hot water temperature (oF or oC)
T2 = Cold water temperature (oF or oC)

Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust
h2 = wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at

h1 = inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
The tower characteristic value can be calculated by solving equation 1 with the Chebyshev
numerical method.
Fig. 6.18 : Graphical representation of tower characteristic

The following represents a key to Figure 6.18 :
C' = Entering air enthalpy at wet-bulb temperature, Twb
BC = Initial enthalpy driving force
CD = Air operating line with slope L/G
DEF = Projecting the exiting air point onto the water operating line
and then onto the temperature axis shows the outlet air web-bulb temperature
As shown by Equation (6.54), by finding the area between ABCD in Fig. 6.18, one can find the
tower characteristic. An increase in heat load would have the following effects on the diagram in
Fig. 6.19 :
(1) Increase in the length of line CD, and a CD line shift to the right.
(2) Increases in hot and cold-water temperatures.
(3) Increases in range and approach areas.
The increased heat load causes the hot water temperature to increase considerably faster than
thoes the cold-water temperature. Although the area ABCD should remain constant, it actually
decreases about 2% for every 10 oF increase in hot water temperature above 100 oF.
To account for this decrease, an "adjusted hot water temperature" is used in cooling tower
design.
Fig. 6.19 : Graph of Adjusted Hot Water Temperatures

The area ABCD is expected to change with a change in L/G, this is very key in the design of
cooling towers.
Cooling Tower Design : Although KaV/L can be calculated, designers typically use charts
found in the Cooling Tower Institute Blue Book to estimate KaV/L for given design conditions. It
is important to recall three key points in cooling tower design :
(1) A change in wet bulb temperature (due to atmospheric conditions) will not change the
tower characteristic (KaV/L).
(2) A change in the cooling range will not change KaV/L.
(3) Only a change in the L/G ratio will change KaV/L.
The straight line shown in Figure 6.20 is a plot of L/G vs KaV/L at a constant airflow. The
slope of this line is dependent on the tower packing, but can often be assumed to be – 0.60.
Figure 6.20 represents a typical graph supplied by a manufacturer to the purchasing company.
From this graph, the plant engineer can see that the proposed tower will be capable of cooling the
water to a temperature that is 10 oF above the wet-bulb temperature. This is another key point in
cooling tower design.
Cooling towers are designed according to the highest geographic wet bulb temperatures.
This temperature will dictate the minimum performance available by the tower. As the wet bulb
temperature decreases, so will the available cooling water temperature. For example, in the
cooling tower represented by Figure 6.16, if the wet bulb temperature dropped to 75 oF, the
cooling water would still be exiting 10 oF above this temperature (85 oF) due to the tower design.
Below is the summary of steps in the cooling tower design process in industry. More detail on
these steps will be given later.
(1) Plant engineer defines the cooling water flowrate, and the inlet and outlet water
temperatures for the tower.
Fig. 6.20 : A Typical Set of Tower Characteristic Curves

(2) Manufacturer designs the tower to be able to meet these criteria on a "worst case
scenario" (i.e. during the hottest months). The tower characteristic curves and the
estimate is given to the plant engineer.
(3) Plant engineer reviews bids and makes a selection.
Once a tower characteristic has been established between the plant engineer and the
manufacturer, the manufacturer must design a tower that matches this value. The required tower
size will be a function of :
(1) Cooling range.
(2) Approach to wet bulb temperature.
(3) Mass flowrate of water.
(4) Web bulb temperature.
(5) Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell.
(6) Tower height.
In short, monographs available in literature utilize the cold-water temperature, wet bulb
2
temperature, and hot water temperature to find the water concentration in gal/min ft . The
tower area can then be calculated by dividing the water circulated by the water concentration.
General rules are usually used to determine tower height depending on the necessary time of
contact :
Approach to Wet Bulb Cooling Range Tower Height
0 0
( F) ( F) (ft)
15 – 20 25 – 35 15 – 20
10 – 15 25 – 35 25 – 30
5 – 10 25 – 35 35 – 40
Other design characteristics to consider are fan horsepower, pump horsepower, make-up
water source, fogging abatement, and drift eliminators Operation Considerations.
Water Make-up : Water losses include evaporation, drift (water entrained in discharge
vapour), and blow down (water released to discard solids). Drift losses are estimated to be
between 0.1 and 0.2% of water supply.
Evapouration Loss = 0.00085 × water flowrate (T1 – T2) … (6.57)
Blow down Loss = Evapouration Loss/(cycles-1) : Where cycles is the ratio of solids in the
circulating water to the solids in the make-up water.
Total Losses = Drift Losses + Evapouration Losses + Blow down Losses
Cold Weather Operation : Even during cold weather months, the plant engineer should
maintain the design water flowrate and heat load in each cell of the cooling tower. If less water is
needed due to temperature changes (i.e. the water is colder), one or more cells should be turned
off to maintain the design flow in the other cells. The water in the base of the tower should be
0
maintained between 60 and 70 F by adjusting air volume if necessary. Usual practice is to run the
fans at half speed or turn them-off during colder months to maintain this temperature range.
6.13 HEIGHT OF COOLING TOWER
The height of a water cooling tower can be determined by setting up a material balance on
the water, an energy balance and rate equation for the transfer of heat in the liquid and gas and
mass transfer in the gas phase. There is no resistance to mass transfer in the liquid phase and
hence no concentration gradient in the liquid. Consider the counter current flow of water and air
in a tower of height z as shown in above Fig. 6.21, the mass rate of flow of air per unit cross
sectional area is G' is constant throughout the whole height of the tower and because only a small
proportion of the total supply of water is normally evaporated (1 – 5%) the liquid rate per unit
area L' can be taken as constant.
Fig. 6.21 : Flow in water cooling tower

Let, θ = temperature
E = Enthalpy
H = Humidity
Suffixes G, L, 1, 2 and f being used to denote condition in the gas and liquid at the bottom
and top of the tower and of the air in contact with water. The five basic equations for an
incremental height of column dz are as follows :
(i) Water Balance : dL' = G' dE … (6.57)
(ii) Enthalpy Balance : G'dHG = L'dHL … (6.58)
Since only small propositions (1 – 5%) of liquid is evapourated,
Now, HG = S (θG – θo) + λE … (6.59)
HL = CL (θL – θo) … (6.60)
Thus, G' dHG = L' CL dθL … (6.61)
and dHG = S dθG + λdE … (6.62)
Assuming the physical properties of the material do not changes appreciably, integration
gives above equation over the whole height of the column,
G' (HG – GG ) = L' CL (θL – θL ) … (6.63)
2 1 2 1
(iii) Heat Transfer from the body of the liquid to the interface :
hL a dZ (θL – θf) = L' CL dθL … (6.64)
where hL = Heat transfer coefficient in the liquid phase
a = Interfacial area per unit volume of column
Arranging equation (6.64) we get,
dθL hL · a
= L' C dZ … (6.65)
θL – θf L
(iv) Heat transfer from the interface to the bulk of gas :
hG· a dZ (θf – θG) = G'S dθG … (6.66)
where hG = Heat transfer in the gas phase.
Rearranging this equation, we get,
dθG hG·a
= GS · dZ … (6.67)
θf – θG
(v) Mass transfer from interface to the gas :
hD ρa dz (Ef – E) = G' dE … (6.68)
where, hD = Mass transfer coefficient for the gas
ρ = Mean density of air
Rearranging this equation, we get,
dE hD a ρ
Ef – E = G' dZ … (6.69)
These equations can't be integrated directly since the conditions at the interface are not
necessarily constant. Using Lewis relation and writing hG as hD ρS from equation (6.66),
G'S dθG = hD θ · a dZ (Sθf – SθG) … (6.70)
from equation 6.68,

G' λ dE = hD ρ · a dZ (λE – λE) … (6.71)
f
Adding equation (6.70) and (6.71) we get,
G' (S dθG + λdE) = hD ρ · adz [Sθf + λEf] – [Sθ4 + λE]
G' dHG = hD ρ · a dz [Hf – HG] (from equation 6.59)
dHG hD · a ρ
This gives, Hf – HG = G' dz … (6.72)
Combining equation (6.61), (6.64) and (6.72) we get,

HG – Hf hL
= … (6.73)
θL – θf hD ρ
From equation (6.70) and (6.72) we have,
HG dHG
= … (6.74)
θG – θf dθG
From equation (6.70) and (6.68) we get,
E – Ef dE
= … (6.75)
θG – θf dθG
These equations will now be employed in the determination of the required height of cooling
tower for a given duty. The method consists of the graphical evaluation of the relation between
the enthalpy of the body of gas and enthalpy of the gas at the interface with the liquid.
Consider equation (6.72),
dHG hD · a · ρ
Hf – HG = G' dz
Integrating above equation we get,

2 2
G' dHG
Z= ⌠ dZ ⌠ H –H (6.76)
⌡ hD a ρ ⌡ f G
1 1
assuming hD to remain approximately constant. Since (Hf – HG) is known as a function of HG,
1
(Hf – HG) can be plotted against HG and the integral is evaluated between the required limits.
The height of cooling tower is then determined.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) A humidifier is conditioning 15000 kg air per hour at 49 oC dry bulb and 32 oC wet
bulb temperature by heating outside air, passing it through an adiabatic spray
chamber in which it reaches 90% humidity and then reheating to the desired
temperature. The outside air is at 4.5 oC and is fogy carrying 0.006 kg of liquid water
per m3. To what temperature must the air be heated in the first heating operation ?
What is the temperature of air as it emerges from the spray chamber before the final
heating operations. Calculate the heat supplied in the first and final heating.
Sol. : Neglect the volume of liquid water and assume ideal gas law is applicable for inlet air.
0.082 × (273 + 4.5)
Thus, V = 1 = 22.75 m3/kg mole
1 1
ρ = V = 22.75 kg mole/m3
29
So, ρair = 22.75 = 1.275 kg/m3
1 kg wter
Humidity = 0.006 × 1.275 = 0.047 kg dry air
The complete process in a humidity
chart is as follows :
Exit Conditions of air :
Dry bulb temperature = 49oC
Wet bulb temperature = 32oC
So, humidity = 0.023 kg water/kg dry air
Inlet conditions of air :
Dry bulb temperature = 4.5 oC
Humidity = 0.0047 kg water/kg dry air
Temperature of air after first heating = 68oC.
Fig. 6.22 : Process on a humidity chart

Temperature of air as it emerges from the spray chamber = 29 oC.
15,000 kg/hour of air at dry bulb, 49 oC and wet bulb, 32 oC.
1
Dry air = 1.023 × 15,000 = 14662.8 kg/hour
Heat supplied : (i) First Heating :
Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.45 × 0.0047
= 0.242 k cal/kg dry air oC.
Heat supplied = 14662.8 × 0.242 (68 – 4.5)
= 22,5323 k cal/hour (Ans.)
(ii) Final heating : Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.45 × 0.023
= 0.250 k cal/kg dry air oC
Heat supplied = 14,662.8 × 0.25 (49 – 29)
= 73,314 kcal/hour (Ans.)
(2) Air containing 0.005 kg water vapour per kg of dry air is heated to 325 ok in a dryer
and then passed to the lower shelves. It leaves these shelves at 60% relative humidity
and is reheated to 325 ok and passed over another set of shelves, again leaving at 60%
relative humidity. In all there are four sets of shelves, after which the air leaves the
dryer. On the assumption that the material on each shelf has reached the wet-bulb
temperature and that heat losses from the dryer can be neglected, determine :
(a) the temperature of the material on each set of shelves.
(b) the amount of water removed in kg/s, if 5 m3/sec moist air leaves the dryer.
(c) the temperature to which the inlet air would have to be raised to carry out the
drying in a single stage.
Sol. :
Fig. 6.23 : The drying process

Assumptions :
(1) Material on each shelf has attained the wet-bulb temperature.
(2) Heat losses are negligible.
(a) Air leaves the dryer at 325 ok and H = 0.005 kg water/kg dry air and enters the first
shelf. This corresponds to a wet-bulb temperature of 25 oC (298 oK). Moisture is
removed along the constant wet bulbs line till 60% relative humidity, which is the
exit condition of air from first shelf. Humidity of air leaving the 1st shelf = 0.016 kg
water/kg dry air (from humidity chart).
Exit air at 25 oC W. B. and H = 0.016 is heated to 325 K (52 oC) D.B. in H2 (heater 2). Air
leaves the heater at 325 K and 0.016 kg water/kg air which corresponds to wet bulb
temperature of 32.5 oC. This is the temperature of material on the second shelf. This
process is repeated for third and fourth shelves. The conditions of material and
temperature of air are as follows :
Shelf No. Temperature of tray material oC Air Condition (humidity)
Entering Leaving
1 25.0 0.005 0.016
2 32.5 0.016 0.026
3 35.5 0.026 0.032
4 38.0 0.032 0.038
(Ans.)
The process on a humidity chart is given as under (Fig. 6.24).
Fig. 6.24 : Process path on humidity chart

(b) Final moist air conditions :
Humidity = 0.038
Wet bulb temperature = 38oC
Humid volume = 0.96 m3/kg dry air (Ans.)
5
Amount of dry air/sec = 0.96 = 5.21 kg.
Water removed = 5.21 (0.038 – 0.005)
= 0.172 kg/sec. (Ans.)
(c) The path of the process for this condition is indicated by dotted line. The requisite
temperature is 380 K(107 oC) from humidity chart.
(3) Fresh air at 21.2 oC in which partial pressure of water vapour is 0.0118 atmosphere is
blown at the rate of 214 m3/hour first through a pre-heater and then adiabatically
saturated in a spray chamber to 100% saturation and again reheated. This reheated air
has a humidity of 0.024 kg water vapour per kg dry air. It is assumed that the fresh air
and the air leaving the reheater have the same percentage humidity. Determine :
(a) the temperature of pre-heater, spray chamber and reheater.
(b) heat requirements for pre-heating and reheating.
0.0118 18
Sol. : Humidity of entering air = 1 – 0.0118 × 29
= 0.0074 kg water/kg dry air
From humidity chart, % humidity of fresh air = 48. So humidity of air leaving
reheater = 48.
(i) From humidity chart, temperature of air after pre heater = 65 oC.
Preheated air is adibatically saturated till 10% saturation. Temperature of air from spray
chamber = 28oC. The air is reheated back to 48% saturation. Temperature of air leaving
the reheater = 41oC. (Ans.)
Fig. 6.25 : Complete process shown on a humidity chart

(ii) Heat requirements : Humid heat of air = 0.24 + 0.45 H
where H = Humidity
Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.45 × 0.0074
= 0.243 k cal/kg dry air oC
3 o
Air rate is 214 m /hour at 21.2 C dry bulb and 0.0074 kg water vapour/kg dry air.
Humid volume = 18 + 29 × 0.82 × P
H 1 T
 
T = 21.2 oC = 273 + 21.2 = 294.2 k
P = 1 atm.
kg dry air 1
Humid volume, hour = 214 × 0.843
= 253.9
Heat requirements = 253.9 × 0.243 (65 – 21.2)
= 2702.4 k cal/hour (Ans.)
In the reheater, Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.024 × 0.45 = 0.251
Heat requirement = 253.9 × 0.251 (41 – 28)
= 828.5 k cal/hour (Ans.)
(4) Air at 1 atm is blown past the bulb of a mercury thermometer. The bulb is covered
with a wick. The wick is immersed in an organic liquid (molecular weight = 58). The
reading of the thermometer is 7.6°C. At this temperature, the vapour pressure of the
liquid is 5 kPa. Find the air temperature, given that the ratio of heat transfer
coefficient to the mass transfer coefficient (psychrometric ratio) is 2 kJ/kg.K and the
latent heat of vapourization of the liquid is 360 kJ/kg. Assume that the air, which is
blown, is free from the organic vapour.
Sol. : For simultaneous mass and heat transfer, heat flux q and mass flux NA are related as
q = NA λ … (1)
where, λ is the latent heat of vapourization. Mass flux is given by
'
NA = kY (Yw – Y') … (2)
where, kY = mass transfer coefficient;
'
Yw = mass ratio of vapour in surrounding air at satuation; and
Y' = mass ratio of vapour is surrounding air.
Connectivity heat flux is given by,

q = h (T – Tw) … (3)
where, h = Heat transfer coefficient;

Tw = Wet bulb temperature of air; and
T = Dry bulb temperature of air
Substituting for NA and q from equation (2) and equation (3) in equation (1),
'
h (T – Tw) 6.13 = ky (Yw – Y') λ
'
λ (Yw – Y')
T – Tw = h/kY … (4)
Given : Y' = 0; λ = 360 kJ/k; h/kY = 2 kJ/kg.K; and Tw = 7.6°C.

' kg organic vapour at saturation
Yw = kg dry air
5 58
= 101.3 – 5 29 = 0.1038
Substituting these in eqution (4)

(360) (0.1038 – 0)
T – 7.6 = 2 = 18.69
T = 18.69 + 7.6 = 26.29°C (Ans.)
Temperature of air = 26.29°C
(5) Air at 30°°C and 150 kPa in a closed container is compressed and cooled. It is found that
the first droplet of water condenses at 200 kPa and 15°°C. Calculate the percent relative
humidity of the original air. The vapour pressures of water at 15°°C and 30°°C are
1.7051 kPa and 4.246 kPa respectively.
Sol. : Since the first droplet of water condenses at 15°C and 200 kPa, at this conditions the air is
100% humidity.
pA (pt − ps)
i.e. percentage humidity or percentage absolute humidity = 100 × p (p − p ) = 100
s t A
pA ps
Therefore, pt − pA = pt − ps
where, pA = Partial pressure of water vapour
ps = Vapour pressure of water
pt = Total pressure of system

Assuming water-vapour air mixture as an ideal gas,

1.7051
Number of moles of water vapour per mole or dry air = 200 − 1.7051 = 0.0086
This ratio (moles of water vapour/mole of dry air) is not going to change for a closed
system and before condensation. Therefore, partial pressure of A at 30°C and 150 kPa is
found by equating this mole ratio as,
pA
pt − pA = 0.0086
pA
150 − pA = 0.0086
pA = 1.279 kPa
Percentage relative humidity of the original air :
Percentage relative humidity = 100 × (pA/ps) = 100 × (1.279/4.246) = 30.12%
(6) A forced-draft counter current water-cooling tower is cool 3 kg/s water from 40°C to
20°C. The air is drawn into the tower from ambient conditions at 20°C and
1 atmosphere. The ambient air has a wet bulb temperature of 10°C. The gas film mass
transfer coefficient is estimated using a correlation to give kya = 0.02 kmol/(m3.s). The
liquid film heat transfer resistance is negligible, in other words, hL a is very large. The
air rate is opened at 25% above the minimum.
(a) What is the enthalpy of the entering air stream per unit mass of the dry air ?
(b) What is the operating line ? Determining the slope for the possible operating
line.
(c) Estimate the enthalpy of air stream leaving the tower per unit mass of the
dry.
(d) What is the connecting line ? Determine the slope of the connecting
line.
Additional data are given as follows. Molar masses : 18.015 kg/kmol for H2O and
28.96 kg/kmol for dry air. Heat capacities : 1.005 kJ (kg.K) for dry air,
1.884 kJ/(kg.K) for water vapour and 4.141 kJ/(kg.K) for liquid water. The latent
heat of water is 2501.4 kJ/kg. Density and viscosity of liquid water are
approximately 997 kg/m3 and 0.89 cP; respectively. Vapor pressuer of water at
10°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C and 40°C are : 1.228 kPa, 2.338 kPa, 3.169 kPa,
4.246 kPa, 5.643 kPa and 7.384 kPa, respectively.
Data : Enthalpy of saturated air in reference to the zero degree Celsius dry air and
liquid water.
200
150
Hy, kJ/kg-dry air
100
50
0 20 25 30 35 40
o
TL, C
Graph 6.1
Sol. :
2
1
Fig. 6.26
L = 3 kg/s, TL2 = 40°C, TL1 = 20°C
TG1 = 20°C, Tw 1 = 10°C
'
kya = 0.02 kmol/(m3.s), G = 1.25 Gmin
*
(a) Tw1 ≈ Tambient air ⇒ Hy1 = Hy at 10°C
PAS = 1.228 kPa

PAS MA
H1 = P – P × M
t AS B
1.228 18.15
= 101.325 – 1.228 × 28.96
= 7.632 × 10–3 kg/kg.dry air

Cs = 1.005 + 1.884 H
Hy 1 = (1.005 + 1.884 H1) (TG1 – TR) + 2501.4 × H1 kJ/kg.dry air
= (1.005 + 1.884 × 7.632 × 10–3) (20 – 0) + 2501.4 × 7.632 × 10–3

Hy 1 = 39.48 kJ/kg.dry air (Ans.)
(b) Operating line is the overall energy balance equation between the middle of the
tower (any point) and one end of the tower. It is given by,
Hy – Hy 1 LG
TL – TL1 = G ,TL1 = 20°C, TL2 = 40°C
TL at Pinch = 33°C, Hy at Pinch = 116.8.

Hy at Pinch – Hy 1
∴ LG = =
116.8 – 39.48
G TL at Pinch – TL1 33 – 20
max
= 5.948 kJ/kg.K kg air (Ans.)

L · CL
(c) Gmin =
 CL
L
G
max
3 kg/s × 4.141 kJ/kg.K
= 5.948 kJ/k.kg dry air
= 2.0887 kg.dry air/s
G = 1.25 Gmin = 2.611 kg.dry air/s
= 1.25  G 
LG 1 LG
G  
max
kJ
= 4.7584 kg.kg dry air
Hy 2 – Hy 1 L · CL
TL 2 – TL 1 = G
LG
Hy 2 = Hy1 + G (TL2 – TL1)
= 39.48 + 4.7584 (40 – 20)
= 134.648 kJ/kg-dry air. (Ans.)
(d) Connecting line is the energy flux conditions at the interface. Energy transfer from
the gas phase to the interface is the same as the energy transferred to the liquid ⇒
vertical line.
200
150
Hy, kJ/kg-dry air
100
50
0 20 25 30 35 40
o
TL, C
Graph 6.2
(7) A mixture of air and water-vapour has a dry bulb temperature of 60°C and an absolute
humidity of 0.03 kg-water vapour/kg-dry air. The system pressure is at
1 atmosphere absolute. Evaluate.
(a) Saturation absolute humidity
(b) Relative humidity or relatie saturation
(c) Dew point temperature
(d) Humid volume
(e) Humid heat
(f) Enthalpy
(g) Heat required to heat 1.2 m3 of this mixture to 120°C
(h) Adiabatic saturation temperature
(i) Wet-bulb temperature
Sol. : (a) Saturation absolute humidity :
Use the Psychometric chart.
on
ati
0.15
t ur
sa
%
00
1
0.03
o
60 C Hs = 0.15 kg H2O/kg-dry air
Fig. 6.27 : Determination of saturation absolute humidity
(b) Relative humidity :

PA
HR = ° × 100 %
PA
PA MA MB H
H = (P – P ) M ⇒ PA = M + M H · Pt
t A B A B
°
PA MA ° M B HS
HS = ° ⇒ PA = M + M H · Pt
(Pt – PA) MB A B S
M A + M B HS H
Thus, HR = M + M H × H × 100 %
A B S
18.02 + 28.97 × 0.15 0.03
= × × 100 %
18.02 + 28.97 × 0.03 0.15
⇒ HR = 23.68 % (Ans.)
(b) Dew point temperature :

io n
ra t
tu
sa
0.03
0%
10
o
30.9 60 C Tdp = 30.9°C (Ans.)
Fig. 6.28 : Determination of dew point
υH = 8314 M + M  · P
1 H T
(d)
 B A t
= 8314 × 28.97 + 18.02 ×

1 0.03 60 + 273.15
m3-mixture/kg-dry
  101325
air
υH = 0.9831 m3-mixture/kg-dry air (Ans.)
(e) Humid heat :
CS = 1.005 + 1.884 H kJ/kg-dry air.K
= 1.005 + 1.884 × 0.003 kJ/kg-dry air.K
= 1.0615 kJ/kg-dry air.K
= 1.0615 kJ/kg-dry air.K (Ans.)
(f) Enthalpy :
Hy = CS (T – T0) + Hλ0
Hy = 1.0615 × (60 – 0) + 2501.4 × 0.03 kJ/kg-dry air
Hy = 138.73 kJ/kg.dry air (Ans.)
(g) Q = WB · CS ∆T
1.2
= 0.9891 × 1.0615 × (120 – 60) kJ
= 77.27 kJ (Ans.)
(h) Adiabatic saturation temperature :
io n
ra t
tu
sa
adiabatic
%
00
saturation
1
curve
0.03 TS = 35.6°C (Ans.)
o o
35.6 C 60 C
Fig. 6.29 : Determination of adiabatic saturation
temperature
(i) Wet bulb temperature :
For air water system Twb ≈ TS
⇒ Twb = 35.6°C (Ans.)
(8) A plant requires 5000 kg/h of cooling water to flow through its overhead condenser in
a distillation column. Hot water will leave the condenser at 46°C. It is planned to cool
the water for reuse by contact with air in an induced draft cooling tower. Entering air
is at 24°C dry bulb temperature and 20°C wet bulb temperature. Water is to be cooled
within 6°C of the inlet air wet bulb temperature. An air flow rate of 1.4 times the
minimum (based on the dry air basis) should be used. For the packing to be used
kya = 8.25 mol/(m3.s) and hLa = 10.0 kJ/(m3.s.K). The tower diameter is 2 meters.
(a) Determine the inlet air stream humidity air and enthalpy
(b) Calculate the air rate to be used.
(c) Calculate the packing height.
Molar mases are : 18.02 for water and 28.97 for dry air.
The heat capacity of liquid water is 4.181 kJ/(kg.K).
Sol. :
G1 HY 2
H2 L
TG2 TL2
G1 HY1
H2 L
TG1 TL1
Fig. 6.30 : Schematic for Ex. (7)

L = 5000 kg/hr, TL2 = 46°C, TG1 = 24°C,

Tw1 = 20°C, TL1 = 26°C, G = 1.4 Gmin
kya = 8.25 mol/(m3.s); hLa = 10.0 kJ/(s.m3.K)
(a) Hy 1 = Hy at Tw1 = 57.8 kJ/kg-dry air (read from graph)
Hy 1 = Cs (TG1 – T0) + λ0 H1
= (CB + H1 CA) (TG1 – T0) + λ0 H1
Hy1 – CB (TG1 – T0 )
⇒ H1 =
λ0 + CA (TG1 – T0)
57.8 – 1.005 × (24 – 0)

= kg-H2O/kg-dry air
2501.4 + 1.884 × (24 – 0)
= 0.0132 kg-H2O/kg-dry air (Ans.)
(b) Operating line (overall balance)
Hy – Hy 1 LCL
⇒ TL – TL1 = G
Plot pinch line passing (TL1 , Hy1 ) on Hys
⇒ LCL =
244 – 57.8
 G  50 – 26 kJ/(kg.K)
max
= 7.758 kJ/(kg.K)
G = 1.4 Gmin = 1.4 × 7.758–1 × 5000 × 4.181 kg/h (Ans.)
= 3772.5 kg/hv
(c) Operating line
Hy – Hy 1 LCL 5000 × 4.181
TL – TL1 = G = 3772.5 kJ/(kg.K) = 5.54 kJ/kg
TL2 = 46°C, Hy2 = 168.6 kJ/kg-dry air

Hy 1 + Hy 2
2 = 113.2 kJ/kg-dry air ⇒ TL = 36°C
Connecting line (slope).
Hy i – Hy hL a hL a 10.0 × 103
Ti – TL = ' = –k aM
y B
= –
8.25 × 28.97
kJ/(kg.K)
kG a Pt MB
= – 418.41 kJ/(kg.K)
Ti = Hy = 57.8 Hy = 113.2 Hy = 168.6
TL = 26°C TL = 36°C TL = 46°C
Hy i = 141.51 196.91 252.31
Hy 57.8 113.2 168.6

Hy i 79.0 133.0 234
1 0.0472 0.050505 0.01529
Hy i – Hy
Hy2
dHy 113.2 – 57.8
⌠
NG = ⌡ Hy i – Hy = 3 (0.0472 + 0.050505 × 4 + 0.01528)
Hy1
= 4.885
3772.5
 360 
π × 22
G 4 
HG = K a M =
y B 8.25 × 28.97
= 1.396 m
Z = HG · NG,
Z = 6.28 m (Ans.)
280
260
240
220
200
Hy, kJ/kg-dry air
180
160
(TL2, Hy2)
120
100
80
60
(TL1, Hy1)
40
20
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
o
T, C
Graph 6.3 : Graphical analysis for Ex. (7)

(1) Water is to be cooled from 43 oC to 27 oC in a forced draft cooling tower under conditions
such that the height of the transfer unit is 0.5 m. Air enters the bottom of the tower at
24oC and a wet bulb temperature of 21 oC. Find the tower height if 1.33 times the
minimum air is used. Neglect the heat transfer resistance of liquid phase.
Enthalpy Data :
air, Ti (oC) Enthalpy of moist air, Ei, k cal/kg dry air
15.6 14.7
18.3 16.7
21.1 18.9
23.9 21.5
26.7 24.3
29.4 27.5
32.2 31.1
35.0 35.2
37.8 39.9
40.6 45.2
43.3 51.3
(Ans. : Height of cooling tower = 2.012 m.)
(2) Hot water at 45 oC is to be cooled in an induced draft cooling tower by contact with air to
a temperature of 29 oC; calculate the following :
(a) The minimum air rate (dry air) required in kg/sec.
(b) The height of packed tower required if the actual air flow rate is taken as 11 kg dry
air per second.
(Ans. : (a) Minimum dry air rate = 6.94 kg/sec. (b) HTU = 12.2 m, NTU = 3.125,
Z = Height of packed tower = 38.2 m.)
(3) At a temperature of 37.8°C and at 1.0 atm if the partial pressure of water vapour is
3.59 kPa, calculate the following : (Use charts or equations)
(a) Humidity (b) Saturation Humidity
(c) Percentage Humidity (d) Percentage Relative Humidity
(4) The air entering a dryer has a dry bulb temperature of 65.6°C and a dew point of 15.6°C.
Using appropriate charts or equations, calculate the following :
(a) Humidity (b) Percentage Humidity
(c) Humid volume (d) Humid heat
o
(5) An air stream at 87.8 C having a humidity of 0.030 kg H2O/kg dry air is contacted in an
adiabatic saturator with water. It is cooled and humidified to 90% saturation.
(a) Calculate the final H (enthalpy) and T (temperature).
(b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H and T ?
(6) A counter current water-cooling tower using an air flow rate that is 1.5 times the
2 o o
minimum required is to cool 2000 lb/(hr.ft ) water from 110 F to 85 F. The entering air
o o
has a dry bulb temperature of 85 F and a wet-bulb temperature of 75 F. The product of
mass transfer coefficient (overall, gas phase) and the interfacial area per unit volume (or
3
KGa) is known to be 6.90 lb mol/(hr.ft atm).
(a) Calculate the minimum airflow rate.
(b) Calculate the height of the tower using an air rate 1.5 times the minimum.
(7) The following data were obtained during a test run of a packed cooling tower of 0.4 m
diameter and 1 m packed height, operating at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
humidity of the exit air by means of an enthalpy balance. Average temperature of
entering and leaving air is 38°C and 39°C respectively. Average temperature of water
entering and leaving is 46°C and 35°C respectively.
Rate of entering air = 13.6 m3/min
Rate of entering water = 1000 kg/hr
Humidity of entering air = 0.0175 kg water vapour/kg dry air
Latent heat of evaporation of water = 589 kcal/kg
Specific heat of air = 0.245 kcal/kg°C
Specific heat of water vapour = 0.45 kcal/kg°C
(8) A wet solid material is dried from 0.7 kg water/kg dry solid to 0.08 kg water/kg dry
solid in a continuous counter-current drier from which the product flows out at the rate
of 500 kg/hr. The inlet air to the drier is at 54°C with an initial humidity of 0.015 kg
water/kg of dry air and the exit air is at 32.2°C with 80% saturated humidity. Calculate
the inlet air rate in m3/hr and the heat supplied by the preheater if the atmospheric
temperature is 24°C.
Data :
Saturated humidity at 32.2°C = 0.025 kg water/kg dry air
Specific volume of dry air at 54°C = 0.925 m3/kg
Saturated volume = 1.09 m3/kg
Humid heat 0.015 humidity = 0.243 cal/gm°C
Humid heat at 32.2°C and at 80% saturated humidity = 0.250 cal/gm°C
(9) For a drying process, air is required at 38°C with a dew point of 21°C. To make this air at
15°C and 40 percent relative humidity is first heated and passed through an adiabatic
humidifier until the required conditions are obtained. Estimate the temperature to which
air is to be heated first. Vapour pressure of water : 12.8 mm Hg at 15°C and 18.7 mm Hg
at 21°C. Latent heat of vapourization at 38°C = 576 cal/gm. Specific heat of dry air = 0.24
and that of water vapour = 0.48.
(10) A continuous counter-current drier is to be used to dry 10000 kg per hour of wet solid
containing 5% water (wet basis) to water content of 0.1% (wet basis). Ambient air at 27°C
and a humidity of 0.0075 will be heated to 150°C and the heated air is passed through the
drier. The air leaving the drier is at 70°C with a percentage humidity of 10 percent.
Calculate the air required and the heat supplied in the preheater.
Saturation humidity at 70°C = 0.299
Humid heat of inlet air = 0.243 cal/gmol°K
(11) Conditioned air at 24°C and 40% saturation is to be supplied to a laboratory room of size
4 × 20 × 6 meters, with no facility for recirculation. The air-conditioner takes outside air
with 90% relative humidity at 38°C that it refrigerates and separates out the condensed
water and then reheats it in a heat exchanger using condensing steam at 1 atm pressure.
Determine the following :
(a) The volume of outside air at entry conditions, and the temperature to which it must
be cooled.
(b) The tones refrigeration required and the kg of saturated steam required per hour.
(12) A mixture of oxygen and acetone vapour at a total pressure of 1050 mm Hg at 25°C has a
percentage saturation of 75%. Calculate :
(a) The molal humidity (b) Absolute humidity
(c) Relative humidity (d) Volume percent acetone

(e) Molal humid volume and (f) Molal humid heat.
o
The saturation vapour pressure of acetone at 25 C is 290 mm Hg and the specific heats of
o
oxygen and acetone vapour are 0.25 and 0.35 kcal/kg C respectively.
(13) A mechanical draft-cooling tower is to be designed to cool 75000 kg/hr of water from
o o
45 C using 62500 kg of dry air per hour. 24 C is suggested as the design air wet bulb
temperature. Calculate the number of transfer units and hence the height of the packed
section if the height of a transfer unit for the condition stated above is 4 m. It may be
o
assumed that the liquid phase resistance to heat transfer is negligible. Temperature t C -
saturated enthalpy in kcal/kg dry air (H) data is as follows :
o 24 29 32.5 38 43.5
t C
H 20 25 28 36 46
(14) A horizontal spray chamber with recirculated water is to be used for the adiabatic
humidification and cooling of air. The active part of the chamber is 1.5 m long and a cross
section of 6 m with the nozzle arrangements provided and when operated with water
circulation rate recommended by the nozzle manufacturer, the coefficient of heat transfer
o o
is expected to be hGa = 1600 kcal/hr.cm. C. An amount of 200 cc/min of air at 65 C,
Y' = 0.017 kg water/kg dry air, is to be blown through the spray. Determine
(a) What exit temperature and humidity can be expected from the air ?
(b) Express the performance in terms of kya, NtOG, and HG and stage efficiency.
Note : For air water system CS (humid heat) = 0.24 + 0.45 Y'.
o
(15) The air supply to a drier has a dry bulb temperature of 21 C and wet bulb temperature of
o o
15 C. It is heated to 90 C by heating coils and introduced into the drier. In the drier it
cools along adiabatic cooling line and leaves the drier fully saturated.
(a) What is the dew point of the initial air ?
(b) What is its humidity ?
(c) How much water will be evaporated per 100 cubic meters of entering air ?
o
(d) How much heat is needed to heat 100 cubic meters to 90 C ?
(e) At what temperature does the air leave the drier ?
(16) Air at 15°C having a moisture content of 0.010 kg water/kg dry air is heated to 90°C and
used in a dryer operating under essentially adiabatic conditions which it leaves at 50°C.
Calculate
(a) The heat aded to the dry air.
(b) The moisture expanded per kg dry air.
(c) The specific volume of air leaving the dryer.
(17) 6000 kg/hr of dry air at 10°C and 85% humidity is to be humidified to 40°C and 50%
humidity by first heating the air, contacting it with water in an adiabatic humidifier from
which the air exists at 85% saturation and finally reheating the air to the desired
temperature. Estimate the load on each heater and the volume of the humidifier.
Mass Transfer coefficient kGa = 0.8 kg m–3 s–1
(18) Air at 25°C and 90% humidity is to be conditioned to 50°C and 30% humidity by first
heating the air then humidifying it in an adiabatic humidifier. Estimate the load on the
heater and the volume of the humidifier.
Mass Transfer coefficient, kGa = 0.9 kg m–3 s–1
Air flow at heater inlet = 1.2 m3 s–1
(19) Air saturated at 18°C is to be conditioned to 35°C dry bulb and 27°C wet bulb
temperatures by first heating the air, then contacting the air in an adibatic humidifier. A
tower of 1.5 m diameter is available and a maximum air velocity of 1.05 m s–1 is
permitted. Calculate :
(a) The volume of air (based on initial conditions) which may be humidified.
(b) The height of the tower.
(c) The load on the heater.
Mass Transfer coefficient, kGa = 0.9 kg m–3 s–1
(20) Air saturated at 20°C is to be used to dry solids in a drier operating under essentially
adiabatic conditions. Air is expected to leave the drier at 35°C and 90% saturated with
water vapour. The mass velocity of the gas, G is estimated at 1.2 kg m-2 s-1 and the value
of a, the contact area/m3 of drier volume at 30 m2 m–3. Calculate the temperature at
which the air must enter the drier and the length of the drier. The heat transfer
coefficient, h, may be estimated from h = 0.0241 G0.37/kW m–2 K–1.
NOMENCLATURE
Any consistent set of units may be used as noted, except as noted.
Symbols Meaning
a Specific interfacial surface, based on volume of packed section, m2/m3
aH Specific interfacial surface for heat transfer m2/m3
aM Specific interfacial surface of mass transfer, m2/m3
AO Outside surface of tubes, m2
c Molar density, mole/m3
C Heat capacity of a gas or vapour, unless otherwise indicated, at constant
pressure.
Cs Humid heat, heat capacity of a vapour-gas mixture per unit mass of dry gas
content,
CT Heat capacity of tube - side fluid,
dav Mean diameter of a tube, m
di Inside diameter of a tube, m
do Outside diameter of a tube, m
DAB Molecular diffusivity of vapour A in mixture with gas B, m2/sec
ED Eddy diffusivity of mass, m2/s
EΗ Eddy diffusivity of heat, m2/s
EMG Murphree gas-phase stage efficiency, fractional
F Mass transfer coefficient, mole m2/s
G Molar mass velocity of dry gas, kg/m2.s
G's Superficial mass velocity, mole/m2.s
h Convective heat transfer coefficient,
h' Convective heat transfer coefficient corrected for mass transfer,
h L' , h L" Water heat - transfer coefficients, evapourative cooler
hR Radiation heat transfer coefficient in convection form
H Enthalpy,
Symbols Meaning
H' Enthalpy of a vapour-gas mixture per unit mass of dry gas
Ht Height of a gas transfer unit, m
G
Ht Overall height of a gas-enthalpy transfer unit, m
OG
JA Flux of mass for no bulk flow, mole/m2.sec
k Thermal conductivity
kG Gas-phase mass transfer coefficient,
kY Gas-phase mass transfer coefficient,
KY Overall gas-phase mass transfer coefficient,
log Common logarithm
L' Superficial mass velocity of liquid
Le Lewis number, Sc/Pr, dimensionless
m Slope of a chord of the saturated - enthalpy curve on a H' * – tL diagram;
dH'* /dtL
M Mol wt, M/mole
N Mass transfer flux, mole/m2.s
Nt Number of gas transfer units, dimensionless
G
Nt Number of overall gas transfer units, dimensionless
OG
p Vapour pressure, kN/M2
–
p Partial pressure, kN/M2
–
pB, M Mean partial pressure of non-diffusing gas, kN/M2
PR Prandtl number, C µ/k, dimensionless
qs Sensible - heat - transfer flux,
qT Total - heat- transfer flux,
Q Evaporative - cooler heat load, gain in enthalpy,
S Interfacial surface, m2
Sc Schmidt number, µ/ρ DAB, dimensionless
Sh Sherwood number, kydo/MBc DAB, dimensionless
t Temperature, K
tas Adiabatic saturation temperature, K
tDP Dew-point temperature , K
tW Wet-bulb temperature, K
t0 Reference temperature, K
T Absolute temperature, K
Uo Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside tube surface
v Molar specific volume, m3/mole
vH Humid volume, volume vapour - gas mixture/mass dry gas, m3 /kg
w Mass rate, kg/sec
wS Mass rate of dry gas, kg/s
WB Mass of dry gas, M
Symbols Meaning
x Fraction of heat-transfer surface traversed in the direction of airflow,
dimensionless
Y' Absolute humidity, mass vapour/mass dry gas, kg/kg
zm Metal thickness, m
Z Length or height of active part of equipment, m
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s
Greek Letters :
∆ Difference
λ Latent heat of vapourization
λ' Molar latent heat of vapourization
ρ Density, kg/m3
Subscripts :
0 Reference condition
1, 2 Positions 1, 2
as Adiabatic saturation
av Average
A Substance A, the vapour
bp Boiling point
B Substance B, the gas
G Pertaining to the gas
i Interface
L Pertaining to the liquid
m Metal
min Minimum
nbp Normal boiling point
o Overall; outside
r Reference substance
s Saturation
T Tube - side fluid
w Wet-bulb temperature
Superscript :
* At saturation
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
,,,
7
CHAPTER
EQUIPMENT FOR GAS LIQUID OPERATIONS

7.1 Introduction
Gas Dispersals
7.2 Sparged Vessels (Bubble Columns)
7.3 Mechanically Agitated Vessels
7.3.1 Mechanical Agitation of Single-Phase Liquids
7.3.2 Vortex Formation and Prevention
7.3.3 Similarity considerations in Agitated Vessels
7.4 Tray Towers
7.4.1 General Characteristics
7.4.2 Bubble Cap Trays.
7.4.3 Proprietary Trays : Linde Trays, Valve Trays and Counterflow Trays
7.4.4 Tray Efficiency
7.5 Packed Towers
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Construction Details
7.5.3 Gas and Liquid Phase Coefficients
7.5.4 Design Criteria for Packed Towers
7.5.5 Comparision between Tray Towers and Packed Columns
Liquid Dispersals
7.6 Ventrui Scrubbers
7.7 Wetted Wall Tower
7.8 Spray Tower
Solved Problems
Nomenclature
References
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Gas and liquid can conveniently be contacted, with gas dispersed as bubbles, in agitated
vessels whenever multistage, countercurrent effects are not required. This is particularly the case
when a chemical reaction between the dissolved gas and a constituent of the liquid is required.
The carbonation of a lime slurry, the chlorination of paper stock, the hydrogenation of
vegetable oils, the aeration of fermentation broths, as in the production of penicillin, the
production of citric acid from beet sugar by action of microorganisms, and the aeration of
activated sludge for biological oxidation are all examples. It is perhaps significant that in most of
them solids are suspended in the liquids.
(7.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 7.2 Equipment for Gas Liquid Operations
7.2 SPARGED VESSELS (BUBBLE COLUMNS)

A sparger is a device for introducing a stream of gas in the form of small bubbles into a
liquid. If the vessel diameter is small, the sparger, located at the bottom of vessel, may simply be
an open tube through which the gas issues into the liquid. For vessels of diameter greater than
roughly 0.3 m, it is better to use several orifices for introducing the gas to ensure better gas
distribution. In that case, the orifices may be holes, from 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/4 in.) in diameter,
drilled in a pipe distributor placed horizontally at the bottom of the vessel. Porous plates made of
ceramics, plastics, or sintered metals are also used, but their fine pores are more readily plugged
with solids, which may be present in the gas or the liquid. The purpose of the sparging may be
contacting the sparged gas with the liquid. On the other hand, it may be simply a device for
agitation. It can provide the gentlest of agitation, used for example in washing nitroglycerin with
water; it can provide vigorous agitation as in the Pachuca tank. Air agitation in the extraction of
radioactive liquids offers the advantages of freedom from moving parts, but it may require
decontamination of the effluent air. There is no standardization of the depth of liquid; very deep
tanks, 15 m (50 ft) or more, may be advantageous despite the large work of compression required
for the gas.
Ecknenfelder developed an expression for transfer of oxygen from air bubbles rising in a
column of still air :
h0.78
KL V  = θg · QG
A 1+n
· V … (7.1)
 
The gas disperser must be designed so as to optimize the combined KL V  factor.
A
 
where, θg = A correlating constant dependent on the type of dispersor
Nm3
QG = Gas flow rate, min
(Nm3 = Normal Cubic Meter)
n = A correlating constant dependent on the size of small orifices in
the disperser.
h = Depth below the liquid at which air is introduced to the aeration
tank.
(I) Gas Bubble Diameter :
(a) Very Slow gas Flow Rate :
1
 20 (σ · do · gc) 6 
5
QG <  3   … (7.2)
  (g ∆ ρ)2 ρL  
1
 do · σ gc3
dP = σ· · 
 ∆ρ g 
where, σ = Surface tension, N/m
do = Diameter of orifice, m
gc = Conversion factor = 1 kg.m/N.s2
∆ρ = Density difference between the liquid and gas bubble
= ρL – ρG, kg/m3
dP = Bubble diameter, m
For liquids with high viscosities, µL upto 1 kg/m sec.
dP = 2.312 µL ·
 QG  0.25
· g
 ρL 
(b) Intermediate Flow Rate :
1
  (σ · do · gc) 6 
5
QG > 20. 3   … (7.3)
  (g· ∆ ρ)2 · ρL  
but Reo < 2100 at the orifice outlet.
1 1
2 3
For air-water system : dP = 0.0287 (do) (Reo)
where dP and do are in meters and
d o Vo ρ G
Re = µG
o
for other gases and liquids :

1
 72 ρL 5 0.4
dP =  2  QG
π g ∆ρ
(c) Larger gas rates : for orifice diameter – 0.4 – 1.6 mm for air-water :
Re = 10,000 – 50,000
o
dP = 0.0071 + 0.05 Reo

(II) Terminal Velocity of Single Bubble :
The steady-state rising velocity (terminal velocity) of single bubbles is
Region 1 : for dP < 0.7 mm
2 ∆ρ
Vt = g · dP · (18 µ ) (Stoke's law region) … (7.4)
L
Region 2 : For 0.7 mm < dP < 1.4 mm Vt is obtained from the line AB of Fig. (7.1).
Fig. 7.1 : Terminal Velocity Vs. Bubble Diameter Plot

Slip velocity (VS) is the relative velocity of the gas and liquid.
VG VL
(A) For cocurrent flow : VS = – … (7.5)
φG 1 – φG
VG VL
(B) For countercurrent flow : VS = + … (7.6)
φG 1 – φG
The gas hold up for sparged vessel is correlated through slip velocity by the following figure.
Fig. 7.2 : Slip Velocity (Sparged Vessel)

(III) Specific–Interfacial Area :
It is the interfacial area of a gas-liquid mixture in unit-volume.
2
a = n × π × dP
φG = n ×  6 · dP
π 3
Again, … (7.7)
 
where, a = Interfacial area, m2
n = Number of bubbles in a gas volume φG
dP = Bubble diameter, m
VL
For air-water system, and φG in the range 0.1 to 0.4, and = 0.15 to 15 m/s.
(1 – φG)
2.344  VL 
dP = (1000)   … (7.8)
(1 – φG)
(IV) Mass Transfer :
In all liquid-gas bubble operations, the liquid phase mass transfer resistance overwhelms
gas-phase resistance. So mass transfer is calculated on the basis of liquid-phase coefficients :
1 0.116
FL · dP 0.779 0.546   9 3
ShL = C · D = 2 + bRe · SC dP 2 
L G L  D  
  L 
where, b = 0.061 for single gas bubbles
= 0.0187 for swarm of bubbles
dP × VS × ρL
Re = Gas Reynolds number = µL
G
For single gas bubble, φG = 0 and VS = Vt

FL = Liquid mass-transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
DL = Diffusivity of gas in the liquid, m2/S
SC = Schmidt number for the liquid phase
L
(V) Gas Hold-up :

By gas holdup φG is meant the volume fraction of the gas-liquid mixture in the vessel, which
is occupied by the gas. If the superficial gas velocity, defined as the volume rate of gas flow
divided by the cross-sectional areas of the vessel, is VG, then VG/ϕG can be taken as the true gas
velocity relative to the vessel walls. If the liquid flows upward, co-currently with the gas, at a
velocity relative to the vessel walls VL/(1 - φG), the relative velocity of gas and liquid, or slip
velocity is given by :
VG VL
VS = – … (7.9)
φG 1 – φG
Equation (7.9) will also give the slip velocity for countercurrent flow of liquid if VL for the
downward liquid flow is assigned a negative sign.
7.3 MECHANICALLY AGITATED VESSELS
Mechanical agitated of a liquid, usually by a rotating device, is especially suitable for
dispersing solids, liquids, or gases into liquids, and it is used for many of the mass-transfer
operations. Agitators can produce very high turbulence intensities (u’/u average as high as 0.35
ranging up to 0.75 in the vicinity of an agitating impeller, contrasted with about 0.04 for turbulent
flow in pipes), which not only produce good mass-transfer coefficients but also are necessary for
effective dispersion of liquids and gases. High liquid velocities, particularly desirable for
suspending solids, are readily obtained.
7.3.1 Mechanical Agitation of Single-Phase Liquids
Typical agitated vessels are vertical circular cylinder; rectangular tanks are unusual, although
not uncommon in certain liquid-extraction applications. The liquids are usually maintained at a
depth of one to two tank diameters.
Impellers :
There are literally scores of designs. The discussion here is limited to the most popular, as
shown in Fig. 7.3. There are usually mounted on an axially arranged, motor driven shaft, as in
fig. In the smaller sizes, particularly, the impeller and shaft may enter the vessel at an angle to
the vessel axis, with the motor drive clamped to the rim of the vessel. The marine-type propeller,
Fig. 7.3 (a), is characteristically operated at relatively high speed, particularly in low viscosity
liquids, and is especially useful for its high liquid-circulating capacity. The ratio of impeller
diameter to vessel diameter, di/T, is usually set at 1 : 5 or less. The liquid flow is axial, and the
propeller is turned so that it produces downward flow toward the bottom of the vessel. In
describing the propeller, pitch refers to the ratio of the distance advanced per revolution by a free
propeller operating without slip to the propeller diameter; square pitch, which is most common in
agitator designs, means a pitch equal to unity. Propellers are more frequently used for liquid
blending operations than for mass-transfer purposes.
Fig. 7.3 : Impellers with typical proportions (a) marine-type properleers; (b) fiat blade turbine, w = di /5,
(c) disk flat-blade turbine, w = di / 5, di = 2d/3, B = di / 4; (d) curved-blade turbine, w = di / 8, (e) pitched
blade turbine, w = di / 8; and (f) shrouded turbine, w = di / 8.
Fig. 7.4 : Liquid agitation in presence of a gas-liquid interface, with and without wall baffles :
(a) marine impeller and (b) disk flat-blade turbines; (c) in full vessels without a gas liquid interface
(continuous flow) and without baffles
Turbines, particularly the flat-blade designs of Fig. 7.3 (b) and (c), are frequently used for
mass-transfer operations. The cured blade design is useful for suspension of fragile pulps,
crystals, and the like and the pitched-blade turbine more frequently for blending liquids. The
surrounded impeller of fig. 7.3 (f) has limited use in gas-liquid contracting. Flow of liquid from
the impeller is radial except for the pitched-blade design, where it is axial. Although the best ratio
di/T depends upon the application, a value of 1:3 is common. Turbines customarily operate with
peripheral speeds of the order of 2.5 to 4.6 m/s (450 to 850 ft/min), depending the service.
7.3.2 Vortex Formation and Prevention
Typical flow patterns for single-phase newtonian liquids of moderate viscosity are shown in
Fig 7.4. For an axially located impeller operating at low speeds in an open vessel with gas-liquid
surfaces, the liquid surface is level and the liquid circulates about the axis. As the impeller speed
is increased to produce turbulent conditions, the power required to turn the impeller increases
and a vortex begins to form around the shaft. At higher speeds the vortex eventually reaches the
impeller, as in the left-hand sketches of Fig. 7.4 (a) and (b). Air is drawn into the liquid, the
impeller operates partly in air, and the power required drops. The drawing of gas into the liquid
is frequently undesirable, and, in addition, vortex formation leads to difficulties in scaling up of
model experiments and pilot-plant studies, so that steps are usually taken to prevent vortices.
A possible exception is when a solid that is difficult to wet is to be dissolved in a liquid,
e.g., powdered boric acid in water, when it is useful to pour the solid into the vortex. Vortex
formation can be prevented by the following means :
(1) Open tanks with gas-liquid surfaces :
(a) Operation only in the laminar range for the impeller (NRe 10 to 20). This is usually
impractically slow for mass-transfer purposes.
(b) Off-center location of the impeller on a shaft entering the vessel at an angle to the vessel axis. This
is used relatively infrequently in permanent installations, and is used mostly in
small-scale work with impeller where the agitator drive is clamped to the rim of the
vessel.
(c) Installation of baffles. This is by far the most common method. Standard baffling consists of
0
four flat, vertical strips arranged radially at 90 intervals around and tank wall, extending
for the full liquid depth, as in the right-hand sketches of Fig. 7.4 (a) and (b). The standard
baffle width is usually T/12, less frequently T/10 (“10 percent baffles”). Baffles are
sometimes set at a clearance from the vessel wall of about one-sixth the baffle width to
eliminate stagnant pockets in which the solids can accumulate. They may be used as
supports for helical heating or cooling coils immersed in the liquid. The condition of fully
baffled turbulence is considered to exist for these vessels at impeller Reynolds numbers
above 10,000. The presence of baffles reduces swirl and increases the vertical liquid
currents in the vessel, as shown on the right of Fig. 7.4. The power required to turn the
impeller is also increased.
(2) Closed tanks, operated full, with no gas-liquid surface : This is especially convenient
for cases where the liquid flows continuously through the vessel, as in Fig. 7.4 (c). A circular flow
pattern is superimposed upon the axial flow directed toward the center of the impeller. The
arrangement is not practical, of course, for gas-liquid contact, where baffles should be used.
7.3.3 Similarity Considerations in Agitated Vessels
While discussing the characteristics of any agitated vessels, it is necessary to consider the
similarity and this is particularly important when it is desired to obtain simple laws describing
vessels of different sizes. For example, when proper regard to similarity and by describing results
in terms of dimensionless groups, it is possible to experiment with a vessel filled with air and
expect the results for power, degree of turbulence, to be applicable to vessels filled with liquid.
Three types of similarity are significant when dealing with liquid motion :
(1) Geometric Similarity : It refers to linear dimensions. Two vessels of different sizes are
geometrically similar if the ratios of corresponding dimensions on the two scales are the
same, and this refers to tank, baffles, impellers and the liquid depths. If photographs of
two vessels are completely – superimposable, they are geometrically similar.
(2) Kinematic Similarity : It refers to motion and requires geometric similarity and the same
ratio of velocities for corresponding positions in the vessels. This is especially important
for mass-transfer studies.
(3) Dynamic Similarity : It deals with forces and requires all force ratios for corresponding
positions to be equal in kinematically similar vessels.
7.4 TRAY TOWERS
Introduction :
The purpose of the equipment used for gas-liquid operations is to provide intimate contact of
the two fluids in order to permit interphase diffusion of the constituents. The rate of mass transfer
is directly dependent upon the interfacial surface exposed between the phases, and the nature
and degree of dispersion of one fluid in the other. The equipment can be classified according to
whether its principle action is to disperse the gas or the liquid, although in many devices both
phases because dispersed. Tray towers are the most important of the gas-dispersed group since
they produce countercurrent, multistage contact. Other equipment is sparged and agitated
vessels.
Tray Towers :
Tray towers are vertical cylinders in which the liquid and the gas contacted in stepwise
fashion on trays or plates as shown in Fig. 7.5. The liquid enters at the top and flow downward by
gravity. On the way it flows across each tray and through a downspout to the tray below. The gas
passes upward through opening at one sort or another in the tray, then bubbles through the
liquid to form a froth, disengages from the froth and passes on the next tray. The overall effect is
a multiple counter current contact of gas and liquid. Each tray of the tower is a stage, since on the
tray the fluids are brought into intimate contact, interphase diffusion occurs and fluids are
separated.
(i) Flooding : High pressure drop may lead directly to a condition of flooding. When a large
pressure difference in the space between trays, the level of liquid leaving a tray relatively low
pressure and entering one of high pressure must necessarily assume an elevated position in the
downspouts as shown in Fig. 7.5. As the pressure difference is increased due to increased rate of
flow of either gas or liquid, the level in the downspout will rise further to permit the liquid to
enter the lower tray. Ultimately the liquid level may reach that on the tray above. Further
increases in either flow rate then aggravates the conditions rapidly and the liquid will fill the
entire space between the trays. The tower is then flooded, the tray efficiency falls to a low value,
the flow of gas is erratic and liquid may be forced out of the exit pipe at the top of the tower.
(ii) Priming : For liquid-gas combinations which tend to foam excessively, high gas
velocities may lead to a condition of priming. Here the foam persists throughout the space
between trays and great amount of liquid is carried by the gas from one tray to the tray above.
This is an exaggerated condition of back mixing. The liquid so carried recalculates between trays
and the added liquid – handling load increases the gas pressure drop sufficiently to lead to
flooding.
Fig. 7.5 : Schematic section through sieve-tray tower

(iii) Coning : If the liquids are too low, the gas rising through the openings of the tray may
push the liquid away is allied as coning. In this situation, contact of the gas and liquid is poor.
(iv) Weeping : If the gas rate is too low, much of the liquid may rain down through the
openings of the tray is called as weeping. Thus failing to obtain the benefit of complete flow over
the trays.
(v) Dumping : At very low gas rates, none of the liquid reaches the downspouts, this is
called as dumping. The relation between these conditions are shown in Fig. (7.6) and all types of
trays are subject to these difficulties in same form.
7.4.1 General Characteristics
Certain design features common to most frequently used tray designs are as follows :
(1) Shell and Trays : The tower may be made of any number of materials depending upon
the corrosion conditions expected. Glass, glass-lined metal, plastics and metals (frequently) are
used. For metal tower the shells are usually cylindrical for reasons of cost. In order to facilitate
cleaning, small-diameter tower are fitted with hand-holes & large towers with manways. The
trays are usually made of sheet metals, the thickness governed by the corrosion resistivity. The
trays must be stiffen or supported and must be fastened to the shell to prevent movement owing
to surges of gas with allowance for thermal expansion.
(2) Tray spacing : Tray spacing is usually chosen on the basis of expediency in construction,
maintenance and cost. It should provide adequate insurance against flooding and excessive
entrainment. For special cases where tower height is an important consideration, spacing of 15 cm
(6 in) have been used. for all except the smallest tower diameters, 50 cm (20 in) in would seem to
be more workable minimum from the point of view of cleaning the tray.
(3) Tower Diameter : The tower diameter and consequently its cross-sectional area must be
sufficiently large to handle the gas and liquid rates within the region of satisfactory operation of
figure (7.6).
The tower diameter required may be decreased by use of increased tray spacing, so well as
diameter, passes through a minimum at some optimum tray spacing.
Fig. 7.6 : Operating Characteristics of Sieve Trays

(4) Downspouts : The liquid is led from one tray to the next by means of downspouts, or
downcomers. These may be circular pipes or preferably portions of the tower cross-section set
wide for liquid by vertical plates. Since the liquid is agitated into a froth on the tray, adequate
residence time must be allowed in the downspout to permit disengaging the gas from the liquid,
so that only clear liquid enter the tray below. The downspout must be brought close enough to
the tray below to seal into the liquid on that tray thus preventing gas from rising up the
downspout to short-circuit the tray above.
(5) Weirs : The depth of liquid on the tray required for gas contacting is maintained by an
overflow (outlet) weir, which may or may not be a continuation of the downspout plate. Straight
weirs are mast common, multiple V-notch weirs maintain a liquid depth, which is less sensitive to
variations. In liquid flow rate and consequently also from departure of the tray from levelness.
Inlet weirs may results in a hydraulic jump of liquid and are not generally recommended. A weir
of length of from 60 to 80 percent of the tower diameter is used.
(6) Liquid-Flow : Several schemes are used for directing the liquid flow as shown in Fig. 7.7.
Reverse flow can be used for relatively small towers but the most common arrangement is the
single pass cross flow trays for large diameter towers, radial or split flow can be used but cross-
flow tray are more preferred due to their low cost. Commercial columns upto 50 ft in diameter
use cascade designs of bubble cap trays while two pass trays are common for diameters of 3 to
6 m and more passes for larger diameter.
Fig. 7.7 : Tray Arrangements Arrows Show Direction of Liquid Flow

7.4.2 Bubble – Cap Trays
Fig. 7.8 (a) : Typical Bubble-Cap Designs

On these trays chimneys or risers lead the gas through the tray and underneath caps
surmounting the risers. A series of slots is cut into the rim of each cap and the gas passes through
them to contact the liquid, which flows past the caps. The liquid depth is such that the caps are
covered or nearly so. Design characteristics are available in some standard books. They offer the
distinct advantage of being able to handle very wide ranges of liquid and gas flow rates
satisfactorily (the ratio of design rate to minimum rate is the turndown ratio) but they cost double of
that of sieve, counterflow and valve trays.
Sieve (Perforated) Trays :
Fig. 7.8 (b) : Typical Bubble–Cap Tray Arrnagement

These are perforated trays and now-a-days are very popular due to their low cost. The
principal part of the tray is a horizontal sheet of perforated metal across which the liquid flows
with the gas passing upward through the perforations.
The gas such dispersed expands the liquid into a turbulent froth, characterized by a very
large. Interfacial surface for mass transfer. The trays are subject to flooding because of backup of
liquids in the downspouts or excessive entrainment (priming). Standard books provide design
considerations of these trays.
7.4.3 Proprietary Trays
Many decades the basic design of tray tower internals remained relatively static, recent years
following types of trays are gaining much importance.
(i) Linde Trays : These designs have involved improvements both in perforation design and
the tray arrangements. Figure (7.9), shows the slotted tray, an alteration in the perforation pattern
to influence the flow of liquid. The slots distributed throughout the tray, not only reduce the
hydraulic gradient in large trays (over 10 m diameter) but are also so deployed that they
influence the direction of liquid flow to eliminate stagnant areas and achieve, as nearly as
possible, desirable plug flow of liquid across the tray. Fig. 7.9 shows a bubbling promoter, or
inclined perforated area at the liquid entrance to the tray. This reduces excessive weeping and
produces more uniform froth throughout the tray.
Fig. 7.9 : Linde Sieve Trays : (a) Slotted Sieve Tray, (b) Bubbling Promoter, Cross flow Tray
(ii) Valve Trays : These are sieve trays with largely (roughly 35 to 40 mm diameter) variable
openings for gas flow. The perforations are covered with movable caps which rise as the flow rate
of gas increases. At low gas rates and correspondingly small openings, the tendency to weep is
reduced. At high gas rates the gas pressure drop remains low but not as low as that for sieve
trays.
(iii) Counterflow Trays : These tray-resembling devices differ from conventional trays in
that there are no ordinary downspouts : liquid and vapour flow counter-currently through the
same openings.
7.4.4 Tray Efficiency
It is the fractional approach to an equilibrium stage, which is attained by a real tray since the
conditions at various locations on the tray may differ, we may consider local or point efficiency of
mass transfer at particular place on the tray surface.
(i) Overall Tray Efficiency (Eo) : Performance of a tray tower can also be calculated as overall
tray efficiency (Eo).
Number of ideal trays requried
Eo = Number of real trays required
(ii) Point Efficiency (Eo ) : Figure (7.10) is a schematic representation of one tray of a
G
multitray tower. The tray n is fed from tray n – 1 above by liquid of average composition xn – 1
mole fraction of transferred component and it delivers liquid of average composition xn to the
tray below. At the place under considerations, a pencil of gas composition yn + 1, local local rises
from below, and as a result of mass transfer, leaves with a concentration, yn, local. At the place in
question, it is assumed that the liquid concentration xlocal is constant in the vertical direction. The
point efficiency is then defined by,
yn‚ local – yn + 1‚ local
EOG = * … (7.10)
ylocal – yn + 1‚ local
*
where ylocal is the concentration in equilibrium with xlocal, and equation (7.10) then
represents the change in gas concentration which actually occurs as a fraction of that which
would occur if equilibrium were established. The subscripts G signifies the gas concentrations are
used and the 0 emphasises that EOG is a measure of the overall resistance to mass-transfer for
both phases.
(iii) Murphree Tray Efficiency : The bulk-average concentrations of all the local pencils of
gas of Fig. 7.10 are yn + 1 and yn. The Murphree efficiency of the entire tray is given by :
yn – yn + 1
EMG = * … (7.11)
yn – yn + 1
*
where yn is the value in equilibrium with the leaving liquid of concentration xn.
Entertainment : It represents a from of
back-mixing, which acts to destroy the
concentration changes produced by the trays.
The Murphree efficiency corrected for
entertainment is given by :
EMG
EMGE = … (7.12)
1 + EMG (1 – E)
E
 
Fig. 7.10 : Tray Efficiency

The number of equilibrium stages in a column or tower is dependent only upon the difficulty
of the separation to be carried out and is determined solely from material balances and
equilibrium consideration. The stage or tray efficiency and therefore the no. of real trays is
determined by the mechanical design used and the conditions of operation. The diameter of
tower on the other hand depends upon the quantities of liquid and gas flowing through the tower
per unit time. Another major problems in design of tower is to choose dimensions and
arrangements which will represent the best compromise between several opposing tendencies,
since it is generally found that conditions leading to high tray efficiencies will ultimately lead to
operational difficulties. For high efficiency the time of contact should be long to permit the
diffusion to occur, the interfacial surface between phases must be made large and a relatively
high intensity of turbulence is required to obtain high mass transfer coefficients. There are many
ways to fulfils all these conditions but at the same time they causes flooding, priming, coning
weeping, dumping.
7.5 PACKED TOWERS
7.5.1 Introduction
Packed columns/towers are generally used for two phases in contact with each other.
Normally one of the fluids will preferentially wet the packing and will flow as a thin film over its
surface while the second fluid passes through the remaining volume of the column with
gas/vapour liquid systems, the liquid will normally be wetting the packing and gas/vapour will
rise through the column making close contact with the down flowing fluid. In a packed column
used for distillation, the more volatile component in transferred to vapour phase progressively
while less volatile condenses but in liquid. Packed columns have also been used extensively for
liquid-liquid extraction processes where a solute is transferred from one solvent to another.
7.5.2 Construction Details
The device consists of a cylindrical column equipped with a gas inlet and distributing space
at the bottom, a liquid inlet and distribution at the top, gas and liquid outlets at the top and
bottom respectively and a supported mass of invert solid shapes called packings, the above
description is for gas absorption equipment. In general, shell of the column may be constructed
from metal, ceramics, glass or plastics material or from metal with corrosion resistant lining. The
columns should be mounted truly vertically for uniform liquid distribution.
Distributors : It the top of the packed column bed, a liquid distributor of suitable design
provides for the uniform irrigation of the packing. Different types of distributor are as follows :
(1) Simple orifice type giving very fine distribution but correct sizing is essential for a
particular duty and should not be used where there is a risk of hole plugging.
(2) Notched chimney type, having good range of flexibility for medium and high flow rates
and is not prone to blockage.
(3) Notched trough distributor type, suitable for large tower sizes and high gas rates.
(4) Perforated ring type of distributor for use with absorption columns where high gas rates
and relatively small liquid rates are encountered. The type is specially suitable where
pressure drop must be minimised.
Redistribution Plate : If the tower is high, distributing plates are necessary for uniform liquid
flow. These plates are needed at intervals of about 2.5 to 3 column diameters for Rasching ring
and 5 – 10 columns diameters for pall rings, but are usually not more than 6 m apart.
Packing Supports : An open space at the bottom of the tower is required for ensuring good
distribution of the gas into the packing. Consequently, the packing must be supported above the
open space. The support must be reasonably strong to carry the weight of a reasonable height of
packing and must have ample free area for the flow of liquid and gas with a minimum of
restriction. The simplest support is a grid with relatively wide spaced bars which a few layers of
relatively large Rasching or partition rings are stacked. The gas injection plate is designed to
provide separate passages for gas and liquid so that they need not complete for passage through
the same opening. This is aerated by providing the gas inlets to the bed at a point above the level
at which liquid leaves the bed.
Entrainment Eliminators : When gas velocities are very high, the gas leaving the top of the
packing may carry off droplets of liquid as a mist. This can be removed by mist eliminators,
through which gas must pass, installed above the liquid inlet. A layer of mesh (of wire, Teflon,
polyethylene etc.). Specially knitted with 98 to 99% voids, about 100 mm thick will virtually
collect all mist particles. Other types of eliminators include cyclones, venetian blind
arrangements. A matter of dry random packing is also effective.
Fig. 7.11 : Packed Tower

Hold Down Plate : It is placed at the top of a packed column to minimise movement and
breakage of the packing caused by the surges in flow rates. The gas inlet should be design for
uniform flow over cross section of the gas and should be separate from liquid inlet.
Packings : They are of two major types, random and regular. Random packings are slightly
dumped into the tower during installation and allowed to fall at random. The materials used
earlier like stone, gravel, lumps of coke etc., through inexpensive provided small surfaces and
had poor fluid flow characteristics. Common types of random packings are :
(1) Rasching rings made of chemical stoneware of porcelain, metals, plastics having diameter
ranging from 6 to 100 mm.
(2) Lessing rings.
(3) Saddle shaped packigns : Berl and Intalox available in series from 6 to 35 mm, made of
chemical stoneware or plastics.
(4) Pall rings (Flexi rings).
(5) Cascade rings.
(6) Fellerates made of plastics.
Generally, the random packings offer larger specific surface in the smaller sizes, but cost less
per unit volume in larger sizes. During installation packings are poured into the tower to fall at
random and in order to prevent breakage of ceramic or carbon packings. The tower may first be
filled with water to reduce the velocity of fall.
Regular packings are of great variety. They offer the advantages of low-pressure drop for the
gases and grater possible fluid flow rates, usually at the expense of more costly installation than
random packings. Stacked Rashing rings are economically practical only in very large sizes, wood
grids or hurdle is inexpensive and frequently used where large void volumes are required like
liquid carrying suspended solids. Knitted or gauge like arrangements provides a large interfacial
surface of a contacted liquid and gas and a very gas pressure drop used for vacuum distillation.
Random Versus Structured Packing :
(1) At low liquid rates (< 20 gpm/ft2), a higher ap for structured packings relative to random
packings makes them more efficient.
(2) For random and structured packings of the same ap values, the latter yield lower values
of the packing parameter, Fp. This indicates the latter yield a greater capacity
(< 20 gpm/ft2).
(3) Structured packings yield much lower pressure drop per unit length of tower height.
(4) Structured packigns do not perform well at high pressures and/or liquid flow rates :
> 10 gpm/ft2 > 100 – 200 psia.
(5) Structured packings perform less well with aqueous liquid systems and those which
possess high stress. The latter property indicates that larger droplets form, which
indicates that poorer wetting will occur on the surface of metal structured packings.
(6) Liquid hold up : similar values for structured and random packings.
(7) Structured packings are very susceptible to corrosion.
(8) Structured packings are much less sensitive to surges and plant upsets. A packed tower
operating in the loading region can be easily induced into the flooding region of
operation with plant upsets.
(9) Inspection and maintenance of structured packings are much more difficult than random
packings.
(10) Cost : A trade-off exists. The cost per unit mass is 3 – 10 times more expensive for
structured compared to random packings; but, the former is more efficient (lower HETP)
due to lower pressure drop. Also, pumping costs are less for structured packings because
of the lower pressure drop and the shorter columns.
Packing Restrainers : These are necessary when gas velocities are high and are used to guard
against lifting of packing during sudden gas surge. Heavy screens or bars may be used for heavy
ceramic packings; heavy bar plats resting freely on top of the packing may be used. For plastics
and the light-weights packings, restrained is attained to tower shell.
Contact between Liquid and Gas : Ideally, the liquid once distributed on top of the packing
should flow in a thin film over the entire packing surface all the way down the tower. Actually
the films tend to grow thicker in some pales and thinner in some, so that liquid collects in small
rivables and flows along localised paths through the packing. At low liquid rates much of liquid
surface may be deep or at best covered by a stagnant film of liquid. This is called channeling and
the main reason for poor performance of large packed towers.
Channeling is severe in towers filled with stacked packing, which is the main reason why
they are not used much. It is less severe in dumped packings. In towers of moderate size having
the tower diameters at least 8 times the packing diameter can minimize channeling. If the ratio of
tower diameter to packing diameter is less than 8 : 1 liquid tends to flow out of the packing and
down the walls of the column. In larger tower initial distribution is specially important.
Countercurrent Flow of Liquid Gas Through Packing : For most random packings, pressure
drop suffered by the gas is influenced by the gas and liquid flow rates in a manner similar to that
shown in the Fig. 7.12. The slope of the line for dry packing is about 1.8 to 2.0 indicating turbulent
flow for practically most gas velocities.
At a fixed gas velocity, the gas pressure drop increases with increased liquid rate, principally
because of the reduced free cross section available for flow of gas resulting in pressure of liquid.
Fig. 7.12 : Typical gas pressure drop for counter flow of liquid and gas in random packings
In the region below A, the liquid hold up is generally constant and with changing gas
velocities although it increases with liquid rate. In the region between A and B liquid hold up
increases sharply with gas rate, free area for gas flow becomes smaller and pressure drop rises
more rapidly. This is called loading. As the gas flow rate is increased to B at fixed liquid rate of
changes occurs :
(1) A layer of liquid, through which gas bubbles may appear at the top of the packing.
(2) Liquid may fill the tower, starting at the bottom or at any intermediate restriction like,
packing support so that there is a change from gas-continuous liquid dispersed to
liquid-continuous gas-dispersed (inversion).
(3) Slugs of foam may rise rapidly upwards through the packing. At same time entrainment
of the liquid by effluent gas increases rapidly and tower is flooded.
The gas pressure drop then increases very rapidly. The change in conditions in region A to B
gradual and initial loading and flooding are frequently determined by the change in slope of the
pressure drop curves rather than through visible effect. It is practical to operate just below or in
lower part of the loading region. Flooding conditions in random packings depend upon method
of packing (wet/dry) and sorting of packing. Typically, absorbers and strippers are designed for
gas-pressure drops of 200 to 400 N/m2 per meter of packed depths (0.25 to 0.5 in H2O/ft),
atmospheric pressure fractionates from 400 to 600 N/m2 per meter and vacuum stills for 8 to
4 N/m2 per meter (0.01 to 0.05 in H2O/ft). Flooding velocities for regular or stacked packings will
generally be considerable greater than for random packing.
Pressure drop for single-phase flow : When a single fluid flows the a bed of packed solids
like spheres, cylinders, gravel, sand etc. when it alone fills the voids, then the correlation for
pressured drop is given by the Ergun equation.
3
∆P (gc ∈ dP ρg) 150 (1 – ∈)
Z (1 – ∈) G'2 = Re + 1.75 … (7.13)
This is applicable equally well to flow of gases and liquids. The term on the left is a friction
factor. Those on the right represent, contribution to the friction factor, the first for purely laminar
flow, the second for completely turbulent flow. There is a gradual transition from one type of flow
to the other as a result of diverse character of void spaces, the two terms of the equation changing
their relative importances as flow rate changes and dP is the effective
G'
Re = dP µ … (7.14)
diameter of a sphere of same surface/volume ratio as the packing in place. If the specific surface
is dP, the surface per unit volume of the particles is aP (1 – ∈) and from the properties of sphere,
(1 – ∈)
dP = 6 a . This will not normally be the same as normal size of the particles for flow of gases
P
a greater than about 0.7 kg/m2s. The first term on R.H.S. of equation is negligible. For a specific
type and size of manufactured tower packing equation can be simplified to the empirical
equation.
∆P G'2
Z = CD … (7.15)
ρG
Pressure Drop for two phase flow : Simultaneous flow, counter current flow of liquid and
gas the pressure drop data of various investigators show wide discrepancies due to differences in
packing density and manufacture such as changes in wall thickness. Estimate cannot be therefore
expected to be very accurate. For most purposes the correlation of Fig. 7.13 will serve this
purpose.
Fig. 7.13 : Flooding and Pressure Drop in Random-Packed Towers

7.5.3 Gas and Liquid Phase Coefficients
Uses of KG and KL :
(1) From physical properties of system determine KG and KL, if system is known or is
assumed as all gas or liquid film controlling, then only the controlling K to be calculated.
(2) Combine effective interfacial area, to calculate KGa or KLa.
1 1 1
(3) Determine KGa by K =K + 1 h1 KLa = 1 KLa
Ga Ga H
(H1 – Henry's constant, lb mole/ft3. atm)
Height Equivalent to Theoretical Plate (HETP) : Distillation operations are expressed in
terms of equilibrium relation and theoretical plates.
HETP = K1G'K2 DKa ZK3  

αµ
where,
ρ
G' = Vapour mass velocity, lb/ft2·hr.
Z = Packed height, feet
D = Tower diameter, inches
α = Average relative, velocity
µ = Liquid viscosity cP, feet/sec.
ρ = Liquid density, gm/cm3
and K1, K2, K3 are constants. HETP is unique to packing size and configuration. Large
packing requires greater HETP than small size but pressure drop is more in small packing. HETP
gradients for industrial process equipment are :
(1) Never use HETP less than 12 inch, if tower is 12 inch diameter or longer.
(Use HETP = 1.5 – 2 feet).
(2) Use HETP = HOG or HOL if other data is not available.

(3) Use HETP = column diameter (over 12 inch)
7.5.4 Design Criteria for Packed Towers
The relationship in packed tower performance that are concerned specifically with gas and
liquid, flows rates through a bed are expressed as a function of pressure drop. This may be
created by poor packing arrangement i.e. tight and open sections in the bed or plugging of void
spaces by solids or reaction products. Following points are to be considered :
 
(1) Calculate the absicca of Fig. 7.13 = G'
L' ρG
   
ρL – ρG 
(2) Select a design or operating pressure drop as shown in the curves of Fig. 7.13. Selection
basis is as follows :
(i) Low to medium pressure column operation, select pressure drop of 0.75 to 1 inch
water/foot of packing height.
(ii) Absorption and similar systems select a pressure drop of 0.5 to 0.1 H2O/feet.
(iii) Atmospheric or pressure distillation, select a pressure drop of 0.5 to 1 inch H2O/ft.
(iv) Vacuum distillation selects a low pressure drop in the 0.1 to 0.25 inch H2O/foot
range.
(v) Foaming materials should be operated at 0.1 inch to 6.25 inch water/feet.
(3) Select packing and determine its packing factor from literature depending upon the
packing type and its material. Packing is selected for its expected process performance,
pressure drop and material of construction.
(i) As packing factor, for (a/t2) becomes larger by selection of smaller size packing, gas
capacity for the column is reduced and pressure drop is increased for a fixed gas
flow.
(ii) Not all material are manufactured in all materials of construction i.e. ceramic, plastic
materials.
(iii) Some packings are sized by general dimensions (inches) while some shapes are
identified by number #, #2, #3 for increasing size.
(iv) Packing size versus tower diameter recommendations are given as below :
Tower Diameter (feet) < 1.0 1.0 – 3.0 > 3.0
Normal Packing Size (Inches) < 1.0 1 – 1.5 2–3
(4) From Fig. (7.13) read up from the absicca to pressure drop line selected and read across
the ordinate.
0.1
G'2 Cf µL J
ρG (ρL – ρG) gc
where, C = Concentration in lb mole/feet3
G' = Superficial mass gas rate, lb/hr square feet
f = Packing factor.
Substitute f and other known values and solve for G. Then determine the required tower
cross sectional area and diameter.
G' = Gas rate, lb/sec.
Q = Superficial gas rate, lb/feet2 feet of tower
Hence, G' = aG
π
but a = 4 · d2
π
∴ G' = 4 · d2 G
1
Gas Rate2
∴ d = 1.1283  Q
 … (7.16)
 
Effect of Physical Properties :
(a) For non-foaming liquids, capacity of packing is independent of surface tension.
(b) Foaming conditions reduce capacity significantly.
(c) For liquid of viscosity 30 cP and lower, effect on capacity is small.
Number of Transfer Units : The transfer of mass between phases in a packed tower occurs
either as gas film controlling or liquid film controlling. This has been used to express the ease or
difficulty of transfer under the condition of operation with respect to system equilibrium, the
system is evaluated as the number of transfer units, NOG or NOL required.
Z
NOG = H … (7.17)
OG
Z
or NOL = H … (7.18)
OL
Z Z
NOL = H or NOL = H … (7.19)
OL OL
where,
NOG = Number of transfer units based on overall gas film coefficient.
NOL = Number of transfer units based on overall liquid film coefficient.
HOG = Height of transfer units based on overall gas film coefficient.
HOL = Height of transfer units based on overall liquid film coefficient.
The transfer process is termed as gas film controlling if all the resistance of mass transfer is in the gas
film, it means gas in soluble with liquid of the system. If the system is liquid film controlling, it means
controlling gas is relatively insoluble in liquid and resistance to transfer is in liquid film.
y1
dy
For dilute solutions : NOG = ⌠ … (7.20)
⌡ y – y*
y2
x1
dx
NOL = ⌠ x* – x … (7.21)
⌡
x2
y1
(1 – y)M dy
For concentrated solutions : NOG = ⌠ (1 – y) (y – y*) … (7.22)
⌡
y2
x1
(1 – x)M dx
NOL = ⌠ (1 – x) (x* – x) … (7.23)
⌡
x2
where (1 – y)M and (1 – x)M = log mean average of concentrations at the opposite ends of the
diffusion process.
7.5.5 Comparison Between Tray and Packed Columns

(i) Liquid Hold Up : Packed towers will provide a substantially smaller liquid hold up. This
is important where liquid deterioration occur with high temperature and short holding
times are essential. It is also important in obtaining sharp separations in batch distillation.
(ii) Liquid Cooling : Cooling coils are more readily built into tray tower and liquid can more
readily be removed from trays, to be passed through coolers and returned, than packed
towers.
(iii) Liquid/Gas Ratios : Very low values of this ratio are best handled in tray towers. High
values are best handled in packed towers.
(iv) Gas Pressure Drop : Packed towers will ordinarily require a smaller pressure drop.
(v) Side Streams : These are more readily removed from tray towers.
(vi) Corrosion : Packed towers for different corrosion problems are likely to be less costly.
(vii) Floor Loading : Plastic packed towers are lighter in weight, than tray towers, which in
turn are lighter than ceramic or metal packed towers. In any event, the floor loading
should be designed for accidental complete filling of tower with liquid.
(viii) Foaming Systems : Packed towers operate with less bubbling of gas through the liquid
and are more suitable.
(ix) Cleaning : Frequent cleaning is easier with tray towers.
(x) Large Temperature Fluctuations : Fragile packing tend to be crushed. Tray or metal
packings are satisfactory.
Advantages of Packed Column/Towers :
(i) Packed towers will ordinarily require a smaller pressure drop, this is useful for vacuum
distillation.
(ii) Packed tower will produce a substantially lower liquid hold up.
(iii) Packed towers can handle high values of liquid to gas ratio.
(iv) Packed towers can operate with less bubbling of gas through liquid and are suitable for
foaming systems.
Disadvantages of Packed Column/Towers :
(i) Very low values of liquid/gas ratio cannot be handled in packed columns.
(ii) Liquid cooling cannot be easily achieved in packed column.
(iii) Side streams are not easily removed from packed towers.
(iv) Frequent cleaning is troublesome in packed towers.
7.6 VENTURI SCRUBBERS
In these devices, which are similar to ejectors, the gas is drawn into the throat of a Venturi by
a stream of absorbing liquid sprayed into the convergent duct section, as shown in Fig. 7.14. The
device is used especially where the liquid contains as suspended solid, which would plug the
otherwise more commonly used tray and packed towers, and where low gas-pressure drop is
required. These applications have become increasingly important in recent years, as in the
absorption of sulfur dioxide from furnace gases with slurries of limestone, lime, or magnesia.
Some very large installations (10 m diameter) are in service for electric utilities.
The cocurrent flow produces only a single stage, but this becomes less important when a
chemical reaction occurs, as in the case of the sulfur dioxide absorbers.
Multistage countercurrent effects can be obtained by using several venturies. The device is
also used for removing dust particles from gases.
Fig. 7.14 : Venturi Scrubber

7.7 WETTED WALL TOWER
(i) A thin film of liquid running down inside of a
vertical pipe, with gas flowing either co-currently
or counter currently, constitutes wetted-wall
tower.
(ii) Such devices have been used for theoretical
studies of mass transfer as the interfacial surface
between the passes is readily kept under control
and measurable.
(iii) Industrially, they have been used as absorbers for
Hydrochloric acid, where absorption is
accompanied by a very large evolution of heat. In
this case the wetted all tower is surrounded with
rapidly flowing cooling water.
(iv) Multitube devices have also been used for
distillation where the liquid film is generated at
the top by partial condensation of rising vapour.
(v) Gas-pressure drop in these towers is probably
lower than in any other gas-liquid contacting
device a given set of operating conditions.
(vi) Measurement of the rate of evaporation of the
liquid into the gas stream over knows surface Fig. 7.15 : Wetted Wall Tower
permits calculation of mass transfer coefficient for
the gas phase. Use of different gases and liquid
provides variation of Schemidt number.
Thus, Sherwood & Gilliland covered the values of NRe from 2000 – 35,000, NSc from 0.6 to 2.5
gas pressures from 0.1 to 0.3 atm.
Lintion and Sheeword Correlation :
1
0.83 3
Shav = 0.023 Re SC Re upto 3000 … (7.24)
Over NRe 500 to 200,000, Friction factor in smooth pipe.
1 –0.2
2 f = 0.023 Re … (7.25)
2
Shav 3 1
Also, 1.03 SC = 2 f … (7.26)
Re SC
For highly turbulent conditions :

1
0.88 3
Shav = 0.0149 Re SC (For Liquid, SC > 100) … (7.27)
7.8 SPRAY TOWER

Introduction : In the spray tower, gas enters at the bottom and the liquid is introduced
through a series of sprays at the top. The performance of the units in general is rather poor
because the droplets tend to coalesce after they have fallen through a new feet and the interfacial
surface is thereby seriously reduced. Although there is considerably turbulence in the gas phase,
there is little circulation of liquid within the drops and the residence of equipment liquid of
equivalent liquid film tends to be high. The flow may be countercurrent as in vertical columns
with liquid sprayed downward or parallel as in horizontal spray chambers.
Fig. 7.16 : Schematic Diagram of Spray Column

The devices have the advantage of pressure drop through the spray nozzle. The tendency for
entrainment of the liquid by gas leaning is considerable and mist eliminator will almost always be
the necessary. The interface can be run above the top distribution, below the bottom distribution
or in the middle depending upon where the best performance is achieved. Because of severe back
mixing (axial) it is difficult to achieve the equivalent of more than one or two theoretical stages or
transfer upto on one side of the surface.
(1) Distributor : The onfices or nozzle for introducing the dispersed phase are usually not
smaller than 0.13 cm diameter in order to avoid cloggings not larger than 0.64 cm in order to
avoid the formation of excessively large drops.
(2) Applications : Spray towers are largely used for the removal of SO2 from edges of
towers, flue gases that are exhausted from large coal forced power-generating stations.
They are used for absorption of NH3 in water and also in air humidification.
Spray Chambers : Spray absorbers are currently being applied on a large scale on a
commercial basis in system for removing SO2 from boiler flue gases that are being generated from
large coal fixed power generator station. Spray chambers are particularly advantageous when the
lower pressure drop is in the incoming gas stream. As there is no packing in spray absorber liquid
phase, residence time in spray absorber is very low in order of 1 to 10 seconds as the gases contact
in time. Spray absorbers are limited to absorption duties and especially applicable to the system
in which the rate of transfer in gas phase, the mass transfer is limited. The condition will however
exist in all liquid phase. Residence can be neglected and backpressure of the solute over the liquid
is small.
Advantages of Spray Towers :
(1) It is simple in construction than packed columns.
(2) Its cost is less.
(3) It can be used for scale forming or solids containing liquid.
(4) It can operate over a wide range of flowrate.
(5) Cooling can be installed easily.
(6) Pressure drop is low as compared to packed towers.
Disadvantages of Spray Towers :
(1) It requires high recalculation of continuous phase, which increase pumping cost.
(2) Its efficiency is lower than packed towers.
(3) There is turbulence due to axial mixing resulting in poor performance.
(4) Due to high recalculation, the countercurrent flow is not maintained upto 6 m, may
require obtaining a theoretical stage.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) In a contact sulphuric acid plant the secondary conversion reactor is a tray-type
converter at atmospheric pressure, 2.3 meters in diameter with the catalyst arranged in
three 0.45 meter thick layer. The catalyst consists of cylindrical pellets 6.35 mm in both
diameter and length. The gas enters at 675 K and leavs at 720 K. Its inlet and exit
compositions are, respectively :
Component SO3 SO2 O2 N2
Mol % 6.6 1.7 10.0 81.7
Component SO3 SO2 O2 N2
Mol % 8.2 0.2 9.3 82.3
The gas flow rate is 0.68 kg/s. Calculate the pressure drop across the converter
µ = 0.032 mNs/m2
Sol. : First we need a molecular weight and temperature that best describe the properties of the
gas :
Mean mol. weight at inlet = (0.066 × 80) + (0.017 × 64) + (0.1 × 32) + (0.817 × 28)
= 32.444 kg/kmol
Mean mol. weight at outlet = (0.082 × 80) + (0.002 × 64) + (0.093 × 32) + (0.823 × 28)
= 32.708 kg/kmol
1
Mean mol. weight in column = 2 (32.444 + 32.708) = 32.576 kg/kmol
1
Mean temperature in column = 2 (675 + 720) = 697.5 K
Assuming that the gas ideal, we can calculate its density for future use in packed column
formulae :
pV = nRT
n p
∴ V = RT
nM pM 101325 × 32.576
∴ V = ρ = RT = = 0.5692 kg/m3
8314 × 697.5
The superificial velocity will be a function of the specific flow rate, the density and the
cross-sectional area of the circular vessel :
AG π D2G π 2.32 × 0.68
v = = 4 = 4 0.5962 = 4.964 m/s
ρ ρ
L = 3 × 0.45 m = 1.35 m
B = 4.6 × 10–8 (from literature)
µ = 0.032 × 10–3 Ns/m2
Using the Darcy equation :
vµL 4.964 × 0.032 × 10–3 × 1.35
∆P = = = 4661.44 Pascals
B 4.6 × 10–8
So, the pressure drop across the converter = 4661.144 Pascals (Ans.)
(2) An organic liquid mixture at 395 K (average molecular weight = 155 kg/kmol) is
separated by vacuum distillation in a 12.74 metre diameter tower packed with 9.65 mm
ceramic Intalox saddles. The HETP (Height Equivalent of a Theoretical Plate) is
150 mm and the number of theoretical plates required is 16. If the product rate is
4.16 kg/s at a reflux ratio of 11.6, calculate the pressure in the condenser so that the
pressure in the still does not exceed 8 kPa. Neglect temperature changes. Remember to
use water physical properties at 293 K.
ρL = 800 kg/m3, µL = 100 mNs/m2.
Sol. : Assuming that the vapour follows the ideal gas law, we can calculate its density as a
function of temperature, pressure and molecular weight :
pV = nRT
n p
∴ V = RT
nM pM 8000 × 155 3
∴ V = ρG = RT = 8314 × 395 = 0.3776 kg/m
ρL = 800 kg/m3
The specific flow rates will be a function of tower cross-sectional area and product rate.
From knowledge of distillation, assuming constant molal overflow :
Vn = L n + D
Ln = RD
Vn Ln D 1 R+1
∴ Ln = Ln + Ln = 1+R = R
where, Vn, Ln are molar flows of vapour and liquid, D that of the distillate and R is the
molar reflux ratio. As we assume the fluid is of uniform molecular mass :
Ln L' R
∴ Vn = G' = R + 1
Although we do not need to calculate the value of L', we do need the value of G'.
MVn MD (R + 1)
G' = A = A
As D is a MOLAR flow of distillate, we must convert the mass flow rate before
proceeding :
4.16 kg/s
D = 155 kg/kmol = 0.02684 kmol/s
MD (R + 1) 155 × 0.2684 (11.6 + 1)

∴ G' = = = 0.4113 kg/m2s
(π/4) d2 (π/4) (12.74)2
From literature, F = 1080
From steam tables we find that :
ρW = 998 kg/m2
µW = 0.001 Ns/m2
L' ρG 11.6 0.3776
∴ G' = 11.6 + 1 800
ρL
= 0.0200
 ρL ρW 0.1
0.1 998 0.1
(G')2 F   (0.4113)2 1080 0.001 1800
ρW ρL   
∴ = 0.3776 (800 – 0.3776) 9.807 = 0.1
ρG (ρL – ρG) g
From monographs from
= 83 mm water per metre packed height
literature ∆P
Packed height = Number of stages × HETP = 16 × 0.15 = 2.4 metres
∴ ∆P = 2.4 × 83 = 199.2 mm water ≅ 0.1992 × 998 × 9.807 = 1949.6 Pascals
If pressure drops across, packing is 1949.6 Pa and maximum pressure (at base of column)
cannot exceed 8000 Pa, then condenser pressure will be
(8000 – 1949.6 =) 6050.4 Pascals. (Ans.)
(3) A column, packed with 25.4 mm Raschig rings to a bed height of 4 m, is used in a gas
absorption process carried out at 293 K and atmospheric pressure. If the liquid and gas
are assumed to have the same properties as water and air, and their flowrates are
2.5 and 0.6 kg/m2s respectively, what will be the pressure drop across the column ?
What is the maximum liquid rate before flooding occurs ?
Sol. : If gas and liquid have the same properties as air and water respectively, then,
 µL µW 
0.1
µW ρW0.1 = 1
µW µL 
= µW ρ 
 W
Assuming air to be ideal :
pV = nRT
n p
∴ V = RT
nM pM 101325 × 28.84
∴ V = ρ = RT = = 1.1996 kg/m3
8314 × 293
As F = 525 (from literature), ρL = 998 kg/m3 (from steam tables), L' = 2.5 kg/m2s and
G' = 0.6 kg/m2s :
L' ρG 2.5 1.1996
∴ G' = 0.6 998 = 0.1444576
ρL
 µL ρW0.1
(G')2 F µ 
 W ρL  (0.6)2 525 [1]
∴ = 1.1996 (998 – 1.1996) 9.807 = 0.0161169
ρG (ρL – ρG) g
From monograph from
= 14 mm water per metre packed height
literature ∆P
Packed height = 4 metres
∴ ∆P = 4 × 14 = 56 mm water ≡ 0.056 × 998 × 9.807 = 548.09 Pascals
As the point falls between two graph (See Fig. 7.13) curves, it is possible for reading to be
anywhere between 8 and 21 mm water per metre packing i.e. between 313 and 822
Pascals.
By keeping the gas flowrate fixed, our y-axis co-ordinate stays at 0.016.
However, if we are to reach flooding at this flowrate, our x-axis co-ordinate becomes 1.1
'
Lflood 1.1996 '
∴ 1.1 = 0.6 998 = 0.05778 Lflood
'
∴ Lflood = 19.0367 kg/m2s
So Maximum liquid rate before flooding occurs = 19.0367 kg/m2 · s. (Ans.)
(4) A column packed with a bed of 25 mm Raschig rings 9 m high is used in the vacuum
distillation of an isomer mixture of molecular weight 155 kg/kmol. The mean
temperature is 373 K, the pressure at the top of the column is maintained at 0.13 kPa
and the still pressure must lie between 1.3 and 3.3 kPa. Obtain an expression for the
pressure drop from the Carman-Kozeny equation and gas flow rate, assuming that
liquid flow does not significantly affect results. Calculate pressure drop when this
flow rate is 0.125 kg/m2s.
µ = 0.018 mNs/m2
Sol. : From literature, S = 756 and e = 0.416, which are then inserted into the Carman-Kozeny
equation :
5 (1 – e)2 s2 µ
∆P =  Lvs
 e3 
= 
5 (1 – 0.416)2 7562 (0.018 × 10–3) Q
× 9× A
 0.4163 
m'
= 2193.1802
ρG A
G'
= 2193.1802
ρG
Assuming that the vapour follows the ideal gas law, we can calculate its density as a
function of temperature, pressure and molecular weight :
pV = nRT
n p
∴ V = RT
nM pM Ps × 155
∴ V = ρ G = RT = = 4.9982 × 10–5 Ps kg/m3
8314 × 373
G'
∴ ∆P = 4.387948 × 107 P
s
Ps = Pc + ∆P = ∆P + 130
G'
∴ ∆P = 4.387948 × 107
∆P + 130
∴ ∆P2 + 130 ∆P – 4.387948 × 107 G' = 0
– 130 ± 1302 – 4 (– 4.387948 × 107) G'
∴ ∆P = 2
∴ = – 65 ± 4225 + 4 (4.387948 × 107) G'
For G' = 0.125 kg/m2s
∆P = – 65 ± 2342.874 = 2277.874 Pascals
∴ Ps = 130 + 2277.874 = 2407.874 Pascals (Ans.)
(5) Calculate the interfacial area per unit volume of dispersion, in a gas-liquid contactor,
for fractional hold-up of gas = 0.1 and gas bubble diameter = 0.5 mm.
Sol. : Basis : Total volume = 1 m3
Volume of bubble = (hold-up fraction) (Total volume)
= 0.1 × 1
= 0.1 m3
Let n be the number of gas bubbles.
4
∴ Volume of n bubbles = n × 3 πr3 = 0.1 m3
0.5
Given : r = 2 = 0.25 mm
3 0.1
∴ n = 4 = 1.528 × 109
π × (0.25 × 10–3)
∴ Surface area for n bubbles = n × 4πr2
= 1.528 × 109 × 4 × π × (0.25 × 10–3)2
= 1200 m2
∴ Interfacial area per unit volume = 1200 m2/m3 (Ans.)
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols Meaning
a Average specific interfacial surface for mass transfer, area/volume, m2/m3
ap specific surface of packing, area/volume, m2/m3
av specific interfacial surface for contact of a gas with a pure liquid,
area/volume, m2, m3
A Projected area, m2
Aa Active area, area of perforated sheet, m2
At Tower cross-sectional area, m2
b Baffle width, m
B blade Length, m
c molar density of the liquid , mole/m3, solute concentration, mole/m3
C distance from impeller to tank bottom, m
CD empirical constant
Cf characterization factor of packing, two phase flow, empirical constant
CF flooding constant for trays
Co orifice coefficient, dimensionless
Cp specific heat at constant pressure
dd disk diameter, m
di impeller diameter, m
do orifice or perforation diameter, m
dp average bubble diameter, m
nominal diameter of tower - packing particle, m
ds diameter of sphere of same surface as a single packing particle, m
D diffusivity, m2/s
DE eddy diffusivity of back mixing, m2/s
E fractional entertainment, entrained liquid/entrained liquid + net liquid
flow), mole/mole
EMG Murphree gas - phase stage efficiency, fractional
EMGE Murphree gas - phase stage efficiency corrected for entertainment,
fractional
EO overall tray efficiency of a tower, fractional
EOG point gas - phase tray efficiency, fractional
f function
Fanning friction factor, dimensionless
F mass - transfer coefficient, mole/m2.s
FD drag force, N
Fr impeller Froude number = diN2/ g, dimensionless
g acceleration of gravity, m/s2
Symbols Meaning
G superficial molar gas mass velocity, mole/ m2.s
G' superficial gas mass velocity, kg/m2.s
h heat - transfer coefficient , w/m2 k
hD dry-plate gas-pressure drop as head of clear liquid, m
hG gas-pressure drop as head of clear liquid , m
hL gas-pressure drop due to liquid holdup on tray, as head of clear liquid, m
hR residual gas-pressure drop as head of clear liquid, L
hW weir height, m
h1 weir crest, m
Ht overall height of a transfer unit, m
OG
jD 2/3
mass-transfer group = FG ScG /G, dimensionlesss
jH 2/3
heat -transfer group = h Pr G /CpG', dimensionless
kG gas - phase mass-transfer coefficient, mole/sec. m2 (N/m2)
kL liquid - phase mass - transfer coefficient, mole/sec.m2 (mol/ m3)
kth thermal conductivity
kx liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficient, mole/sec.m2 (mole fraction)
ky gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, mole/sec.m2 (mole fraction)
KG overall gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient
Ky overall gas-phase mass-transfer coefficient, mole/sec.m2 (mole fraction)
l plate thickness, m
ln natural logarithm
log common logarithm
L superficial liquid molar mass velocity, mole/m2·sec
L' superficial liquid mass velocity, kg/m2.sec
– characteristic length, m
L
m average slope of a chord of equilibrium curve, mole fraction in gas/mole
fraction in liquid , empirical constant
m' slope of a chord of equilibrium curve, Eq. (6.53), mole fraction gas/mole
fraction in liquid
n number of baffles, dimensionless tray number, dimensionless empirical
constant
Nt number of gas-phase transfer units, dimensionless
G
Nt number of liquid-phase transfer units, dimensionless
L
Nt number of overall gas-phase transfer units, dimensionless
OG
Symbols Meaning
Nu Nusselt number = hd3/ kth, dimensionless
p pressure, kN/m2
∆p pressure difference, kN/m2
∆pR residual gas-pressure drop, F/ L2
P power delivered by an impeller, no gas flow, kN/m·sec
PG power delivered by an impeller with gas flow, kN/m·sec
PC Peclet number for liquid flow rate, m3/sec
Po 5
power number = Pgc/ ρLN3 d i , dimensionless
Pr Prandtl number = Cρµ/ kth, dimensionless
q volumetric liquid flow rate per orifice, m3/sec
Q volumetric flow rate, m3/ sec
QG O volumetric gas flow rate, m3 /sec
3
Ra Rayleigh number = dP ∆p g/ DLµL, dimensionless
2
Rc
impeller Reynolds number = d i NρL/ µL, dimensionless
RcG gas Reynolds number = dpVS ρL/ µL , dimensionless
Rco orifice Reynolds number = do Voρ G / µG = 4wo/ πdo µ G,, dimensionless
Sc Schmidt number = µ/ρD, dimensionless
Sh Sherwood number = Fdp / cD, dimensionless
T tank diameter , tower diameter
u average velocity, m/s
u' root- mean - square fluctuating velocity, m/s
vL liquid volume, m3
V superficial velocity based on tower cross section; for tray towers, based on
An,, m/s
Vg gas velocity based on Aa, m/s
VF flooding velocity based on An, m/s
Vo velocity thorugh an orifice, m/s
Vm minimum gas velocity through perforations below which excessive
weeping occurs, m/s
Vg slip velocity,
Vt terminal settling velocity of a single bubble, m/s
w blade width, m
wo mass rate of flow per orifice, kg/s
W weir length, m
We Weber number = ρu2dp/σg, dimensionless
Greek letters :
x concentration in liquid, mole fraction
y concentration in gas, mole fraction
z average flow width for liquid on a tray, m
Symbols Meaning
Z liquid depth in an agitated vessel; depth of packing; length of travel on a
tray, m
α empirical constant
β empirical constant, for flooding velocity for holdup in packing
fractional void volume in a dry packed bed, volume voids/ volume bed,
dimensionless
η constant, dimensionless
θL time of residence of a liquid on a tray, sec
µ viscosity, kg/m.sec
ρ density, kg/m3
∆ρ difference in density, kg/m3
σ surface tension, N/M
φG gas holdup, volume fraction dimensionless
φL liquid holdup, fraction of packed volume, dimensionless
Subscripts :
av average
AW air - water
F at flooding
G gas
L liquid
n tray number
o orifice; operating or moving(holdup and packing void space)
s surface; static (holdup in packing)
Superscript :
* in equilibrium with bulk liquid
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
4. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering” Vol., Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Hall, 2003.

8
CHAPTER
DRYING OPERATIONS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Expression of Moisture Content
8.3 Equilibrium in Drying
8.4 Types of Moisture
8.5 Mechanism of Batch Drying
8.6 Drying Tests
8.7 Rate of Drying Curve
8.8 Time required for Drying
8.9 Drying Time for Droplets
8.9.1 Constant Rate Period
8.9.2 Falling Rate Period
8.9.3 Droplet Trajectory
8.10 Heat Transfer in Dryers
8.11 Mechanism of Moisture Movement within the Solid
8.12 Equipments for Drying
8.13 Selection, Sizing and Costs
8.14 Efficient Energy Utilization in Drying
Solved Problems
Exercise For Practice
Nomenclature
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The drying of materials – whether solids, liquids or slurries – to improve storage life or
reduce transportation costs is one of the oldest and most commonly used unit operations. Drying
of fruit, meat and various building and craft materials date back before the discovery of fire. The
physical laws governing drying remain the same, even though the machinery to accomplish it has
improved considerably ! Today, dryers are in operation in most manufacturing industries
including chemical, pharmaceutical, process and food. Products that are dried range from organic
pigments to proteins, as well as minerals to dairy products. Because of the spectrum of duties
required, there are a great variety of dryers available. The correct choice depends on the
properties of the feed material and the desired characteristics of the final product.
(8.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) 8.2 Drying Operations
The term drying refers generally to the removal of moisture from a substance. It is so loosely
and inconsistently applied that some restriction in its meaning is necessary in the treatment to be
given the subject here. For example, a wet solid such as wood, cloth, or paper can be dried by
evaporation of the moisture either into a gas stream or without the benefit of the gas to carry
away the vapour, but the mechanical removal of such moisture by expression or centrifuging is
not ordinarily considered drying. A solution can be “dried” by spraying it in fine droplets into a
hot, dry gas, which results in evaporation of the liquid, but evaporation of the solution by boiling
in the absence of gas to carry away the moisture is not ordinarily considered a drying operation.
A liquid such as benzene can be “dried” of any small water content by an operation, which is
really distillation, but the removal of a small amount of acetone by the same process would not
usually be called drying. Gases and liquids containing small amounts of water can be dried by
adsorption operations.
Purpose of Drying Operations : It is carried out for a number of reasons :
(1) It is used for purifying a crystalline product so that the solvent adhering to the crystals is
removed or the solvent can be recovered.
(2) Storage of dry solid as compared to wet solid is easy.
(3) The cost of transportation for dry material would be reduced.
(4) Drying can provided definite desired properties to the material as in the case of
pharmaceutical substances such as tablets, syrups etc.
(5) Presence of traces of moisture may lead to problems of corrosion as in the case of chlorine
gas. Dry chlorine gas is not corrosive but traces of moisture make it very corrosive.
(6) Sometimes can be an essential part of the process, e.g. drying of paper. However, care
must be taken to avoid shrinkage of material or loss of flavour in food product or
cracking etc.; which may takes place during drying operations.
8.2 EXPRESSION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content can be expressed one of two ways; Dry weight or wet weight.
mass of water
m.c. (m) = mass of sample × 100
Where mass of sample can be made up of water and dry matter or solids. Thus
mass of water
m.c. (m) = mass of water + solid × 100
On a dry weight basis, moisture is calculated as

mass of water
M = mass of solids
This can sometimes be expressed on a percentage dry weight basis, i.e. 100 multiplied by the
moisture. It can be shown by eliminating the mass of solids that
100M m
m = 1 + M or M = 100 (1 – m/100)
Moisture content (W/W basis) is most often used in food composition tables, whereas
moisture (Dry basis) is more often encountered with sorption isotherms and drying curves.
8.3 EQUILIBRIUM IN DRYING

The moisture contained in a wet solid or liquid solution exerts a vapour pressure to an extent
depending upon the nature of the moisture, the nature of the solid, and the temperature. If then a
wet solid is exposed to a continuous supply of fresh gas containing a fixed partial pressure of the
vapour p, the solid will either lose moisture by evaporation or gain moisture from the gas until
the vapour pressure of the moisture of the solid equals p. The solid and the gas are then in
equilibrium, and the moisture content of the solid is termed its equilibrium-moisture content at
the prevailing conditions.
8.4 TYPES OF MOISTURE
Fig. 8.1 : Types of Moisture

*
Equilibrium moisture X : This is the moisture content of a substance when at equilibrium
with a given partial pressure of the vapour.
Bound moisture : This refers to the moisture contained by a substance, which exerts an
equilibrium vapour pressure less than that of the pure liquid at the same temperature.
Unbound moisture : This refers to the moisture contained by a substance, which exerts an
equilibrium vapour pressure equal to that of the pure liquid at the same temperature.
Free moisture : Free moisture is that moisture contained by a substance in excess of the
*
equilibrium moisture : X – X . Only free moisture can be evaporated, and the free-moisture
content of a solid depends upon the vapour concentration in the gas. These relations are shown
graphically in Fig. 8.1 for a solid of moisture content X exposed to a gas of relative humidity A.
8.5 MECHANISM OF BATCH DRYING
In order to set up drying schedules and to determine the size of equipment, it is necessary to
know the time required to dry a substance from one moisture content to another under specified
conditions. We shall also wish to estimate the influence that different drying conditions will have
upon the time for drying. Our knowledge of the mechanism of drying is so incomplete that it is
necessary with few exceptions to rely upon at least some experimental measurements for these
purposes. Measurements of the rate of batch drying are relatively simple to make and provide
much information not only for batch but also for continuous operation.
8.6 DRYING TESTS

The rate of drying can be determined for a sample of a substance by suspending it in a
cabinet or duct, in a stream of air, from a balance. The weight of the drying sample can then be
measured as a function of time. Certain precautions must be observed if the data are to be of
maximum utility. The sample should not be too small. Further, the following conditions should
resemble as closely as possible those expected to prevail in the contemplated large-scale
operation :
(1) the sample should be similarly supported in a tray or frame;
(2) it should have the same ratio of drying to non-drying surface;
(3) it should be subjected to similar conditions of radiant-heat transfer; and
(4) the air should have the same temperature, humidity, and velocity (both speed and
direction with respect to the sample). If possible, several tests should be made on samples
of different thicknesses. The dry weight of the sample should also be obtained. The
exposure of the sample to air of constant temperature, humidity, and velocity constitutes
drying under constant drying conditions.
8.7 RATE-OF-DRYING CURVE
From the data obtained during such a test, a curve of moisture content as a function of time
Fig. 8.2 can be plotted. This will be useful directly in determining the time required for drying
larger batches under the same drying conditions. Much information can be obtained if the data
are converted into rates (or fluxes) of drying, expressed as N mass/(area)(time), and plotted
against moisture content, as in Fig. 8.3. This can be done by measuring the slopes of tangents
drawn to the curve of Fig. 8.2 or by determining from the curve small changes in moisture content
–Ss ∆X
∆X for corresponding small changes in time ∆θ and calculating the rate as N = .
A∆θ
Fig. 8.2 : Batch drying constant drying operations

Here SS is the mass of dry solid, A is the wet surface over which the gas blows and through
which evaporation takes place in the case of cross-air circulation drying. In the case of through-
circulation drying, A is the cross section of the bed measured at right angles to the direction of the
gas flow.
The rate-of-drying curve is sometimes plotted with the ordinate expressed as mass moisture
evaporated/(mass dry solid) (time), which in the present notation is – d/dθ. There are usually
two major parts to the rate curve of Fig. 8.3, a period of constant rate and one of falling rate, as
marked on the figure. While different solids and different conditions of drying often give rise to
curves of very different shape in the falling-rate period, the curve shown occurs frequently. Some
of the differences which may arise will be considered later, but for the present let use briefly
review the reasons generally advanced for the various parts of the curve shown. If a solid is
initially very wet, the surface will be covered with a thin film of liquid, which we shall assume is
entirely unbound moisture. When it is exposed to relatively dry air, evaporation will take place
from the surface. The rate at which moisture evaporates can be described in terms of a gas mass
transfer coefficient KY and the difference in humidity of the gas at the liquid surface YS and in the
main stream Y. Thus, for cross-circulation drying.
NC = KY (YS – Y) … (8.1)
The coefficient KY can be expected to remain constant as long as the speed and direction of
gas flow past the surface do not change. The humidity YS is the saturated humidity at the liquid-
surface temperature ts and will therefore depend upon this temperature. Since evaporation of
moisture absorbs latent heat, the liquid surface will come to, and remain at, an equilibrium
temperature such that the rate of heat flow from the surroundings to the surface exactly equals
the rate of heat absorption. Ys therefore remains constant. The capillaries and interstices of the
solid, filled with liquid, can deliver liquid to the surface as rapidly as it evaporates there. Since in
addition Y remains unchanged under constant drying conditions, the rate of evaporation must
remain constant at the value NC, as shown in Fig. 8.2 and 8.3 between points B and C. In the
beginning, the solid and the liquid surface are usually colder than the ultimate surface
temperature ts, and the evaporation rate will increase while the surface temperature rises to its
ultimate value during the period AB on these curves. Alternatively the equilibrium temperature ts
may be lower than the initial value, which will give rise to a curve A’B while the initial
adjustment occurs. The initial period is usually so short that it is ordinarily ignored in subsequent
analysis of the drying times.
When the average moisture content of the solid has reached a value Xc, the critical moisture
content, the surface film of moisture has been so surface; these spots occupy increasingly larger
proportions of the exposed surface as drying proceeds. Since, however, the rate N is computed by
means of the constant gross surface A, the value of N must fall even though the rate per unit of
wet surface remains constant. This gives rise to the first part of the falling-rate period, the period
of unsaturated surface drying, from points C to D (Fig. 8.2 and Fig. 8.3). Ultimately the original
surface film of liquid will have entirely evaporated at an average moisture content for the solid
corresponding to point D. This part of the curve may be missing entirely, or it may constitute the
whole of the falling-rate period. With some textiles, other explanations for the linear falling-rate
period have been necessary.
8.8 TIME REQUIRED FOR DRYING
If one wishes to determine the time of drying a solid under the same conditions for which a
drying curve such as Fig. 8.3 has been completely determined, one need merely read the
difference in the times corresponding to the initial and final moisture contents from the curve.
Within limits, it is sometimes possible to estimate the appearance of a rate-of-drying curve such
as Fig. 8.3, for conditions different from those used in the experiments. In order to determine the
time for drying for such a curve, we proceed as follows.
Fig. 8.3 : Rate of Batch Drying Curve

As evident from above figure, the rate of drying curve consists of two major zones :
(a) a period of constant rate drying.
(b) a period of falling rate drying.
Since the mechanism of drying during the initial adjustment is not very clear, hence this
period is not included in the total drying time.
LS dx
Rate of drying is given by : N = –A · … (8.2)
dθ
From equation (8.2), the expression for drying time is obtained as :
x1
LS dx
θ = A ⌠ N … (8.3)
⌡
x2
If drying takes place within the constant rate period only (so that x1 > xo and x2 > xC, N = NC)
LS (x1 – x2)
then equation (8.3) becomes, θ = A NC … (8.4)
For more general situations involving both constant and falling rate regimes, equation (8.4)
can be rewritten to give the constant rate time period as,
LS (x1 – xC)
θC = A NC … (8.5)
Time for the falling rate period is determined with the help of graphical integration of
1
equation (8.5) by determining the area under the curve of N Vs x
LS
So, θf = A × (area under the curve of Fig. 8.4)
If the falling rate curve over the complete range (DC and DE of Fig. 8.3) is approximated as a
straight line, then equation on simplification yields time for the falling rate period is,
Fig. 8.4 : Graphical integration for falling rate period

LS (XC – X*) x1 – x*
θf = ANC · ln x – x* (when x1 < xC) …(8.6)
2
If the initial moisture content of the solid is more than the critical moisture, equation
(8.6) is written as,
LS (xC – x*) xC – x*
θf = ANC ln x – x* … (8.7)
2
For such a case, the total time for drying with the help of equations (8.5) and (8.7) is given by,
θT = θC + θf
LS (x – x ) + (x – x*) ln xC – x*
θT = AN  1 C x2 – x*  … (8.8)
C  C
Estimation of drying rate : The heat or mass transfer equation can be used to estimate
constant drying rate. We have heat transfer equation :
. hG (Ta – Ti)
m
NC = A = … (8.9)
λi
.
where, m = Rate of evaporation, kg/hour
A = Drying surface, m2
Ta = Temperature of air
Ti = Temperature of interface
λi = Latent heat at Ti
For air flow parallel to surface the heat transfer coefficient can be estimated by the following
dimensional equation :
hG = 0.0176 G0.8 … (8.10 a)
where, hG = heat transfer coefficient, k cal/hr. m2 oC
G = Mass velocity of air, kg/hr. m2
When a flow perpendicular to surface is considered, the above equation becomes,
hG = 1.004 G0.37 … (8.10 b)
Note that numerical constants of equation (8.10 a) and (8.10 b) are dimensional.
8.9 DRYING TIME FOR DROPLETS

The constant rate and falling rate periods must be considered separately.
8.9.1 Constant Rate Period
The rate of mass transfer during the constant rate period is given by the following expression.
This will be dependent on the amount of heat present in the product i.e. it can be related to the
rate of heat transfer.
dQ
dw dt hA (Ta – Tw)
dt = = –
λ λ
Ta = Dry bulb temperature
Tw = Wet bulb temperature = Tsurface
Heat transfer coefficient for a spherical particle at Re < 20
2ka
h = D
ka = Thermal conductivity of air;
D = Droplet diameter.
Droplet diameter will change during the constant rate period
2
Surface area of a sphere = πD = 4πr2.
dw – 2ka πD2
dt = D (Ta – Tw)
λ
tr wc
⌠ ⌠
 dt =  λ
⌡ ⌡ 2kaπD (Ta – Tw) dw
0 wo
wc
–λ ⌠ 1
tc = 2k π(T – T ) 
a a w ⌡ D dw
wo
Once we remove all the constants, you are left with an incompatible differential.
We must account for the change in weight as a change in the diameter of the particle.
3
4πr3 ρ πD ρ
w =3 = 6
π 3 3
∆w = ∆Vρw = 6 ρw (D – (D – ∆D) )
πρw 3 3 2 2 3
6 {D – D + 3D ∆D – 3D∆D + ∆D }
∆w πρw 2 2
= 6 (3D – 3D∆D + ∆D )
∆D
As ∆D → 0 then
2
dw πpw 2 πD ρw
dD = 6 3D = 2
2
πD ρw
dw = 2 dD Rate of change in weight, related to rate of change in diameter
Dc
–λ ⌠ 1 πD2
tc = 2k π (T – T ) 
a a w ⌡ D 2 ρw dD
Do
Dc
– λπρw ⌠
= 4k π (T – T )  DdD
a a w ⌡
Do
– λρw Dc Do 2 2
= 4k (T – T )  2 – 2 
a a w  
2
( 2
λρw Do – Dc )
Thus, tc = 8ka (Ta – Tw)
Note that the minus sign has been taken inside the upper bracket.
8.9.2 Falling Rate Period
The rate of heat transfer during the falling rate period is given by the following expression :
dQ
q = dt = ha A(Ta – Ts), where Ts is the surface temperature of the particle.
Unfortunately Ts varies from Tw at the end of the falling rate period.

Ta + Tw
Use Ts = 2
then
dQ  Ta Tw  = haA (T – T )
= ha A Ta – 2 + 2
dt    2 a w
We thus need to convert this expression relating heat transfer to time to one relating mass
transfer to time. This is achieved by using the latent heat multiplied by the mass of the particle.
Mass in equal to the density of the dry particle multiplied by the volume of the particle
w = ρd V
dw dQ 1 dQ 1
dt = dt = dt
λw λρdV
dw dQ 1 – haA (Ta – Tw)

dt = dt =
λρdV 2λρdV
Now area and volume can be expressed in terms of the diameter of the particle, thus
2
A πD 6
V = 3 =D
πD
6
2ka
and ha = D
Assume in falling rate period that D is constant = Dc

dw 2ka 6 (Ta – Tw)
dt = – D ·D ·
c c 2λρd
dw – 6ka (Ta – Tw)
Thus dt = 2
λρdDc
tp wf
2
⌠ – ⌠ λρd Dc
 dt = 
⌡ 6ka(Ta – Tw) ⌡ dw
0 wc
2
– λρd Dc
tf = 6k (T – T ) (wf – wc)
a a w
2
λρd Dc
Thus, tf = 6k (T – T ) (wc – wf)
a a w
Note that the minus sign has been taken inside the upper bracket.
8.9.3 Droplet trajectory
Three forces act on a particle in its trajectory. These are Buoyancy; Gravity and Drag
force-Stoke's Law.
Maximum distance travelled by particle before it reaches low moisture content
2
Vpo Vpo Dp ρp
Smax = K = 18µ
8.10 HEAT TRANSFER IN DRYERS
Drying of solids in a heat transfer process coupled with diffusional transfer of moisture.
However, most dryers are designed conveniently on heat transfer conditions :
Heat must be applied for :
(i) heating the feed to vapourisation temperature.
(ii) vapourizing the liquid.
(iii) heating solid to final exit temperature.
(iv) heating vapour to final exit temperature, and
Thus the total rate of heat transfer is,
qT
. = CP S (TS – TS ) + Xa CP (TV – TS ) +
b a L a
mS
(Xa – Xb) λ + Xb · CP (TS – TV) +
L b
(Xa – Xb) CP (TV – TV) … (8.11)
V b
where, qT = Amount of heat transfer, k cal/hr.
.
m S = Amount of bone-dry solid, kg/hr.
Xa = kg moisture/kg dry solid (entry)
Xb = kg moisture/kg dry solid (exit)
CP = Specific heat of solid k cal/kg oC

S
CP = Specific heat of liquid, k cal/kg oC
L
CP = Specific heat of vapour k cal/kg oC
V
TS = Inlet solid temperature, oC
a
TV = Vapourisation temperature, oC
TV = Final vapour (exit) temperature, oC
b
λ = Latent heat of vapour, k cal/kg
The temperature distribution pattern in a continuous counter-current dryer is given below :
Fig. 8.5 : Temperature pattern in a continuous counter current adiabatic dryer

For adiabatic dryers, TV and TV of equation (8.11) become equal to wet bulb temperature and
b
exit temperature of the drying medium respectively. For a continuous adiabatic dryer heat
balance is given by,
.
qT = m g (1 + Ha) CS (Th – Th ) … (8.12)
a a b
. Mass rate or drying medium‚

where m g = kg of humidity-free/hour
Ha = Humidity of drying medium at entry

CS = Humid heat of drying medium at entry
a
In dryer calculations, the basic heat transfer equation used is,

qT = UA ∆ T … (8.13)
There is uncertainty in area available for heat transfer. So many dryers are designed on the
basis of a volumetric heat-transfer coefficient, Ua.
where 'a' is the (unknown) heat transfer 0 area per unit dryer volume.
The governing equation is, qT = Ua V · ∆ T … (8.14)
where, Ua = volumetric heat transfer coefficient, k cal/m2 hr oC
V = dryer volume, m3
∆T = average temperature difference, oC
8.11 MECHANISM OF MOVEMENT OF MOISTURE WITHIN THE SOLID

When surface evaporation occurs, there must be a movement of moisture from the depths of
the solid to the surface. The nature of the movement influences the drying the falling-rate periods.
In order to appreciate the diverse nature of the falling-rate portions of the drying curve, which
have been observed, let us review very briefly some of the theories advanced to explain moisture
movement and their relation to the falling-rate curves.
Liquid Diffusion : Diffusion of liquid moisture may result because of concentration
gradients between the depths of the solid, where the concentration is high, and the surface, where
it is low. These gradients are set up during drying from the surface. This method of moisture
transport is probably limited to cases where single-phase solid solutions are formed with the
moisture, as in the case of soap, glue, gelatin, and the like, and to certain cases where bound
moisture is being dried, as in the drying of the last portions of water from clays, flour, textiles,
paper, and wood. The general mechanism of this process is described in chapter. 4. It has been
found that the moisture diffusivity usually decreases rapidly with decreased moisture content.
During the constant-rate period of drying such solids, the surface-moisture concentration is
reduced, but the concentration in the depths of the solid remains high. The resulting high
diffusivities permit movement of the moisture to the surface as fast as it can be evaporated, and
the rate remains constant. When dry spots appear because portions of the solid project into the
gas film, a period of unsaturated surface evaporation results. The surface eventually dries to the
equilibrium-moisture content for the prevailing gas. Further drying occurs at rates which are
entirely controlled by the diffusion rates within the solid, since these are slow at low moisture
contents. If the initial constant-rate drying is very rapid, the period of unsaturated surface
evaporation may not appear, and the diffusion-controlled falling-rate period begins immediately
after the constant rate period is completed, as in Fig. 8.6.
Fig. 8.6 : Diffusion – Controlled Falling Rate

Capillary Movement : With certain pastes dried in pans, the adhesion of the wet cake to the
bottom of the pan may not permit ventilation of the subsurface passageways by gas. This can give
rise to curves of the sort shown in Fig. (8.7). In this case, the usual constant-rate period prevailed
during a. When the surface moisture was first depleted, liquid could not be brought to the surface
by the tension in the capillaries since no air could enter to replace the liquid, the surface of
moisture crumpled, admitting air to replace the liquid, whereupon capillary action brought this
to the surface and the rate rose again, as at c.
Fig. 8.7 : Effect of a adhesion of drying paste to the pan

Vapour Diffusion : Especially if heat is supplied to one surface of a solid while drying
proceeds from another, the moisture may evaporate beneath the surface and diffuse outward as a
vapour. Moisture particles in granular solid, which have been isolated from the main portion of
the moisture flowing through capillaries, may also be evaporated below the surface.
8.12 EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING
(1) Through-Circulation Driers : Granular solids can be arranged in thin beds for through
circulation of the gas, and, if necessary, pastes and filters cakes can be preformed into granules,
pellets, or noodles, as described in the case of batch driers. In the continuous through circulation
dryer of Fig. 8.8, the solid is spread to a depth of 38 to 50 mm upon a moving endless conveyor,
which passes through the dryer. The conveyor is made of perforated plates or woven wire screens
in hinged sections in order to avoid failure from repeated flexing of the screen. Fans blow the
heated air through the solid, usually upward through the wet solid and downward after initial
drying has occurred. In this way, a more uniform moisture concentration portion is discarded
continuously at each fan position in the dryer. For materials which permit the flow of gas through
the bed in the manner shown, drying is much more rapid than for tray-type tunnel dryers.
Fig. 8.8 : Continuous through-circulation (single conveyor) dryer with roller extruder
(2) Rotary Dryers : (Refer Fig. 8.9, 8.10, 8.11, 8.12 and 8.13) : This is a most important group
of dryers, suitable for handling free-flowing granular materials, which can be tumbled about
without concern over breakage. shows one form of such a dryer, a direct countercurrent hot-air
dryer. The solid to be dried is continuously
introduced into one end of a rotating cylinder,
as shown, while heated air flows into the other.
The cylinder is installed at a small angle to the
horizontal, and the solid consequently moves
slowly through the device. Inside the dryer,
lifting flights extending from the cylinder wall
for the full length of the dryer lift the solid and
shower it down in a moving curtain through
the air, thus exposing it thoroughly to the
drying action of the gas. This lifting action also
assists in the forward motion of the solid.
Fig. 8.9 : Turbo-type dryer

At the feed end of the dryer, a few short spiral flights assist in imparting the initial forward
motion to the solid before the principal flights are reached. The solid must clearly be one, which is
neither sticky nor gummy, which might stick to the sides of the dryer or tend to ball up. In such
cases, recycling of a portion of the dried product may nevertheless permit used of a rotary dryer.
Fig. 8.10 : Ruggles – Coles XW hot-air dryer

The dryer may be fed with hot flue gas rather than air, and if the gas leaves the drier at a high
enough temperature, discharging it through a stack may provide adequate natural draft to
provide sufficient gas for drying. Ordinarily, however an exhaust fan is used to pull the gas
through the dryer, since this provides more complete control of the gas flow. A dust collector, of
the cyclone, blower may also be provided at the gas entrance, thus maintaining a pressure close to
atmospheric in the dryer; this prevents leakage of cool air in it at the end housings of the drier,
and if the pressure is well balanced, outward leakage will also be minimized.
(a) Indirect rotory dryer
(b) Indirect steam - tube rotory dryer
(c) Indirect - direct rotory dryer

Fig. 8.11 : Some rotary dryers (schematic)
Fig. 8.12 : Continuous through-circulation rotary dryer (Roto-Lourvre)

Fig. 8.13 : Dip-feed single drum dryer

The dryer may be fed with hot flue gas rather than air and if the gas leaves the dryer at a high
enough temperature, discharging it through a stack may provide adequate natural draft to
provide sufficient gas for drying. Ordinarily, however an exhaust fan is used to pull the gas
through the direr, since this provides more complete control of the gas flow. A dust collector, of
the cyclone, blower may also be provided at the gas entrance, thus maintaining a pressure close to
atmospheric in the dryer; this prevents leakage of cool air in at the end housings of the dryer and
if the pressure is well balanced, outward leakage will also be minimized. Rotary dryers are made
for a variety of operations. The following classification includes the major types.
(1) Direct heat, countercurrent flow. For materials, which can be heated to high temperature,
such as minerals, sand, limestone, clays, etc. hot flue gas can be used as the drying gas.
(2) Direct heat, co-current flows. Solids, which can be dried with flue gas without fear of
damage, such as gypsum, iron pyrites, and organic material such as peat and alfalfa,
should be dried in a co-current flow dryer.
(3) Indirect heat, countercurrent flow. For solids such as white pigments, and the like, which
can be heated to high temperatures but which must remain out of contact with flue gas.
(3) Spray Dryers : Solutions, slurries, and pastes can be dried by spraying them as fine
droplets into a stream of hot gas in a spray dryer. One such device is shown in Fig. 8.14. The
liquid to be dried is atomized and introduced into the large drying chamber, where the droplets
are dispersed into a steam of heated air. The particles of liquid evaporate rapidly and dry before
they can be carried to the sides of the chamber, and the bulk of the dried powder which results
falls to the conical bottom of the chamber to be removed by a stream of air to the dust collector.
The principal portion of the exit gas is also led to a dust collector, as shown, before being
discharged. Many other arrangements are possible, involving both parallel and counter flow of
gas and spray. Installations may be very large, as much as 12 m in diameter and 30 m high
(40 by 100 ft). Arrangements and detailed designs vary considerably, depending upon the
manufacturer. Spray dryers are used for a wide variety of products, including such diverse
materials as organic and inorganic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food products such as milk, eggs,
and soluble coffee, as well as soap and detergent products. Spray drying offers the advantage of
extremely rapid drying for heat-sensitive products, a product particles size and density which are
controllable within limits, and relatively low operating costs, especially in large-capacity dryers.
Fig. 8.14 : Spray dryer

(4) Fluidized and Spouted Beds : Granular solids, fluidized by a drying medium such as hot
air, can be dried and cooled in a similar fluidized bed, shown schematically in Fig. 8.15. The
principal characteristics of such beds include cross flow of solid and drying gas, a solids residence
time controllable from seconds to hours, and suitability for any gas temperature. It is necessary
that the solids be free flowing, of a size range 0.1 to 36 mm. Since the mass flow rate of gas for
thermal requirements is substantially less than that required for fluidization. Multistage, cross-
flow operation (fresh air for each stage) is a possibility, as is a two-stage countercurrent
arrangement, as in Fig. 8.15. A tentative design procedure has been proposed.
Fig. 8.15 : Fluidisied Bed Dryer

Coarse solids too large for ready fluidization can be handled in a spouted bed. Here the fluid
is introduced into the cone-shaped bottom of the container for the solids instead of uniformly
over the cross section. It flows upward through the center of the bed in a column, causing a
fountainlike spout of solids at the top. The solids circulate downward around the fluid column.
Such a bed has found particular use in drying wheat, peas, flax, and the like.
8.13 SELECTION, SIZING, COSTS
Throughout the food, dairy, chemical and process industries, there are various requirements
for thermal drying. Some involve the removal of water or other volatiles from pasty materials
such as pigments, clays, synthetic rubbers and fine chemicals. Other involve the drying of
solutions or liquid suspensions such as whey, milk and coffee. To assist manufacturers in arriving
at a reasonably accurate first assessment of the type, size and cost of equipment for a particular
duty, the articles describes the most widely used types of both batch and continuous dryers.
Three basic methods of heat transfer are used in industrial dryers in various combinations. These
are convection, conduction and radiation. In the processing industries the majority of dryers
employ forced convection and continuous operation. With the exception of the indirectly heated
rotary dryer and the film drum dryer, units in which heat is transferred by conduction are
suitable only for batch use. This limitation effectively restricts them to applications involving
somewhat modest production runs. Radiant or so-called "infra-red" heating is rarely used in
drying materials such as fine chemicals, pigments, clays or synthetic rubbers. Its main application
is in operations such as the drying of surface coatings on large plane surfaces, since efficient
utilisation generally requires a line of sight between the material being irradiated and the heat
source or emitter.
Feed Type
Solution Thixotrop Dilatent Cohesive Friable Granules Powder
Fine
Spray Spin Flash Flash
Freeflow
Dustless
Powder Type
Spray or SBD
Granular Band
Wettable
Spray Bed
Spin Flash + Fluid Bed
Agglom Fluid Bed Agglom.
Coated
Tray Band Granulation
Lump
Fig. 8.16 : A guide to dryer selection
8.14 EFFICIENT ENERGY UTILISATION IN DRYING
It is generally necessary to employ thermal methods in order to achieve a product that is
termed commercially dry. Thermal dryers, therefore, are an important unit operation in many
industries. Products such as pigments, baby formula, kaolin and instant coffee usually have to be
processed in dryers to obtain the final product. The commercial drying process can take place in
a number of different types of dryers as described in the previous section. However, the
thermodynamics of drying is the same regardless of the actual device. Water or another liquid
such as a solvent has to be evaporated from a solid by the application of heat. Generally, the
drying takes place in an air atmosphere, although some emphasised dryers may use nitrogen or
even superheated steam as the atmosphere. The most important parameter that governs the
pretreatment and the dryer design is the "cost per unit weight of dried product." While drying is
an extremely energy intensive operation, there are techniques that can be used to minimize the
energy costs per unit output of product, including :
• Minimizing the water content of the feed prior to feeding to the dryer.
• Maximizing the temperature drop of the drying gas. The implies maximum inlet and
minimum outlet temperature.
• Employing the maximum possible recirculation of the drying gas.
• Considering the possibility of two stage counter flow drying.
• Utilizing the heat in the discharge air to preheat incoming air.
• Utilizing direct heat wherever possible.
• Reducing radiation and convection heat loss by means of efficient thermal insulation.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) Slabs of paper pulp 1 m × 1 m × 0.015 m is to be dried under constant drying

conditions from 66.7% to 30% moisture. The value of equilibrium moisture for the
material is 0.5%. If the critical moisture content is 60% and the rate of drying of critical
point is 1.5 kg/hr.m2; calculate the drying time. The dry weight of each slab is 2.5 kg.
Assume all moisture contents are on wet basis.
Sol. : Consider drying takes place from the two big faces.
So, Area for drying = (1 × 1) × 2 = 2 m2
LS = 2.5 kg
66.7
X1 = 100 – 66.7 = 2.0
30
X2 = 100 – 30 = 0.429
0.5
X* = 100 – 0.5 = 0.005
60
XC = 100 – 60 = 1.5
NC = 1.5 kg/hour m2
We have equation for total time required for drying,
θT = θC + θf
LS  XC – X* 
= (X1 – XC) + (XC – X*) ln 
ANC  X2 – X* 
2.5  1.5 – 0.005 
= (2 – 1.5) + (1.5 – 0.005) · ln 
2 × 1.5  0.429 – 0.005 = 1.987
∴ Total drying time = 1.987 hours (Ans.)

(2) A certain material was dried under constant drying conditions and it was found that
2 hours are required to reduce the free moisture concentration from 20% to 10%. How
much longer would be required to reduce the free moisture to 4% ? Assume that no
constant rate period is encountered.
Sol. : Assumptions : (i) Equilibrium moisture content to zero.
(ii) Falling rate period is linear.
Let. θf = Falling rate period for the first case
1
θf = Falling rate period for the second case
2
20
X1 = 100 – 20 = 0.250
10
X2 = 100 – 10 = 0.111
' 4
X2 = 100 – 4 = 0.042
LS X1
θf = AN XC · ln X (... X* = 0) … (1)
1 C 2
LS X1
and θf = AN XC · ln ' … (2)
2 C X2
LS 0.250
from equation (1), θf = AN XC ln 0.111 = 2
1 C
LS XC
Therefore, ANC = 2.46 … (3)
LS X1 0.250
and from equation (2), θf = AN XC ln X = 2.46 ln 0.042
2 C 2
θf = 4.39 hours
2
∴ Further time required = 4.39 – 2.00 = 2.39 hours (Ans.)
(3) Celotax sheets are to be dried by flowing air at 60 oC, 10% relative humidity and a
velocity of 10 m/sec. The critical moisture content is 0.35 kg free water/kg dry solid.
The rate of drying in the falling rate period can be considered linear. The celotax must
be dried from 55% to 12% moisture (Wet basis). Equilibrium moisture content at the
conditions of the dryer is 5% (wet basis). The celotax sheets are kept in layer of 6 cm
thick in insulated trays. The dry density of solid is 1.38 gm/cc. Calculate the time of
drying the sheets.
Data : The rate of drying in gm/cm2 . hour in the constant rate period is given by :
NC = 0.004 V0.8 (pi – pg)
where V = Air velocity, m/sec
pi and pg are dew point temperature and vapour pressure of water in mm of Hg in air
at the wet bulb temperature respectively.
kg water
Sol. : At 60o C and 10% humidity, H = 0.014 kg dry air
0.014
18 kg mole water
= 1 = 0.023 kg. mole dry air
29
If pg = partial pressure of water vapour,

pg
PT – pg = 0.023,
where PT = 760 mm Hg
∴ pg = 17.09 mm Hg
Corresponding to dew point of the above air,
kg water kg mole water
Humidity = 0.028 kg dry air = 0.046 kg mole dry air
pt
∴ 760 – pi = 0.046
∴ pi = 33.42 mm Hg at dew point temperature
Partial pressure of water = vapour pressure
Hence, NC = 0.004 V0.8 (pi – pg)
= 0.004 (10)0.8 (33.42 – 17.09)
= 0.412 gm/cm2 . hr.
where NC = constant rate drying
55
X1 = 100 – 55 = 1.222,
XC = 0.35,
12
X2 = 100 – 12 = 0.136,
5
X* = 100 – 5 = 0.053
Dry density = 1.38 gm/cc
Let us consider a celotax sheet of 1 m × 1 m
∴ Volume of this sheet = 100 cm × 100 cm × 6 cm = 60,000 cm3
LS = Dry weight = 60,000 × 1.38 = 8.28 × 104 gm
Area = 100 × 100 = 104 cm2
(Since the trays are insulated)
Therefore, time required for drying,
θT = θC + θf
LS  XC – X* 
= A·N (X1 – XC) + (XC – X*) ln X – X* 
C  2 
8.28 × 104  0.35 – 0.053 
= (1.222 – 0.35) + (0.35 – 0.053) ln 
104 × 0.412  0.136 – 0.053 
θT = 25.14 hours (Ans.)
(4) It is necessary to dry a batch of 160 kg of a wet material from 30% to 5% moisture
content, under constant rate and falling rate period. The falling rate is assumed to be
linear. Calculate the total drying time considering an available drying surface of
1 m2/40 kg of dry solid. A constant drying flux of 3 × 10–4 kg/m2 is given :
0.2 kg moisutre
XC = Critical moisture content = kg solid
X* = Equilibrium moisture content = 0.05
LS 160 × 0.7 112

Sol. : A = 40 = 40 = 2.8 m2
30
X1 = 100 – 30 = 0.4285 kg moisture/kg solid
5
X2 = 100 – 5 = 0.0526 kg moisture/kg solid
LS (X1 – XC) 2.8 (0.4285 – 0.20)

Constant rate period : θC = =
ANC 3 × 10–4
θC = 2132.66 sec.
LS (XC – X*) XC – X*
Falling rate period : θf = ln  X – X* 
ANC  2 
ln 0.0526 – 0.05
2.8 (0.2 – 0.05) 0.2 – 0.05
=
3 × 10 –4
 
= 5677.17 sec.
So, the total time required for drying
θT = θC + θf = 7809.83 sec.
= 2.17 hours (Ans.)
(5) A batch of solid for which the following table of data applies is to be dried from 25%
to 6% moisture under conditions identical to those for which the data were tabulated.
The initial weight of the wet solid is 300 kg and the drying surface is 1 m2/8 kg dry
weight. Determine the time for drying.
X 0.35 0.25 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.064
N 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.266 0.239 0.208 0.180 0.150 0.097 0.07 0.025
kg moisture
where, X = kg dry solid
kg moisture evaporated
N =
hr m2
25
Sol. : X1 = 75 = 0.333
6
X2 = 94 = 0.064
LS
A = 8
The rate of drying curve is plotted in Fig. 8.17 (a) the values of XC and NC are obtained
kg
from it. NC = 0.3
hr. m2
kg moisture
XC = 0.20 kg dry solid
The drying from X1 = 0.333 to X2 = 0.064 covers both the constant and the falling rate
periods.
Constant rate drying period : X1 = 0.333

XC = 0.20
LS
θC = AN (X1 – XC)
C
8
= 0.3 (0.333 – 0.20)
= 3.55 hours
X2
LS dX
Falling rate drying period : θf = A ⌠
⌡ N
XC
(a) (b)
Since the plot of X vs. N (refer to Fig. 8.17 a) for this period is not a straight line hence the
dX
value of ⌠ N is evaluated by the method of graphical integration (Fig. 8.17 b).
⌡
1
The table used to plot X vs. N is as under :
1
X N
N
0.20 0.300 3.33
0.18 0.266 3.76
0.16 0.239 4.18
0.14 0.208 4.81
0.12 0.180 5.56
0.10 0.150 6.67
0.09 0.097 10.31
0.08 0.070 14.29
0.064 0.025 40.00
The area under curve (Fig. 8.17 (b)) is 1.063,

0.064
dX
∴ ⌠ = 1.063
⌡ N
0.20
0.064
LS dX
So, θf = A ⌠ N = 8 × 1.065 = 8.5 hours
⌡
0.20
Total drying time = θC + θf = 3.35 + 8.5 = 12.05 hours (Ans.)
(6) A rotary counter current dryer is fed with ammonium nitrate containing 6% moisture
at the rate of 100 kg/min and discharges the nitrate with 0.2% moisture. The air enters
at 135oC and leaves at 80oC. The humidity of entering air being 0.007 kg H2O per kg
dry air. The nitrate enter at 21oC and leaves at 65oC. Neglecting radiation losses,
calculate the kg of dry air passing through the dryer and the humidity of the air
leaving the dryer.
Special heat of ammonium nitrate = 0.45
Special heat of dry air = 0.238
Special heat of water vapour = 0.48
Sol. : Basis : 100 kg/min of wet ammonium nitrate.
Let, M = Wt. of bone-dry product
So, 100 – M = Wt. of moisture = 6.0
Fig. 8.18 : Rotary counter current dryer

∴ M = 94 kg
At the exit, let W2 = Wt. of water
W2 0.2
So, 94 + W2 = 100
W2 = 0.19 kg
Therefore water removed in the dryer = 6 – 0.19 = 5.81 kg.
Enthalpy balance :
Let H2 = moisture consent of exit air, kg/kg dry air
Enthalpy of inlet air = EG
1
= (Cg + H1Cv) (t – to) + λH1
With t0 = 0 o C
λ = 597.7 kcal/kg
Cg = 0.238 and Cv
= 0.48
EG = (0.238 + 0.007 × 0.48) (135) + 597.7 × 0.007

1
= 36.76 k cal/kg dry air
EG = (0.238 + 0.48 H2) (80) + 597.7 H2
2
= (19.04 + 636.1 H2) k cal/kg dry air
Enthalpy of solid at the inlet, = 100 × 0.45 × 21
= 945 k cal
Enthalpy of solid at the exit, = 94.19 × 0.45 × 65
= 2755 k cal.
Let, GS = weight of dry air/min.
By heat balance, GS EG + 945 = GSEG + 2755
1 2
or, 36.76 GS + 945 = GS (19.04 + 636.1 H2) + 2755
By moisture balance on air,
GS (H2 – 0.007) = 5.81
Simultaneous solution of the above two equations yield,
GS = 414.9 kg (Ans.)
kg water
H2 = 0.021 kg dry air
So rate of dry air through the dryer = 414.9 kg and the humidity of exit air is
kg H2O
= 0.021 kg dry air (Ans.)
(7) In a drying experiment, a tray dryer containing a single tray of 1 sq. metre area is used
to dry crystalline solids. The following data has been collected :
Sr. No. Time, Hour Weight of wet material, kg
1 0 5.314
2 0.4 5.238
3 0.8 5.162
4 1.0 5.124
5 1.4 5.048
6 1.8 4.972
7 2.2 4.875
8 2.6 4.819
9 3.0 4.743
10 3.4 4.667
11 4.2 4.524
12 4.6 4.468
13 5.0 4.426
14 6.0 4.340
15 infinite 4.120
(a) Calculate and plot drying rates. Find the critical moisture content.
(b) If dry air is available at 40 oC with an absolute humidity of 0.01 kg H2O per kg
dry air and the dryer is maintained at 90 oC, calculated the amount of air required
in first 2 hours.
Assume that the air is heated upto 90 oC and the dry air leaves the dryer at
o
90 C with 5% saturation.
(c) Test the consistency of the falling rate period (choose critical moisture content
and any one point in the falling rate period).
Sol. : Assumptions : (1) X* = 0
(2) Weight of material at t∞ = LS = 4.12 kg
A = 1 m2
LS 4.12
∴ A = 1
= 4.12
Amount of moisture = W – LS
W – LS kg H2O
X = LS kg dry solid
(a) The experimental values are tabulated as under :
S. No. θ, hr. W W – LS ∆W X ∆W
N=
∆θA
∆θ
1. 0.0 5.314 1.194 0 0.290 0
2. 0.4 5.238 1.118 0.076 0.271 0.19
3. 0.8 5.162 1.042 0.152 0.253 0.19
4. 1.0 5.124 1.004 0.190 0.244 0.19
5. 1.4 5.048 0.928 0.266 0.225 0.19
6. 1.8 4.972 0.852 0.342 0.207 0.19
7. 2.2 4.895 0.775 0.419 0.188 0.19
8. 2.6 4.819 0.699 0.495 0.170 0.19
9. 3.0 4.743 0.623 0.571 0.151 0.19
10. 3.4 4.667 0.547 0.647 0.133 0.19
11. 4.2 4.524 4.404 0.790 0.098 0.19
12. 4.6 4.468 0.348 0.846 0.084 0.184
13. 5.0 4.426 0.306 0.888 0.074 0.178
14. 6.0 4.340 0.220 0.974 0.053 0.162
15. α 4.120 0 1.194 0 0
θ vs. ∆W is plotted in Fig. 8.19 (a) and the drying curve is plotted (X vs. N) in Fig. 8.19 (b).
kg H2O
From Fig. 8.19 (b), XC = 0.133 kg dry solid (Ans.)
(b) From Fig. 8.19 (a), water removed in first two hours
= 1.194 – 0.39
= 0.804 kg
kg H2O
Humidity of inlet air = 0.01 kg dry air
Humidity of exit air (90o C and 5% saturation)

kg H2O
= 0.068 kg dry air
Water removed = 0.068 – 0.01
kg H2O
= 0.058 kg dry air
0.804
Dry air required in first two hours = 0.058
= 6.62 kg (Ans.)
(a) (b)
Amount of inlet air (40 oC, H = 0.01) required
= 13.86 × 0.01 = 0.13862 kg.
(c) Let us assume a value of X in the falling rate period from the plot and check for the
drying time. X = 0.074 (corresponding to θ = 5 hours)
For drying of the material from X = 0.29 to X = 0.074, let the time required = θΤ.
θT = θc + θf
LS
θc = AN (X1 – Xc)
c
4.12
= 0.19 (0.29 – 0.133) = 3.40 hr.
LS Xc – X*
θf = AN (Xc– X*) ln X – X*
c 2
4.12 0.133
= 0.19 × 0.133 ln 0.074 (... X* = 0)
= 1.67 hour
θT = 3.40 + 1.67 = 5.07 hr.
Time of drying from experimental data = 5 hour. Since both the timings are nearly equal,
the falling rate period is consistent. (Ans.)
(8) It is desired to dry a certain type of fibre board in sheets 0.131 metre by 0.162 metre by
0.071 metre from 58% to 5% moisture (wet basis) content. Initially from laboratory test
data with this fibre board, the rate of drying at constant rate period was found to be
8.9 kg/m2 hour. The critical moisture content was 24.9% and the equilibrium moisture
content was 1%. The fibre board is to be dried from one side only and has a bone-dry
density of 210 kg/m3. Determine the time required for drying. The falling rate may be
assumed linear.
Sol. : All the moisture content are on wet basis :
58
X1 = 42 = 1.3809
5
X2 = 95 = 0.0526
24.9
XC = 75.1 = 0.3316
1
X* = 99 = 0.0101
Sheet volume = 0.131 × 0.162 × 0.071
= 0.001507 m3
Bone dry density = 210 kg/m3
Weight of bone-dry sheet = 0.001507 × 210
LS = 0.316 kg
Drying area = 0.131 × 0.162 = 0.021 m2
Drying time = θΤ = θC + θf
NC = 8.9 kg/m2 hr.
LS  xC – x* 
θT = AN (x1 – xC) + (xC – x*) ln x – x* 
C  2 
=
0.316 (1.3809 – 0.3316) + (0.3316 – 0.0101) ln 0.3316 – 0.0101
0.0221 × 8.9  0.526 – 0.0101 
= 2.874 hours (Ans.)
(9) 1400 kg (bone dry) of granular solid is to be dried under constant drying conditions
from a moisture content of 0.2 kg/kg of dry solid to a final moisture content of
0.02 kg/kg dry solid. The material has an effective area of 0.0615 m2/kg. Under the
same conditions the following rates were previously known. Calculate the time
required for drying.
Moisture content, X, kg/kg dry solid 0.3 0.20 0.14 0.096 0.056
Rate, N, kg/hr m2 1.71 1.71 1.71 1.46 1.29
Moisture content, X, kg/kg dry solid 0.046 0.026 0.016
Rate, N, kg/hr.m2 0.88 0.54 0.376
Sol. : X vs. N is plotted in Fig. 8.20. It is evident that the falling rate period is not a straight line.
Hence the time for it is to be calculated by graphical integration.
LS = 1400 kg
X1 = 0.2 kg/kg dry solid
X2 = 0.02 kg/kg dry solid
Area = 0.0615 m2/kg
Total drying area = 1400 × 0.0615
= 86.1 m2
Drying time : Constant rate period :
LS
θC = AN (X1 – XC)
C
1400
= (0.2 – 0.14) = 0.57 hour
86.1 × 1.71
X2
LS dx
Falling rate period : θf = A ⌠ N
⌡
XC
0.02
1400 dx
= 86.1 ⌠ N
⌡
0.14
X N 1
N
0.140 1.71 0.585
0.096 1.46 0.0685
0.056 1.29 0.775
0.042 0.88 1.136
0.020 0.50 2.000
A graph is plotted with X and 1/N, as shown in Fig. 8.20.

Area under the curve of x vs. 1/N = 0.104

X2
LS dx
θf = A ⌠ N
⌡
XC
1400
= 86.1 × 0.104 = 1.69 hour
Total drying time = 0.57 + 1.69
= 2.26 hour (Ans.)
(10) A slab with wet weight of 5 kg originally contains 50% moisture (wet basis).
The slab is 600 by 900 by 75 mm thick. The equilibrium moisture content is 5% of the
total weight when in contact with air of 20 oC and 20% humidity. The drying rate is
given below for contact with air of the above quality at a definite velocity. Drying is
from one face only. How long will it take to dry the slab to 15% moisture content (wet
basis) ?
Wet slab kg 9.1 7.2 5.3 4.2 3.3 2.8 2.5
kg 4.9 4.9 4.4 3.9 3.4 2.0 1.0
Drying rate
hr. m2
Sol. : Let x = kg of moisture in the wet solid,
So, dry solid = 5–x
x 50
5 = 100 So, x = 2.5
Weight of dry solid = 5 – x = 2.5 kg
N W, kg weight of W, kg weight of kg water
X kg solid (dry)
Rate
kg Wet solid Water
hr.m2
4.9 9.1 6.6 2.64
4.9 7.2 4.7 1.88
4.4 5.3 2.8 1.12
3.9 4.2 1.7 0.68
3.4 3.3 0.8 0.32
2.0 2.8 0.3 0.12
1.0 2.5 0 0
In Fig. 8.21, X is plotted against 'N'
Drying area = 0.6 × 0.9 = 0.54 m2
50
X1 = 100 – 50 = 1.0
15
X2 = 100 – 15 = 0.176
Drying is in the falling rate period only. Further, the falling rate is not linear. Hence the
drying time is to be evaluated by graphical integration.
X N 1/N
1.000 4.30 0.232
0.800 4.10 0.244
0.680 3.90 0.256
0.320 3.40 0.294
0.176 2.35 0.426
Values of N has been taken from Fig. 8.21 (b).
1.0
dx 1
⌠ N = Area under curve × vs N (see Fig. 8.21 a)
⌡
0.176
= 0.22
LS dx
θf = A ⌠ N
⌡
2.5
= 0.54 × 0.22 = 1.02 hours (Ans.)
Required time = 1.02 hours
Fig. 8.21 (a) : Graphical solution for example (10)
Fig. 8.21 (b) : Graphical solution for example (10)

(11) A rotary dryer using counter-current flow is to be used to dry 12000 kg/hr of wet salt
containing 5% water (wet basis) to 0.10% water (wet basis). Heated air at 147 oC with
50 oC wet-bulb temperature is available. The specific heat of the salt is 0.21. The outlet
temperatures of air and salt are 72oC and 93oC respectively. Calculate the length and
diameter of the dryer required.
Sol. : Assumption wet salt enters at ambient temperature say 30oC.
.
m s = bone.dry solid, kg
= 12000 × 0.95 = 11400 kg
Let, W2 = final water content of salt
W2 0.1
So, W2 + 11400 = 100
or W2 = 11.41 kg
12000 × 0.5
Xa = 11400 = 0.0526
11.41
Xb = 11400 = 0.001
Tha = 147 oC, Twa = 50 oC

Ha = 0.05 kg water/kg dry air
Tha – Twa 147 – 50
Ni = T – T = 72 – 50 = 4.41
hb wb
λ 50o C = 569 k cal/kg

CPS = 0.21 k cal/kg oC
CPV = 0.45 k cal/kg oC
CPL = 1.00 k cal/kg oC
.
Rate of mass transfer = m p
.
= m s (Xa – Xb)
= 11400 (0.0526 – 0.001)
= 588.24 kg/hr.
Heat duty is found from equation (8.11)
qr
. = 0.21 (93 – 30) + 0.0526 × 1 (50 – 30) + (0.0526 – 0.001) 569 + 0.001 × 1 (93 – 50)
ms
+ (0.0526 – 0.001) × 0.45 (72 – 50)
= 44.19 k cal/kg.
So, qT = 44.19 × 11400 – 503766 k cal/hour
Flow rate of air entering is found from heat balance and humid heat,
Csa = Humid heat
= 0.24 + 0.05 × 0.45 = 0.263 k cal/kg oC
.
Heat balance for air is, qT = mg (1 + Ha) Csa (Tha – Thb)
.
503766 = mg (1 + Ha) 0.263 (147 – 72)
.
Amount of wet air = mg (1 + Ha)
503766
= 0.263 (147 – 72) = 25539.4 kg/hr.
. 25539.4
mg = 1.05 = 24323 kg dry air/hr.
588.24
Outlet humidity of air = H1 + 24323 = 0.073 kg water/kg dry air
∆T is calculated from equation (116),

(147 – 50) – (72 – 50)
∆T = 147 – 50
ln 72 – 50
= 50.55 o C
A value of mass velocity is assumed within the range. Let the value be 5000 kg/hr m2.
25539.4
Cross-sectional area = 5000
= 5.108 m2
So, diameter of dryer = D = 2.55 m
From equation (120), qT = 0.21 π DL G0.07 ∆T
qT
So, L =
0.21 π DG0.07 ∆T
503766
=
0.21 π (2.55) (5000)0.67 50.55
= 19.69 m.
Hence the diameter and length of the dryer are 2.55 m and 19.69 m respectively. (Ans.)
(12) In order to test the feasibility of drying a certain foodstuff, drying data were obtained
in a tray dryer with airflow over the top of the exposed surface having an area of
0.186 m2. The bone-dry sample weight was 3.765 kg dry solid. At equilibrium after a
long period, the wet sample weight was 3.955 kg H2O plus solid. Hence 3.955 – 3.765 or
0.190 kg of equilibrium moisture was present. The following sample weights versus
time were obtained in the drying test.
Time 0 0.4 0.8 1.4 2.2 3.0 4.2 5.0 7.0 9.0 12.0
(hr.)
Weight 4.944 4.885 4.808 4.699 4.554 4.404 4.241 4.150 4.019 3.978 3.955
(kg)
(a) Calculate the free moisture content X kg H2O/kg dry solid for each data point and
plot W versus time (Hint : for 0 hrs, 4.944 – 0.190 – 3.765 = 0.989 kg free moisture is
3.765 kg dry solid. Hence X = 0.989 ÷ 3.765)
(b) Measure gradients along the drying curve, calculate the drying rate R, and plot R
versus X.
(c) Using this drying-rate curve, predict the total time to dry the sample from X = 0.20
to X = 0.04. State the drying rate RC in the constant rate period, and critical free
moisture content XC.
Sol. : (a)
Time (hours) Free moisture content (kg/kg)
0 (4.944 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.263
0.4 (4.885 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.247
0.8 (4.808 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.227
1.4 (4.699 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.198
2.2 (4.554 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.159
3.0 (4.404 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.119
4.2 (4.241 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.076
5.0 (4.150 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.052
7.0 (4.019 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.017
9.0 (3.978 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.006
12.0 (3.955 – 0.190 – 3.765) ÷ 3.765 = 0.000
Free moisture content (kg/kg dry solid)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (hours)
LS dX – 3.765 ∆X
(b) R = – A dt = 0.186
∆t
From graph, the curve is differentiated by taking its gradient at regular intervals :
Time "t" Change in X Change in t ∆X/∆
∆t R X (kg/kg dry
(hours) (kg/kg) (hours) solid)
(kg/kg.hr) (kg/hr.m2)
0 – 0.265 5.5 – 0.0481818 0.97529326 0.265
3 – 0.265 5.5 – 0.0481818 0.97529326 0.12
4.5 – 0.074 2.6 – 0.0284615 0.57611663 0.066
6 – 0.046 2.8 – 0.0164286 0.33254608 0.032
7.5 – 0.023 3.4 – 0.0067647 0.136933074 0.013
9 – 0.016 4.3 – 0.0037209 0.07531883 0.006
12 – 0.005 4.4 – 0.0011364 0.02300220 0
i.e. RC = 0.975 kg/hr.m2
1
0.9
0.8
Drying rate (kg/hr.m )
2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
–0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Free moisture content (kg/kg dry solid)
Fig. 8.23 : Rate of drying curve in example (12)
(c) From graph, XC = 0.12 kg/kg dry solid and XL = – 0.014 kg/kg dry solid.
LS (X1 – XC) 3.765 (0.20 – 0.12)
constant rate dry time t1 = ARC = = 1.660 hours
0.186 × 0.975
LS (XC – XL) XC – XL
constant rate dry time t1 = ln  X2 – XL 
ARC  
ln  0.04 + 0.014 
3.765 (0.012 + 0.014) 0 .12 + 0.014
=
0.186 × 0.975  
= 2.528 hours
Total drying time = t1 + t2 = 4.1880 hours (Ans.)
(13) A batch of wet solid was dried on a tray dryer using constant drying conditions and a
thickness of material on the tray of 25.4 mm. Only the top surface was exposed. The
drying rate during the constant-rate period was R = 2.05 kg/kg.hr.m2. The ratio used
was 24.4 dry solid/m2 exposed surface. The initial free moisture content was W = 0.55
and the critical moisture content WC = 0.22 kg moisture/kg dry solid.
Calculate the time to dry a batch of this material from W1 = 0.45 to W2 = 0.30 using
the same drying conditions but a thickness of 50.8 mm, with drying from the top and
bottom surfaces. (Hint : First calculate surface-to-mass ratio for this new case).
Solution :
Assumptions are as follows :
(i) Both start and finish moisture well in excess of the critical content drying is
entirely within constant rate period.
(ii) Wet solid is of uniform density, i.e. double thickness over an area will have twice
the mass.
(iii) Drying rate has same value for both top and bottom surfaces (i.e. no gravity effect).
(iv) The new sample has twice the surface area, but twice the mass also. Therefore it
will dry just as quickly.
LS X1 – XC
constant rate drying time t = A RC
0.45 – 0.30
= 24.4 × 2.05
= 1.785 hours (Ans.)
(14) The wet feed material to a continuous dryer contains 40% w/w moisture on a wet basis
and is dried to 25% by counter current airflow. The dried product leaves at a rate of
o
0.213 kg/s. Fresh air to the system has a dry bulb temperature of 25 C and wet bulb of
o o
15 C. The humid air leaving the dryer has a dry bulb temperature of 37 C and wet
o
bulb of 28 C and part of it is recirculated and mixed with the fresh air before entering
o
a heater. The heated mixed air enters the dryer with a dry bulb temperature of 60 C
o o
and wet bulb of 27 C. The solid both enters and leaves at 26.7 C. Calculate the fresh
airflow, the percent air that is recycled.
Sol. :
Drawing a schematic diagram of the dryer to help in writing a mass balance :
Humid air recycled W4
W2
W3
Fresh air in Humid air out
W1 Dryer W5
heater
Dried solid out Moist solid in
S2 S1
Fig. 8.24 : Schematic of counter current dryer
Make all W and S flowrates on a DRY basis. Assume steady state (no accumulation) :
Mass balance of dry air over heater :
W1 + W4 = W2
Mass balance of water vapour across dryer
W 1 H 1 + W 4 H 4 = W 2H 2
W4
We want to know percentage recycle, i.e. 100 × W  . Eliminate W1 from balance.
 2 
Rewrite dry air balance to give :
W2 – W4 = W1
Substitute into water vapour balance :
W2H2 = (W2 – W4) H1 + W4H4
W 2H 2 = W 2H 1 – W 4H 1 + W 4H 4
W2(H2 – H1) = W4(H4 – H1)
W4 H2 – H1
∴ 100 W = 100 H – H
2 4 1
To find the recycle rate, we need the humidities of the three air streams on a kg water per
kg dry air basis :
inlet air H1 = 0.0065 kg/kg (from psychometric chart)
outlet air H3 = 0.0202 kg/kg (from psychometric chart)
mixed air H2 = 0.0101 kg/kg (from psychometric chart)
0.0101 – 0.0065
∴ recycle = 100 × 0.0202 – 0.0065
= 26.27737%
As ever, we cannot be any more accurate than our original data, so 26%.
Mass balance on water in dryer :
S1X1 + W2H2 = S2X2 + W3H3
No accumulation, so dry solid in = dry solid out (= S) and dry air in = dry air out
(= W2) so S(X1 – X2 ) = W2(H3 – H2).
S (X1 – X2)
∴ W2 = H3 – H2
We now want to find the unknown W1
W1 = W2 – W4
W4  W4 
W1 = W2 – W2 W = W2 1 – W 
2  2
S(X1 – X2)  H2 – H1 
∴ W1 = H3 – H2 1 – H4 – H1
S (X1 – X2) H4 – H1 H2 – H1
∴ W1 = H3 – H2 H4 – H1 – H4 – H1
S (X1 – X2) H4 – H2 
∴ W1 = H3 – H2 H4 – H1
H3 and H4 are equal, so :
S (X1 – X2) H3 – H2
∴ W1 = H3 – H2 H3 – H1
X1 – X2
= SH –H
3 1
To find air inlet flow, we need the X of the two solid streams and the flow rate S on a dry
basis :
inlet solid X1 = 0.4 ÷ (1 – 0.4) = 0.667 kg/kg
outlet solid X2 = 0.25 ÷ (1 – 0.25) = 0.333 kg/kg
dry solid feed S = 0.213 (1 – 0.25) = 0.15975 kg/s
0.667 – 0.333
∴ W1 = 0.15975 0.0202 – 0.0065
= 3.8868621 kg/s
As ever, we cannot be any more accurate than our original data, so 3.89 kg/s. (Ans.)
(15) A cabinet dryer is use to dry a food product from 68% moisture content (w/w basis) to
o
5.5% moisture content (w/w basis). The drying air enters the system at 54 C and 10%
o o
RH and leaves at 30 C and 70% RH. The product temperature is 25 C throughout
drying. Calculate the quantity of air required for drying on the basis of 1 kg of product
solids.
Use of moisture balance equation
· · · ·
maW2 + m pw1 = maW1 + mpw2
this will be rearranged
(· ·
) · ·
ma/mp w2 + w1 = m/mp w1 + w2 ( )
mp = Mass fraction of product
w1 = Moisture content in (w/w basis)
and w2 = Moisture content out (w/w basis)
Sol. :
From the psychometric chart
o
W1 (30 C and 70% RH) = 0.0186 kg water kg/kg dry air
o
W2 (54 C and 10% RH) = 0.0094 kg water kg/kg dry air
Using the above equation
· ·
ma ma
· (0.0094) + 2.125 = · (0.0186) + 0.0582
mp mp
·
ma
0.00094 · = 2.067
mp
·
ma
· = 219.88 kg dry air / kg solids
mp
Then if drying 10 kg of product will need X kg for dry air. This can be calculated as
follows :
Need 10 × 0.32 kg solids = 3.2 kg solids
Mass of dry air = 3.2 × 219.88
= 703.6 kg dry air in order to complete the drying
processes (Ans.)
(16) A fluidized bed dryer is being used to dry diced carrots. The product enters the dryer
o
with 60% moisture content (w.w.b.) at 25 C. The air used for drying enters the dryer at
o o
120 C after being heated from ambient air with 60% RH at 25 C. Estimate the
production rate when air is entering the dryer at 700 kg dry air hr–1 and product
leaving the dryer is at 10% moisture content (w.w.b). Assume product leaves the dryer
at the wet bulb temperature of air and the specific heat of product solid is
o –1 o
2.0 kj kg–1 C . Air leaves the dryer 10 C above the product temperature.
The product rate will be determined using the material balance, and the energy
balance, alongwith parameters obtained using the psychometric chart.
0.6
Initial product moisture content w1 = 0.4 = 1.5 kg water/kg solids
o
Initial air condition = 20 C and 60% RH (W2 = 0.009 kg water / kg dry air)
o
Air temperature entering dryer = 120 C
·
Air flow rate m a = 700 kg dry air hr–1
0.1
Final product moisture content (w2) = 0.9 = 0.111 kg water / kg solids
–1
Specific heat of product solids (Cp) 2.0 kj kg–1 K
Final product temperature = wet bulb temperature of air
o
Final air temperature (Ta1 ) = Tp2 + 10 C.
Sol. : Moisture balance
Mass water in air in + Mass water in product in = Mass water in air out + Mass water in
·
product out (700 kg dry air/hr) (0.009 kg water/kg dry air) + m p (1.5 kg water/kg
solids)
·
= (700 kg dry air/hr) W1 + m p (0.111 kg water/kg solids)
Heat Balance :
Heat air in + Heat product out = Heat air out + Heat product out
For the air :
Hair = Cs2 (120 – 0) + 0.009 HL2
where
Cs2 = 1.005 + 1.88 (0.009)
= 1.0219 kj/kg dry air K
o
HL2 = 2202.59 kj/kg water at 120 C (from steam tables)
Therefore,
Hair = (1.0219 × 120) + (0.009 × 2202.59)
= 142.45 kj/kg dry air
o o
Wet bulb temperature = 38 C, thus air is leaving the dryer at 48 C
Then
Haout = Cs1 (Ta1 – 0) + W1 (HL1)
where
Cs1 = 1.005 + 1.88 W1
and
o
HL1 = 2387.56 kj/kg water at 48 C
Therefore,
Haout = (1.005 + 1.88 W1) + W1 (2387.56)
For the product
Hpin = (2.0 kj/kg solids K) (25 – 0) + (1.5 kg wat./kg solids)
(4.178 kj/kg K) (25 – 0)
Hpin = 206.75 kj/kg solids
Hpout = (2.0) (Tp2 – 0) + (0.111 kg water/kg solids)
(4.175 kj/kg K) (Tp2 – 0)
Then,
·
(700 kg dry air/hr) (142.45 kj/kg dry air/kg dry air) + mp (206.75 kj/kg solids)
o
= (700 kg dry air/hr) [(1.005 + 1.88 W1) (48 C) + W1 (2387.56 kj/kg water)]
· o
+ mp [(2.0 kj/kg solids K) (38 C)
+ (0.111 kg water/kg solids) (4.175 kj/kg K) (38) + 0
where q = 0, indicating negligible heat loss from surface of dryer.
The material balance and energy balance equations can be solved simultaneously :
· ·
(a) 700 (0.009) + 1.5 mp = 700 W1 + 0.111 mp
·
(b) 700 (142.45) + m p (206.75) = 700 [(1.005 + 1.88 W1) (48) + 2387.56 W1]
·
+ mp [(2.0) (38) + (0.111) (4.175) (38)]
· ·
(a) 6.3 + 1.5 mp = 700 W1 + 0.111 mp
· ·
(b) 99715 + 206.75 mp = 700 (48.24 + 2477.8 W1) + 93.61 mp
·
(1.389 mp + 6.3)
(a) W1 = 700
·
(b) 65947 + 113.14 mp = 1734460 W1
·
· 1734460 (1.389 mp + 6.3)
Then 65947 + 113.14 mp = 700
·
mp = 15.12 kg solids/hr
Thus, to calculate the absolute humidity of air leaving the dryer
(1.389 × 15.12 + 6.3)
W1 = 700
= 0.039 kg water/kg dry air
o
indicating that air leaving the dryer will be 48 C and 55% RH.
(17) Calculate the drying time of a particle in a spray dryer, given :
–3 o
Feed 20% solids (density 1075 kg ) To = 20 C
o
Dried Product = 4% (density = 375 kg–3) T = 55 C
Critical Moisture content = 50%
Rotary atomiser, diameter = 0.2 m, 10,000 r.p.m. Feed rate 1000 kg hr–1
Droplets 40 - 75 microns in diameter.
o o
Ambient air temperature 20 C, 70% R.H.; is heated to 110 C
–1
Thermal conductivity of air = 0.032 W m–1 K
Latent Heat = 2502 kj kg–1
Also calculate the width and height of the dryer, given that the air velocity is
1.927 ms–1.
Sol.: Drying time :

2 2
(
λρw Do – Dc )
Constant time : tc =
8ka (Ta – Tc)
We must first calculate the diameter at the end of the constant rate period.
4πr3ρ
Initially one drop weighs 3
Must account for the largest droplets. Hence weight :
3
4π(37.5 × 10–6) (1075)
Weight = 3
–10
= 2.37 × 10 kg
–10
Weight of solids in droplets = 2.37 × 10 × 0.20
–11
= 4.75 × 10
–11
Weight of product droplet = 4.75 × 10 × 1.04
–11
= 4.94 × 10
–11
mass 4.94 × 10
Volume of dry droplet = density = 375
–13
= 1.32 × 10 m3
1/3
Radius = 3V
 4π 
–6 –6
Therefore radius = 31.55 × 10 m; Diameter = 63.1 × 10 m
Thus, drying time can be calculated using :
2 2
(
λρw Do – Dc )
tc =
8ka (Ta – Tc)
2.502 × 10 × 1075 × ((75 × 10 ) – (63.1 × 10 ) )

6 −6 2 –6 2
tc =
8 × 0.032 × (110 – 36.9)
tc = 0.236 s
Falling Rate :
2
λρdDc
tf = 6k (T – T ) (mc – mf)
a a w
mc = 0.5 w.w.b. = 1.0 d.w.b.
mf = 0.04 w.w.b. = 0.0417 d.w.b.
6 –6 2
2.502 × 10 × 375 × (63.1 × 10 )
tf = (1.0 – 0.0417)
6 × 0.032 × (110 – 36.9)
Hence tf = 0.256 s
Total drying time :
t = 0.236 + 0.256 = 0.491 s
Dryer Width :
2
VpoDp ρp
Smax = 18µ
but both ρp and Dp vary. Thus, take the average thus :
2 2
2 ρoDo + ρdDc
ρp Dp = 2
2 (1075 × 75 × 10
–6
) + (375 + 63.1 × 10–6) –6
ρp Dp (average) = 2 = 3.77 × 10
Vpo = Peripheral velocity of the disc = rω

ω = 10,000 r.p.m. : 1 revolution = 2 π radians,
ω =  60  × 2π
10‚000
hence
 
= 1047 rad s−1
Therefore, because radius = 0.1 m then Vpo = 1047 × 0.1 = 104.7 m s–1
2
Vpo Dp ρp
smax = 18 µ
–6
(104.7) (3.77 × 1 0 )
= –5
18 × 1.6 × 10
= 1.37 m
Diameter = 2 Smax = 2.74
Multiple by a Factor of Safety (1.1)
Diameter of vessel = 3.02 m
Dryer Height :
Assume droplets fall at same speed as air
Height = V × drying time
= 1.927 m s−1 × 0.502 s
= 0.967 m × 1.1
= 1.042 meters
(18) A co-current spray dryer is to be used to dry 1,500 kg hr–1 of milk powder from 25%
o
solids to 4% moisture content (dry basis). Ambient air, initially at 25 C and 70%
o
relative humidity, will be heated to 120 C before entering the dryer. The product,
o o
which is initially by 25 C, will leave the dryer in equilibrium with the air at 50 C.
If the dryer diameter has been calculated to be 3 m and the droplet drying time to be
15 s, determine the height of the dryer.
–1
Data : Specific heat milk solids 1.675 kJ kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat water 4.182 kJ kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat ware vapour 1.875 kJ kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat dry air 1.005 kJ kg–1 K
–1
Latent heat of vapourization 2502 kJ kg–1 K
Sol. :
To calculate the air velocity, we need to calculate the volume of air passing through the
dryer. This is achieved by using the mass and energy balances, as shown below :
(a) Mass balance
Solids in = Solids out
1500 × 0.25 = 0.96 mp
mpout = 390.625 kg hr–1
Total = 1500 kg hr–1 = mpout + mwout
mwout = 1109.375 kg hr–1
(b) Energy Balance
Energy in = Energy out
mpin hpin + main hain = mpout hpout + maout haout + mwv hwv
main = maout = ma
mpin = 1500 kg hr–1;
mpout = 390.625 kg hr–1 ;
mwout = 1109.375 kg hr–1
Let X = solids fraction
hp = T (XCp + (1 – X) Cpwater)
hpin = 25 (0.25 (1.675) + 0.75 (4.182))
= 88.8125 kj kg–1
hpout = 50 (0.96(1.675) + 0.04 (4.182))
= 88.764 kj kg–1
hair = ha + Ha hwv
= CT + Ha (CwvT + hgs)
Ha = 0.0135 from psychometric chart
hairin = 1.005 (120) + 0.012 (1.857 (120) + 2502)
= 157.41 kj kg–1
hairout = 1.005 (50) + 0.012 (1.857) (50) + 2502)
= 85.29 kj kg–1
hwv = CwvT + hgs
= 1.875 (50) + 2502
= 2595.75 kj kg–1
Hence,
1500 (88.88) + ma (157.41) = 390.625 (88.764) + ma (85.29)
+ 1109.375 (2595.75)
ma = 38559.44 kg air hr–1
o
Specific volume at 120 C = 1.13
(38559.44 × 1.13)
Air flow rate = 3600
= 12.10 m3 s–1 (Ans.)
Air velocity = 1.71 m s–1
(19) Design the width and height of a co-current spray dryer given :
o
Feed 20% solids (density = 1075 kg m–3) To = 20 C
o
Dried product = 4% w/w basis. (Density = 300 kgm–3) T = 55 C
Critical Moisture content = 50% w/w basis
Rotary atomizer, diameter = 0.2 m, 10,000 r.p.m. Feed rate 1000 kg hr–1
Droplets 40 – 70 microns from atomiser.
o o
Ambient temperature of air = 30 C and R.H = 70%, heated to 110 C
Latent heat of evaporation = 2502 kj kg–1
–1
Specific heat dry solid = 1.6575 kj kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat water = 4.182 kj kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat water vapour = 1.875 kj kg–1 K
–1
Specific heat dry air = 1.005 kj kg–1 K
–1
Thermal conductivity air = 0.032 W m–1 K
–5
Viscosity of air = 1.6 × 10 kg m–1 s–1
Calculate : (1) Dryer width, (2) Drying time, (3) Air velocity and (4) Dryer height.
Sol. :
1. Dryer Width :
2
VpoDpρp
Smax = 18µ
But both ρp and Dp vary. Thus take the average thus :
2 2
2 ρoDo + ρdDc
ρp Dp = 2
Assume diameter is constant during the falling rate period
4πr3ρ
Initially one drop weighs 3
Must account for the largest droplets. Hence weight :
4π 35 × 10 ( )
–6 3
(1075)
weight = 3
–10
= 1.9306 × 10 kg
–10 –11
Weight of solids in droplets = 1.9306 × 10 × 0.2 = 3.8613 × 10
–11 –11
Weight of dry droplet = 3.8613 × 10 × 1.04 = 4.0157 × 10
mass
Volume of dry droplet = density
–11
4.0157 × 10
= 300
–13
= 1.3386 × 10 m3
–6
Therefore Radius = 31.73 × 10 m;
–6
Diameter = 63.47 × 10 m
–6 –6
2 (1075 × 70 × 10 ) + (300 × 63.67 × 10 )
ρpDp(average) = 2
–6
= 3.238 × 10
Vpo = Peripheral velocity the disc = rω
r = 0.1 m, ω = 10000 r.p.m. : 1 revolution = 2π radians
V =  60  × 2π
10000
Hence,
 
= 1047 rad s–1
Therefore, because radius = 0.1 m then Vpo = 1047 × 0.1 = 104.7 ms–1
2
VpoDpρp
smax = 18µ
–6
(104.7) (3.23 × 10 )
= –5
18 × 1.6 × 10
= 1.177 m
Diameter = 2 Smax = 2.354 (Ans.)
Multiply by a Factor of Safety (1.1)
Diameter of vessel = 2.6 m
2. Drying Time :
t = tc + tf
Constant Rate :
2 2
(
λρw Do – Dc )
tc = 8ka (Ta – Tc)
6
( 2
2.502 × 10 × 1075 × (70 × 10–6) – (63.47 × 10–6)
2
)
tc =
8 × 0.032 × (110 – 40)
tc = 0.131 s
Falling Rate :
2
λρdDc
tf = 6k (T – T ) (mc – mf)
a a w
mc = 0.5 w.w.b. = 1.0 d.w.b.
mf = 0.04 w.w.b. = 0.0417 d.w.b.
6 2
2.502 × 10 × 300 × (63.47 × 10–6)
tf = (1.0 – 0.0417)
6 × 0.032 × (110 – 40)
Hence tf = 0.215 s
Total Drying Time :
t = 0.131 + 0.215 = 0.346 s (Ans.)
3. Air Velocity :
(a) Mass balance :
Solids in = Solids out
1000 × 0.2 = 0.96 mp
mp = 208.3 kg hr–1
Total = 1000 kg hr–1 = mpout + mwout
mwout = 791.7 kg hr–1 (Ans.)
(b) Energy Balance :
Energy in = Energy out
mpin hpin + main hain = mpout hpout + maout haout + mwv hwv
main = maout = ma
mpin = 1000 kg hr–1 ; mpout = 208.3 kg hr–1; mwout
= 791.7 kg hr–1
Let X = solids fraction
hp = T (XCp + (1 – X)Cpwater)
hpin = 20 (0.2 (1.675) + 0.8 (4.182)) = 73.612 kj kg–1
hpout = 55(0.96(1.675) + 0.04(4.182)) = 97.64 kj kg-1
hair = ha +Ha hwv
= CT + Ha(CwvT + hgs)
Ha = 0.0191 from psychometric chart
hairin = 1.005 (110) + 0.0191 (1.857(110) + 2502) = 162.28 kj kg–1
hairout = 1.005(55) + 0.0191 (1.857(55) + 2502) = 105.03 kj kg–1
hwv = CwvT + hgs = 1.875(55) + 2502 = 2605 kj kg–1
Hence
1000(73.612) + ma (162.28) = 208.3 (97.64) + ma (105.03) + 791.7 (2605)
ma = 35095 kg air hr–1
o
Specific volume at 110 C = 1.12
(35095 × 1.05)
Air flow rate = 3600 = 10.91 m3 s–1
Air velocity = 2.07 m s–1 (Ans.)

4. Dryer Height
Assume droplets fall at same speed as air
Height = V × drying time
= 2.07 m s–1 × 0.346 s
= 0.71 m × 1.1
= 0.79 metres (Ans.)
(20) Drying of a food product is carried out in an insulated tray. The drying air has a partial
o
pressure of water equal to 2360 Pa and a wet bulb temperature of 30 C. The product
has a drying surface of 0.05 m2/kg dry solid. The material has a critical moisture
content of 0.12 (dry basis) and negligible equilibrium moisture content. The drying
rate in the falling rate period is proportional to the moisture content and the mass
–4
transfer coefficient is 5.34 × 10 kg/m2.hr.Pa.
Calculate :
(a) the drying rate in the constant rate period in kg/m2 hr.
(b) the time required to dry the material from a moisture of 0.22 to 0.06 (both on dry
basis).
o
Vapour pressure of water at 30 C = 4232 Pa.
Solution :
Rate of drying at constant rate period Nc :
–
Nc = kG∆p A = kG pA – pA (–* –
) … (1)
–*
where, pA = Partial pressure of water vapour at equilibrium, or vapour pressure
of water (4232 Pa)
–
p A = Partial pressure of water vapour in drying air (2360 Pa)
–4
kG = Mass transfer coefficient (5.34 × 10 kg/m2.hr.Pa)
Therefore, from equation (1)
–4
Nc = 5.34 × 10 (4232 – 2360) = 1 kg/hr. m2
N
2
(kg/hr.m )
0 0.06 0.12 0.22

X
Fig. 8.25 : Graphical analysis in example (20)
Falling rate period :
Given : drying rate is proportional to moisture content. Therefore,
1
Slope of falling rate period curve = 0.12 = 8.333
Rate of drying in falling rate period Nf = 8.333 X
From the definition of drying rate
– Ss dX
N = A … (2)
dθ
where, Ss = Mass of dry solid;
A = Drying surface area; and
θ = Time of drying
A
Given : Ss = 0.05 m2/kg dry solid
For constant period equation (2) becomes

dθ 1 – Ss
dX = Nc A
= 1  – 1  = – 20
1 0.05
Integrating between X1 = 0.22 and X2 = 0.12,
θc = – 20 (0.12 – 0.22) = 2 hr.
Similarly for falling rate period
dθ – Ss 1
dX = A Nf
= – 20 8.333 X
1
 
Integrating between X2 = 0.06 and X1 = 0.12,
1 0.06
θf = – 20 8.333 ln 0.12
= 1.664 hr.
Total drying time
θ = θc + θf
= 2 + 1.664
= 3.664 hr. (Ans.)
(21) In a laboratory drying test with a solid material the following relation for the falling
rate period was obtained,
dX
= – 0.8 (X – 0.05)
dθ
θ
where X is the moisture content on dry basis of θ is the time in hours. The critical
moisture content is 1.4 kg moisture per kg of dry material.
Calculate :
(a) the time required for drying the material from X1 = 4.0 to X2 = 0.1
(b) the equilibrium moisture content.
Solution :
Given :
Relation for falling rate period :
dX
= – 0.8 (X – 0.05)
dθ
= – 0.8 X + 0.04 … (1)
Relation for constant rate period
Substituting for X = 1.4 from critical moisture content data
dX
= – 0.8 × 1.4 + 0.04
dθ
= – 1.08 … (2)
1.08
–dx
dq
X
0 0.1 1.4 4
X
Fig. 8.26 : Graphical analysis in example (21)
Time required for drying in constant rate period θc :
Integrating Equation (2) between X1 = 4.0 and X2 = Xc = 1.4,
1.4 – 4.0
θc = – 1.08
= 2.407 hr.
Time required for drying in falling rate period θf :
Integrating Equation (1) between X1 = Xc = 1.4 and X2 = 0.1
1 0.1
θf = – 0.8 [ln (– 0.8 X + 0.04)]0.4= 4.12 hr.
Total time required for drying θ = θc + θf = 2.407 + 4.12 = 6.527 hr.
* dX
Equilibrium moisture content X is obtained by equating in equation (1) to zero.
dθ
*
i.e. – 0.8 X + 0.04 = 0
Therefore, X = 0.05 (Ans.)
(22) 160 kg of wet solid is to be dried from an initial moisture content of 25% to a final
–4
value of 6%. Drying test shows that the rate of drying is constant at 3 × 10 kg
H2O/m2.s in the region 0.2 – 0.44 kg H2O/kg solid. The drying rate falls linearly in the
range 0.01 – 0.2 kg H2O/kg solid. If the equilibrium moisture content is 0.01 kg
H2O/kg solid, calculate the time of drying. The drying surface is 1 m2/30 kg dry
weight.
Sol. :
Wet solid = 160 kg
Dry solid = 160 × (1 – 0.25) = 120 kg
0.25
Initial moisture content = 25% = 1 – 0.25
= 33.3% on dry basis

0.06
Final moisture content = 6% = 1 – 0.06
= 6.4% of dry basis

Drying rate (N) in falling rate period :

–4
3 × 10
N = 0.2 – 0.01 X + C
Given : at X = 0.01, N = 0. Therefore,
–4
3 × 10
0 = 0.2 – 0.01 × 0.01 + C
–5
Solving, C = – 1.579 × 10 kg H2O/m2.sec. Therefore,
–4
3 × 10 –5
N = 0.19 X – 1.579 × 10
–3 –5
= 1.579 × 10 X – 1.579 × 10
By formula :
– Ss
dX
N = Adθ
– 30
dX
= 1
dθ
dX
= – 30
dθ
Time of drying in falling rate period :
dX
N = – 30
dθ
–3 –5 dX
1.579 × 10 X – 1.579 × 10 = – 30
dθ
dθ – dX
30 = 1.579 × 10–3X – 1.579 × 10–5
0.064
θf –1 ⌠ dX
Integrating, = 
30 1.579 × 10
–3 ⌡ X – 0.01
0.2
30 0.2
θf = –3 [ln (X – 0.01)]0.064
1.579 × 10
θf = 23902 sec = 6.64 hr.
Time of drying in constant rate period :
Ss X1 – Xc
θ = A Nc
= 30 × 
0.333 – 0.2
–4 
 3 × 10 
= 30 × 
0.333 – 0.2
–4 
 3 × 10 
= 13300 sec = 3.69 hr.
Total drying time = 6.64 + 3.69 = 10.33 hr = 10 hours and 20 minutes (Ans.)
(23) A material having a critical moisture content of 24% is dried under constant drying
conditions in slabs of dimensions 20 cm × 20 cm2 × 2 cm from a moisture content of
40% to 25% in 8 hours. Drying takes place from the two larger surfaces only. The same
material is dried in slabs of 40 cm × 40 cm × 4 cm under similar drying conditions from
50% to 25% moisture content. All moisture content are on wet basis. If the critical
moisture content and other physical remain unchanged, how long will the drying
take ?
Sol. :
For drying in constant rate period, there is no change in drying rate per unit area, with
the thickness of the material.
For the First Case :
Drying area (from 2 sides) A1 = 20 × 20 × 2
= 800 cm2
Weight of dry solid Ss1 = V1ρ(1 – 0.4)
= 2 × 20 × 20 × 0.6 ρ
= 480 ρ
– Ss1 dX
Drying rate N1 = A
1 dθ
480 ρ X1 – X2
= 800 ×
θ
On dry basis,
0.4
X1 = 1 – 0.4
= 0.667;
0.25
X2 = 1 – 0.25
= 0.333
480ρ 0.667 – 0.333
Therefore, N1 = 800 × 8
= 0.02505 ρ = constant
For the Second Case :
Drying area (from 2 sides) A2 = 40 × 40 × 2
= 3200 cm2
Weight of dry solid Ss2 = V2 ρ (1 – 0.5)
= 4 × 40 × 40 × 0.5ρ = 3200ρ
– Ss2 dX
Drying rate N2 = A
2 dθ
As drying rate per unit area does not change with thickness of material,
N2 = N1 = 0.02505 ρ
– Ss2 dX
Also N2 = A
2 dθ
3200ρ (X1– X2)
= 3200
θ
0.5
On dry basis, X1 = 1 – 0.5 = 1;
0.25
X2 = 1 0.25 = 0.333
3200ρ (1 – 0.333)
Therefore, 0.02505ρ = 3200
θ
Solving, θ = 26.63 hours. Therefore the total drying time for the second case is
= 26.63 hour. (Ans.)

(1) A wet solid is dried from 35% to 10% moisture under constant drying conditions in
5 hours. If the equilibrium moisture content is 4% and the critical moisture content is
14%, how long will take to dry 6% moisture under the same conditions ?
(Ans. : 7.1 hours)
(2) A batch of solid is dried from 28% to 6% moisture, wet basis. The initial weight of solid is
380 kg and the drying surface is 0.15 m2/40 kg dry weight. The critical moisture content
is 28% dry basis and the constant drying rate is 0.32 kg/hr. m2. For the falling rate period,
the following data are available :
Moisture content % dry basis Rate of drying kg/hr. m2
25 0.30
21.9 0.27
19 0.24
16 0.21
13.6 0.18
11 0.15
8.2 0.07
7.5 0.044
6.4 0.025
Determine the time of drying. (Ans. : 414.2 hours)
(3) A counter-current rotary dryer is to be designed for drying 20,000 kg/hr. of wet salt
containing 7.5% (wet basis) water to 0.28% (wet basis) water. The wet salt enters the
dryer at 30 oC and has a specific heat of 0.25 k cal/kg oC. Heated air at 150 oC with a wet
bulb temperature of 40 oC is available for drying the salt. If the outlet temperature of air
and salts are 65 oC and 80 oC respectively. Calculate the length and diameter of the dryer.
(4) A wet solid is dried from 40% to 10% moisture under constant drying conditions in
4 hour. The equilibrium moisture content is 4% and the critical moisture content is 14%.
How long it will take to dry 6% moisture under the same conditions ?
(Ans. : 5.4 hours)
o o
(5) The air supply to a rotary dryer has a dry bulb at 32.5 C and a wet bulb of 25 C. Steam
coils to 95 oC heat the air before it enters the dryer. In passing through the dryer, the air
cools along adiabatic cooling line and finally leaves the dryer at 90% saturation.
(a) Estimate the temperature of exit air

(b) Calculate the diameter of the dryer if it is to handle 10 tones per hour of a salt with
10% moisture on wet basis. Air mass velocity is given as 5000 kg per hour per sq.ft.
and the salt is to be dried to 2% moisture content.
(6) An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 × 0.457 m and 25.4 mm dep.
The material is 25.4 mm deep in the pan and the sides and bottom can be considered to
be insulated. Heat transfer is by convection from an air stream flowing parallel to the
kg H2O
surface at a velocity of 6.1 m/s. The air is at 65.6 oC and has humidity of 0.01 kg dry air.
Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period.
(Ans. : NC = 0.708 kg H2O/hr.)
(7) A material was dried in a tray-type batch dryer using constant drying conditions. When
the initial free moisture content was 0.28 kg free moisture/kg dry solid; 6 hr. was
required to dry the material to a free moisture content of 0.08 kg free moisture/kg dry
solid. The critical moisture content is 0.14. Assuming a drying rate in falling-rate region
where the rate is a straight line from the critical point, predict the time to dry a sample
from a free moisture content of 0.33 to 0.04 kg free moisture/kg dry solid.
(Hint : First use the analytical equations for the constant rate and falling linear periods
with known total time of 6 hour, then use the same equations for new conditions.)
(8) The initial moisture content of a food product is 77% (w/w basis) and the critical
moisture content is 30% (w/w basis). If the constant drying rate is 0.1 kg water m–2 s–1,
calculate the time required for the product to begin the falling rate-drying period. The
product has a cube shape with 5 cm sides, and the initial product density is 950 kg m–3.
(Ans. : t = 53.2 seconds)
(9) A tunnel dryer is being designed for the dehydration of apple slices from initial moisture
content of 70% (w/w basis) to a final moisture content of 5% (w/w basis). A experimental
drying curve for the product indicates that the critical moisture content is 25%
(w/w basis) and the time for constant rate drying is 5 minutes. Based on the following
information estimate the total drying time for the product. Assume 1 kg of product.
Given :
0.7
Initial product moisture content wo = 0.3 = 2.33 kg water/kg solids.
0.25
Critical moisture content wc = 0.75 = 0.333 kg water/kgs solids.
0.05
Final moisture content w = 0.95 = 0.0526 of kg water/kg solids.
Time for constant rate drying = 5 minutes.

(Ans. : t = 6.54 minutes)
(10) The initial moisture content of a food product is 80% (w/w basis) and the critical
moisture content is 45% (w/w basis). It is dried to a final moisture content of 10%
(w/w basis). If the constant drying rate is 0.01 kg water m–2 s–1, calculate the total drying
time including the constant and falling rate drying periods. The product has a cube
shape with 5 cm sides, and the initial product density is 1050 kg m–3.
(Ans. : t = 842.7 sec.)
NOMENCLATURE
Any consistent set of units can be used, except as noted
Symbol Meaning
a specific interfacial surface of the solid, m2/m 3
A cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow for through-
circulation drying, m2
drying surface for cross-circulation drying, m2
Am average cross-sectional area of drying solid, m2
b const
CA heat capacity of moisture as a liquid
Cp heat capacity at constant pressure,
Cs heat capacity of dry solid,
dc equivalent diameter, (cross-sectional area)/perimeter, m
dp particle diameter,
D diffusivity, m2/s
G mass velocity of gas, kg/m2.s
GS mass velocity of dry gas, kg/m2.s
hc heat transfer coefficient for convection,
hR heat transfer coefficient of radiation,
∆HA integral heat of wetting (or of adsorption, hydration, or solution) referred to
pure liquid and solid, per unit mass of dry solid,
' enthalpy of moist gas per unit mass of dry gas,
HG
' enthalpy of wet solid per unit mass of dry solid,
ΗS
Ηt length of an overall gas transfer unit, m
ΟG
jD krSc2/3/Gs , dimensionless
jH hcP r2/3/Cp G, dimensionless
kr gas-phase mass transfer coefficient, mass evaporated/(area) (time)
(humidity difference)
K constant
m constant
N flux of drying, mass of moisture evaporated/(area) (time), kg/m2s;
rate of revolution S–1
Nc constant flux of drying, kg/m2.s
Nt number of gas transfer units, dimensionless
G
Nt number of overall gas transfer units, dimensionless

OG
p saturation vapour pressure, kN/m2

–
p partial pressure, kN/m2
pt total pressure, kN/m2
Symbol Meaning
Pr Prandtl number = Cρµ/ k, dimensionless
q flux of heat received at the drying surface, batch drying, flux of heat
received by the solid/area of dryer cross section, continuous drying,
qc heat flux for convection
qG flux of heat transferred from the gas per unit drier cross-section,
qk heat flux for conduction,
qR heat flux for radiation,
Q net flux of heat loss, per unit dryer cross-section,
Rec Reynolds number for duct, dcG/µ, dimensionless
SS mass of dry solid in a batch, batch drying, kg
mass velocity of dry solid, continuous drying, kg/m2.sec
Sc Schmidt number, µ/ρ D, dimensionless
tG dry-bulb temperature of a gas, K
tR temperature of radiating surface, K
ts surface temperature, K
tS solid temperature,
to reference temperature, K
TD diameter of drier, m
TG absolute temperature of a gas, K
TR absolute temperature of radiating surface, K
X moisture content of a solid, mass moisture/mass dry solid, kg/kg
X* equilibrium moisture content of a solid, mass moisture/mass dry solid,
kg/kg
Greek Letters :
∆ difference
∈ emissivity of drying surface, dimensionless
θ time,
λs latent heat of vaporization at ts,
µ viscosity, kg/m.s
π 3.1416
ρ density, kg/m3
ρS apparent density of solid, mass dry solid/wet volume, kg/m3
Symbol Meaning
Subscripts :
as adiabatic saturation
c at critical moisture content
G gas
m average
max maximum
s surface
S dry gas, dry solid
1 at beginning, batch drying; at solids - entering end, continuous dryer
2 at end, batch drying; at solids - leaving end, continuous dryer
I, II, III zones I, II and III in a continuous dryer.
✱✱✱
REFERENCES
4. G.K.Roy, “ Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, Second Edition, Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, 1990.
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
6. S.E. Charm, “ The Fundamentals of Food Processing”, Second Edition, Avi Publishing
Co., Inc., West Port, Conn., 1971.
Hall, 2003.
,,,
APPENDIX – A
SI SYSTEMS, FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION UNITS
1. SI Base Units :
Quantity Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
2. SI Derived Units :
Area square metre m2
Volume cubic metre m3
Speed/Velocity metre per second m/s
Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2
Wave Number reciprocal metre m–1
Density/Mass Density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
Specific Volume cubic metre per kilogram m3/kg
Current Density ampere per square metre A/m2
Magnetic Field Strength ampere per metre A/m
Concentration mole per cubic metre mol/m3
Luminous candela per square metre cd/m2
3. SI Derived Units With Special Names :

Quantity Name Symbol Expression in Expression in
terms of other terms of SI base
units units
Frequency hertz Hz s–1
Force newton N m kg s–2
Pressure/Stress pascal Pa N/m2 m–1 kg s–2
Energy/Work/Quantity of Heat joule J Nm m2 kg s–2
Power/Radiant Flux watt W J/s m2 kg s–3
Electric Charge/Quantity of coulomb C sA
Electricity
(A.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) A.2 Appendix – A : SI Systems, Fund. ……
Quantity Name Symbol Expression in Expression in

terms of other terms of SI base
units units
Electric Potential/Potential volt V W/A m2 kg s–3 A–1
Difference/Electromotive Force
Capacitance farad F C/V m–2kg–1s4A2
Electric Resistance ohm Ω V/A m2kg s–2A–1
Electric Conductance siemens S A/V m–2 kg–1 s3 A2
Magnetic Flux weber Wb Vs m2 kg s–2 A–1
Magnetic Flux Density tesla T Wb/m2 kg s–2 A–1
Inductance henry H Wb/A M2 kg s–2 A–2
o
Celsius Temperature degree C K
Celsius
Luminous Flux lumen lm cd sr
2 –2
Illuminance lux lx lm/m m cd sr
Activity of a Radionuclide bequerel Bq s–1
Absorbed Dose/Specific Energy gray Gy J/kg m2 s–2
Imparted/Kerma/Absorbed Dose
Index
Dose Equivalent/Dose Equivalent sievert Sv J/kg m2 s–2
Index
4. SI Derived Units Expressed by Means of Special Names :
Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms
of SI base units
Dynamic Viscosity pascal second Pa S m–1 kg s–1
Moment of Force newton meter Nm M2 kg s–2
Surface Tension newton per metre N/m kg s–2
Heat Flux Density/Irradiance watt per square metre W/m2 kg s–3
Heat Capacity / Entropy joule per kelvin J/K M kg s–2 K–1
2
Specific Heat Capacity joule per kilogram J/kg M2 S–2

Specific Entropy kelvin J/(kg K) m2 s–2 K–1
Specific Energy joule per kilogram J/kg M2 s–2
Thermal Conductivity watt per metre kelvin W/(m K) m kg s–3 K–1
Energy Density joule per cubic metre J/m3 m–1 kg s–2
Electric Field Strength volt per metre V/m m kg s–2 A–1
Electric Charge Density coulomb per cubic metre C/m3 m–3 s A
Electric Flux Density coulomb per square metre C/m2 m–2 s A
Permittivity farad per metre F/m m–3 kg–1 s4 A2
Permeability henry per metre H/m m kg s–2 A–2
Molar Energy joule per metre J/mol m2 kg s–2 mol–1
Molar Entropy / Molar Heat Capacity joule per mole kelvin J/(mol K) m kg s–2 K–1 mol–1
2
Exposure (x and y rays) coulomb per kilogram C/kg kg–1 s A

Absorbed Dose Rate gray per second Gy/s M2 s–3
5. SI Supplementary Units :
Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms of SI base units
Plane Angle radian rad m m–1 = 1
Solid Angle steradian sr m2 m–2 = 1
6. SI Derived Units Formed Using Supplementary Units :
Angular Velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular Acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
Radiant Intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Radiance watt per square metre steradian W/(m2 sr)
Conversion factors gc for the common unit systems :
System
Fundamental SI English Engineering CGS Metric Engineering +
Quantity
Mass M Kilogram, kg Pound mass, lb Gram, g Kilogram mass, kg
Length L Meter, m Foot, ft Centimeter, cm Meter, m
Time T Second, s Second, s, or hour, h Second, s Second, s
Force F Newton, N Pound force, lbf Dyne, dyn Kilogram force, kgf
and 1 kg · m/N · s2 32.714 lb · ft/lbf · s2 or 1 g · cm/dyn · s2 9.80665 kg · m/kgf · s2
4.1698 × 108 lb · ft/lbf · h2
Note that throughout this book kg alone is used as the abbreviation for kilogram mass and
kgf is used for kilogram force.
7. Basic SI Units :
Force = newton, N
Length = meter, m
Mass = kilogram, kg
Mole = kilogram mole, k mol
Temperature = kelvin = K
Time = second, s
Pressure = newton/meter2, N/m2 = pascal, Pa
Energy = newton-meter, N · m = joule, J
Power = newton-meter/second, N· m/s = watt, W
Frequency = 1/second, s–1 = hertz, Hz
8. Prefixes for SI Units :
Amount Multiple Prefix Symbol
1 000 000 106 mga M
1 000 103 kilo k
100 102 hecto h
10 10 deka da
0.1 10–1 deci d
0.01 10–2 centi c
–3
0.001 10 milli m
–6
0.000 001 10 micro µ
–9
0.000 000 001 10 nano n
Fundamental Constants and Conversion Factors :
A. 1 – 1 Gas Law Constant R :
Numerical Value Units
1.9872 g cal/g mol · K
1.9872 btu/lb mol · oR
82.057 cm3·atm/g mol · K
8314.34 J/kg mol·K
82.057 × 10–3 m3·atm/kg mol · K
8314.34 kg·m2/s2·kg mol·K
10.731 ft3·lbf/in2·lb mol · oR
0.7302 ft3·atm/lb mol·oR
1545.3 ft·lbf/lb mol·oR
8314.34 m3·Pa/kg mol · K
A.1 – 2 Volume and Density :
1 kg mol ideal gas at 0o C, 760 mm Hg = 22.4140 litres = 22414 cm3
1 lb mol ideal gas at 0o C, 760 mm Hg = 359.05 ft3
1 kg mol ideal gas at 0o C, 760 mm Hg = 22.414 m3
Density of dry air at 0o C, 760 mm Hg = 1.2929 g/litre = 0.080711 lbm/ft3
Molecular weight of air = 28.97 lbm/lb mol = 28.97 g/g mol
1 g/cm3 = 62.43 lbm/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 8.345 lbm/U.S. gal
1 lbm/ft3 = 16.0185 kg/m3
A.1 – 3 Length :
1 in. = 2.540 cm
100 cm = 1 m (meter)
1 micron = 10–6 m = 10–4 cm = 10–3 mm = 1 µm (micrometer)
1 Å (angstrom) = 10–10 m = 10–4 µm
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 m = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in.
A.1 – 4 Mass :
1 lbm = 453.59 g = 0.45359 kg
1 lbm = 16 oz = 7000 grains
1 kg = 1000 g = 2.2046 lbm
1 ton (short) = 2000 lbm
1 ton (long) = 2240 lbm
1 ton (metric) = 1000 kg
A.1 – 5 Standard Acceleration of Gravity :
g = 9.80665 m/s2
g = 980.665 cm/s2
g = 32.174 ft/s2
gc (gravitational conversion factor) = 32.1740 lbm · ft/lbf·s2 = 980.665 gm · cm/gf·s2
A.1 – 6 Volume :
1 L (litre) = 1000 cm3 1 m3 = 1000 L (litre)
3 = 3 1 U.S. gal = 54 qt
1 in. 16.387 cm
3 = 28.317 L (litre) 1 U.S. gal = 3.7854 L (litre)
1 ft
3
1 ft = 0.028317 L (litre) 1 U.S. gal = 3785.4 cm3
3 = 7.481 U.S. gal 1 British gal = 1.20094 U.S. gal
1 ft
3 3
1m = 264.17 U.S. gal 1m = 35.313 ft3
A.1 – 7 Force :
1 g·cm/s2 (dyn) = 10–5 kg·m/s2 = 10–5 N (newton)
1 g·cm/s2 = 7.2330 × 10–5 lbm·ft/s2 (poundal)
1 kg·m/s2 = 1 N (newton)
1 lbf = 4.4482 N
1 g·cm/s2 = 2.2481 × 10–6 lbf
A. 1 – 8 Pressure :
1 bar = 1 × 105 (pascal) = 1 × 105 N/m2
1 psia = 1 lbf/in2
1 psia = 2.0360 in. Hg at 0 oC
1 psia = 2.311 ft H2O at 70 oF
1 psia = 51.715 mm Hg at 0 oC (ρHg = 13.5955 g/m3)
1 atm = 14.696 psia = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 = 1.01325 bar
1 atm = 760 mm Hg at 0 oC = 1.01325 × 105 Pa
1 atm = 29.921 in. Hg at 0 oC
1 atm = 33.90 ft H2O at 4 oC
1 psia = 6.89476 × 104 g/cm·s2
1 psia = 6.89476 × 104 dyn/cm2
1 dyn/cm2 = 2.0886 × 10–3 lbf/ft2
1 psia = 6.89476 × 103 N/m2 = 6.89476 × 103 Pa
1 lbf/ft2 = 4.7880 × 102 dyn/cm2 = 47.880 N/m2
1 mm Hg (0 oC) = 1.333224 × 102 N/m2 = 0.1333224 kPa
A. 1 – 9 Power :
1 hp = 0.74570 kW 1 watt (W) = 14.340 cal/min
1 hp = 550 ft·lbf/s 1 btu/h = 0.29307 W (watt)
1 hp = 0.7068 btu/s 1 J/s (joule/s) = 1W
A. 1 – 10 Heat, Energy, Work :
1 J = 1 N·m = 1 kg·m2/s2
1 kg·m2/s2 = 1 J (joule) = 107 g·cm2/s2 (erg)
1 btu = 1055.06 J = 1.00506 kJ
1 btu = 252.16 cal (thermochemical)
1 kcal (thermochemical) = 1000 cal = 4.1840 kJ
1 cal (thermochemical) = 4.1840 J
1 cal (IT) = 4.1868 J
1 btu = 251.996 cal (IT)
1 btu = 778.17 ft·lbf
1 hp·h = 0.7457 kW·h
1 hp·h = 2544·5 btu
1f ft·lbf = 1.35582 J
1 ft ·lbf/lbm = 2.9890 J/kg
A.1 – 11 Thermal Conductivity :
1 btu/h·ft·oF = 4.1365 × 10–3 cal/s·cm· oC
1 btu/h·ft· oF = 1.73073 W/m·K
A.1 – 12 Heat-Transfer Coefficient :
1 btu/h·ft2· oF = 1.3571 × 10–4 cal/s·cm2·oC
1 btu/h·ft2·oF = 5.6783 × 10–4 W/cm2·oC
1 btu/h·ft2·oF = 5.6783 W/m2·K
1 kcal/h·m2·oF = 0.2048 btu/h·ft2·oF
A. 1 – 13 Viscosity :
1 cp = 10–2 g/cm·s (poise)
1 cp = 2.4191 lbm/ft·h
1 cp = 6.7197 × 10–4 lbm/ft·s
1 cmp = 10–3 Pa·s = 10–3 kg/m·s = 10–3 N·s/m2
1 cp = 2.0886 × 10u–5 lbf·s/ft2
1 Pa·s = 1 N·s/m2 = 1 kg/m·s = 1000 cp = 0.67197 lbm/ft·s
A.1 – 14 Diffusivity :
1 cm2/s = 3.875 ft2/h
1 cm2/s = 10–4 m2/s
1 m2/h = 10.764 ft2/h
1 m2/s = 3.875 × 104 ft2/h
1 centistoke = 10–2 cm2/s
A. 1 – 15 Mass Flux and Molar Flux :
1 g/s·cm2 = 7.3734 × 103 lbm/h·ft2
1 g mol/s·cm2 = 7.3734 × 103 lb mol/h·ft2

1 g mol/s°·cm2 = 10 kg mol/s·m2 = 1 × 104 g mol/s·m2
1 lb mol/h·ft2 = 1.3562 × 10–3 kg mol/s·m2
A. 1 – 16 Heat Flux and Heat Flow :
1 btu/h·ft2 = 3.1546 W/m2
1 btu/h = 0.29307 W
1 cal/h = 1.1622 × 10–3 W
A.1 – 17 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy :
1 btu/lbm · oF = 4.1868 kJ/kg·K
1 btu/lbm ·oF = 1.000 cal/g·oC
1 btu/lbm = 2326.0J/kg
1 ft.lbf/lbm = 2.9890 J/kg
1 cal (IT)/g·oC = 4.1868 kJ/kg·K

1 kcal/g mol = 4.1840 × 103 kJ/kg mol
A. 1 – 18 Mass-Transfer Coefficient :
1 kc cm/s = 10–2 m/s
1 kc ft/h = 8.4668 × 10–5 m/s
1 kx g mol/s·cm2·mol frac = 10 kg mol/s·m2·mol frac
1 kx g mol/s·cm2·mol frac = 1 × 104 g mol/s·m2·mol frac
1 kx lb mol/h·ft2·mol frac = 1.3562 × 10–3 kg·mol/s·m2·mol frac
1 kx a lb mol/h·ft3·mol frac = 4.449 × 10–3 kg mol/s·m3·mol frac
1 kG kg mol/s·m2·atm = 0.98692 × 10–5 kg mol/s·m2·Pa
1 kG a kg mol/s·m3·atm = 0.98692 × 10–5 kg mol/s·m·Pa
,,,
APPENDIX – B
A FEW USEFUL OBSERVATIONS
1. Be careful when using the Ideal Gas constant, R has been given in a number of different
units in Treybal and other books. If you use one that uses Rankines for the temperature
o o
scale, you must convert temperature to Rankines (for example 273 Kelvins is 0 C, 32 F
and 492 Rankines).
2. Do not convert from english to metric (or vice versa) unless you have to.
3. When calculating NTU, remember that,
y2
dy
⌠ y – y* ≠ ln (y2 – y*) – ln (y1 – y*)
⌡
y1
4. Remember that the operating line and the equilibrium line should not cross or touch. You
calculate the minimum values for the liquid or gas rate by having them touch.
5. If mass transfer is from gas to liquid, operating line has a positive slope, a positive
intercept for liquid to gas, slope is still positive, intercept is negative.
6. Remember that mole fractions are always less than 1.0
7. HTU has units of length, NTU has no units.
8. NTU is NOT equal to the number of stages (in general that is, under certain very special
conditions, NTU and number of stages will be equal, in general they are not equal).
9. y = 1.9 x does not mean that L / G = 1.9 or L / G = 1/1.9.
10. You cannot simply assume Molecular Weights, Densities, Viscosities etc. Look at the book
first.
11. In calculating the number of transfer units (for concentrated gas absorption or water
cooling tower) make sure the limits of integration are correct (for gas absorption you
know values for yin and youts for water cooling tower you know the temperatures of water
in enthalpy of air in, temperature of water out and some idea of air flow rate as a function
of the minimum required).
12. If the equilibrium data or enthalpy data do not have data points at precisely the
beginning and end points of the interval, interpolate to calculate the values (never
extrapolate unless you have no other choice). Remember that the equilibrium line always
goes through (0, 0).
13. Calculation of density of the gas. If you look up the densities of the individual
components of the gas and try to average them, be careful. Before averaging, convert the
mole fractions to weight fractions. The easy method is to use the ideal gas relationship
and calculate the density that way. For low pressures, this is an OK assumption.
(B.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) B.2 Appendix – B : A Few Useful Observations
14. Use the flooding curve, calculate G' and then HALVE this value to calculate the required
G' (or any other percentage that is specified). Do not HALVE the value of the y intercept
that you read after calculating the value on the X-axis.
15. You must NOT make mathematical errors, I am not talking, about punching in the wrong
numbers in your calculator.
16. Keep your grams and gram-moles different; do not confuse them. Remember gm/gm-
mole is the same as a lb/lb-mole and kg/kg-mole and so on. Know how to calculate
moles (and mole fractions), when you are given the weight and vice-versa.
17. State your basis clearly and as you solve problems go back and make sure that you are
being consistent with your original choice of basis.
18. If you have chosen a basis, remove that variable as an unknown.
19. Material balances can be written as mass, moles or mass of atomic species. Remember
mass or atoms cannot be generated or lost, moles can be generated or consumed.
20. If there is no chemical reaction, you can write a total mass, mole and atomic balance;
moles are not conserved when there is a reaction. The chemical equation tells you how
the total moles might change.
21. In solution of material balance problems, clearly identify the system over which you are
writing the balance for; in words or as a diagram. Also identify what kind of balance you
are writing; mass or mole or atomic.
22. Make sure that the balances are all independent. If you write balances on the different
components, the total balance equation will be a sum of the component balances.
23. Do not forget implicit constraints such as : all mole fractions add up to 1.0. So given three
components and two mole fractions, you can calculate the other by subtraction.
24. In selecting, a basis, read the problem carefully. You may be able to use something
already suggested in the question. If that is inconvenient as you solve the problem, go
choose another basis. But remember to avoid conflicts ! Remember to scale the final
answers if necessary.
25. If gas mixtures behave ideally; the sum of partial pressures is equal to the total pressure.
(also for partial volumes). Partial pressure is mole fraction times total pressure.
26. Do not confuse between partial pressure and vapour pressure !
,,,
APPENDIX – C
HUMIDIFICATION AND WATER COOLING IN A PACKED COLUMN
Introduction :
In this project a packed column, which humidifies air and cools water by counter-current
contact, is evaluated. This technique is extensively used in the chemical and petroleum industries
to cool water for eventual reuse (or discharge at a lower temperature) by bringing it into contact
with air. Cooling occurs both due to sensible heat changes and due to evaporation. Heat transfer
and mass transfer occur simultaneously in this process, as in distillation. The main objectives of
the project are to :
(A) Evaluate an enthalpy balance around the column.
Fig. D.1 : Experimental set up of humidification and water cooing in a packed column
(B) Evaluate the number of transfer units (NTU), the height of a transfer unit (HTU) and
the product of a mass transfer coefficient and packing factor, kya, for each run.
(C) Evaluate and quantify the effects of process variables on the enthalpy imbalance (∆),
HTU, NTU and kya estimates and interpret/explain any observed trends.
The apparatus is shown in figure D.1 :
Enthalpy Balance :
An enthalpy balance is possible if one assumes that the instruments are reading accurately
and precisely. One approach is to define a rate of enthalpy imbalance, ∆, as the sum of the rate of
output enthalpies minus the sum of the rate of input enthalpies :
∆ = LCL(Tw – Tw ) + G(H2 – H1) … (1)
1 2
(C.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) C.2 Appendix – D : Humd. & Water Cooling …
∆ can also be thought of as a rate of enthalpy gain by the system. It is assumed that the rate
of vaporization is small enough that the mass flow rate of water, L, is essentially constant
throughout the column.
Specific enthalpies for air, on a mass of dry air basis, may be determined from the formulae
listed below which are readily incorporated into a spreadsheet. The saturation water vapour
pressure, Psat at a given temperature of air, Ta, is :
Psat = 6.1078 exp[17.08085Ta/(234.175 + Ta)] … (2)
Given a percent relative humidity, RH, and Psat, the water vapour partial pressure, Pw, is :
Pw = RH(Psat/100) … (3)
The absolute humidity, Y. as kg water/kg air is :
Y = 0.622Pw/(P-Pw) … (4)
where P is the total pressure in mbar (1013 mbar is equivalent to one atmosphere). The
enthalpy of the water vapour/air mixture as kJ/kg of dry air is :
H = 1.006Ta + 1.86YTa + 2500Y … (5)
The volumetric flow-rate of air plus water vapour at the outlet is determined by multiplying
the gas velocity by the cross-sectional area of the gas velocity sensor. The mass flow-rate of air
plus water vapour, Gw, is determined by multiplying the volumetric flow-rate by the gas density
(assume the outlet stream is an ideal gas, and use an appropriate molecular weight). The mass
flow-rate of dry air is then :
G = Gw/(l + Y) … (6)
Calculate the ratio of the rate of enthalpy imbalance to entering enthalpy for each run. The
rate of enthalpy input to the column is LCL(Tw – Tref) + GH1. The reference temperature for the
2
air enthalpy is 0° C. Use your results to evaluate the validity of the assumption that the column
operates adiabatically.
NTU/HTU Evaluation :
The design and analysis of packed humidifiers and/or water coolers are based on the same
concepts used in other packed column operations such as gas-absorption/desorption and
distillation in packed towers. The theory used in the HTU-NTU approach is given by Foust et al.
(1990), Treybal (1980), Wankat (1988) and Geankoplis (1993) (although the form of the various
derivations and the nomenclature they use may differ somewhat from the approach presented
here). Only the key steps in developing the design equations are summarized below. To begin
with, a differential enthalpy balance is applied to a control volume with an infinitesimally small
packed bed thickness dZ at an arbitrary tower height, Z. The packing is assumed to be covered
with a thin layer of liquid. The enthalpy change in air is equated to the sum of the enthalpy
changes due to sensible heat transfer between the air and water and due to the transfer of latent
heat from the vaporization of a small amount of water at the interface:
GdH = haS (T* - Ta) dZ + kyaSλ (Y* – Y) dZ … (7)
The column is assumed to be adiabatic. The driving force for water evaporation is the
difference between the absolute humidity of air near the water film and the absolute humidity in
the bulk air stream. The gas enthalpy of the moist air, H is given by :
H = CG (Ta - Tref) + λ Y … (8a)
and the gas enthalpy of the air at the interface, H*, is :
H* = CG (T*- Tref) + λ Y* … (8b)
Equations (7), (8a) and (8b) are awkward to use because of the many variables involved. For
the case of an air-water system, a simplification can be obtained by using thefollowing
experimentally observed relation, called the "Lewis relation", between heat and mass transfer
coefficients :
h/(CGky) ≅ 1 … (9)
Using equation (9), we are now able to combine equations (7), (8a) and (8b) into a single
expression involving air enthalpy only :
GdH = kyaS (H* – H)dZ … (10)
In this equation, enthalpy appears to be the driving force for mass transfer, rather than
humidity differences. However, this is not actually the case - it is the simplifying assumptions
(the Lewis relation, adiabatic operation, etc.) that give the equation this appearance. As pointed
out by Foust et al. (1990), enthalpy is an extensive thermodynamic property, and therefore cannot
be a driving force for any transfer operation. If you must, think of the (H* – H) term as a "pseudo
driving force". Refer to Foust et al. (1990) for further discussion of this point, if you wish.
Rearranging equation (10), we obtain :
dZ = [G/(kyaS)] [dH/(H* – H)]
After integration, this may be expressed as :
Z = HTU × NTU … (11)
where HTU and NTU are defined by :
HTU = G/(kyaS) … (12)
H2
dH
NTU = ⌠
⌡ H* – H … (13)
H1
The variable H* is the enthalpy of the saturated air at the interface temperature, T*, at a
specific location in the column. We assume that the resistance to heat transfer in the liquid phase
is negligible so that T* = Tw at all points in the column. Since H* can only be expressed as a
function of temperature rather than enthalpy, it is necessary to translate the integral in equation
(13) into a function of water temperature. We can assume the air enthalpy changes linearly with
water temperature within the column between its values at the inlet and outlet, and therefore,
H = H1 + [(H2 – H1) /(Tw – Tw )] (Tw – Tw ) … (14)
2 1 1
Differentiation leads to
dH = [(H2 – H1)/(Tw – Tw )] dTw … (15)
2 1
Substitution of equations (14) and (15) into equation (13) and changing the integration limits
leads us to an equation for calculating NTU :
Tw
2
H2 – H1 ⌠ dTw
NTU = T – T  … (16)
w w
2 1
⌡ f(Tw)
Tw
1
where,
f (Tw ) = H* (Tw, RH = 100%) – H1 + T – T  T –T 

H2 – H1
 [ w w1] … (17)
  w
2
w
1  
Note that H* is the enthalpy of the saturated air (saturated means at 100% RH) at the bulk
temperature of the liquid, Tw.
The integration required in calculating NTU according to equation (16) may be performed
numerically in a spreadsheet using Simpson's Rule :
xo
⌠ f (x) dx ≈ ∆x [ f(xo) + 4f(x1) + 2f(x2 ) + 4f (x3) + … + 2f(x n–2) + 4f (xn –1) + f(xn) ]
⌡ 3
xo
where n is an even number and :
∆x =  n 
xn – xo
 
More information about Simpson's Rule and how to use it can be found in the book by
Stewart (your first year calculus textbook).
Once the NTU is calculated for a run, then HTU can be calculated from equation (11) and
kya can be calculated from equation (12). We would like to measure kya and a individually, but
this is not possible in our equipment, so we must resort to looking at the* product. Bear in mind
that although we are calculating HTU from NTU via equation (11), HTU and NTU are, in fact,
independent parameters. NTU depends on the driving force for mass transfer and HTU depends
on the fundamental physical features of the mass transfer via kya and a. To DESIGN a packed
column to achieve a given cooling or humidification goal, the NTU and the HTU are calculated
independently and equation (11) is used to estimate the required packing height in the column, Z.
In this project, the column is ALREADY CONSTRUCTED and operating, and the product of HTU
and NTU is fixed by equation (11) since the packing height Z is fixed. In this case, the calculated
values of the parameters are coupled a decrease in NTU must bring about an increase in HTU
and vice versa. It is difficult to identify the causality in this situation and you will have to think
carefully about why NTU or HTU or kya is increasing or decreasing. kya is of more fundamental
interest than HTU or NTU, and is the main quantity that we should be focusing on in this project.
Read the references for guidance.
Generate plots of and kya, HTU and NTU versus L, G and L/G (or G/L or other
combinations of variables). You may choose to only present the most important plots in your
report (but explain why you have omitted some of the plots, if you choose to do so). If there
appears to be a systematic variation in your plots, attempt to quantify the relationship between
the variables using the "trendline" regression feature in Excel. Explore various model equation
forms (called "trend/regression type" in Excel) to obtain a good fit (how can you evaluate the
goodness of fit ?). See if you can explain any systematic relationships you find on physical
grounds (i.e. WHY does A increase with increasing B ?). Based on your results, recommend
optimal values of L and G for column operation (and state the criteria you used to evaluate the
optimality of the settings). Explain how your results could be used in the design of a packed
column for water cooling and/or humidification. Further information about the meaning
(interpretation) of HTU, NTU and kya as well as a great deal of background information on
humidification in packed columns can be found in the books by Foust et al. (1990), Treybal (1980),
McCabe et al. (1985), Wankat (1988) and Geankoplis (1993), as well as other sources.
Experimental :
A suggested approach with this apparatus is to set the air flow rate to a given value and do a
family of runs with different water flow rates including zero (why ?). Then perform other families
of runs, each with a different air flow rate. Allow sufficient time for the column to reach steady
state after setting the water and air flow rates before taking measurements. You will need to carry
out as many runs as time allows. The maximum permissable water flow rate is about 700 ml/min
in order to prevent water droplets from splashing onto the humidity sensor or permitting air to
by-pass the column. Do all your runs with unheated air and water in order to minimize heat
losses from the column.
Nomenclature and Units :
a = Water/air contact area per unit bulk volume of a packing material, m–1
o
CL = Heat capacity of water, kJ/(kg C)
o
CG = Heat capacity of moist air, kJ/(kg C))
Fa = velocity of moist air stream, m/s
Fw = volumetric flow rate of water, ml/min
G = Air flow rate on dry basis, kg of dry air/hr
Gw = Air plus water vapour flow-rate, kg/hr
H = Actual enthalpy of air in the column on dry basis, kJ/kg of dry air
H* = Enthalpy of the saturated air at a water temperature T* in the column, kJ/kg of
dry air
HTU = Height of a transfer unit defined by equation (12), m
2o
h = Heat transfer coefficient between water and air in the column, kJ/(hr m C)
ky = Local mass transfer coefficient based on the absolute humidity difference, kg of
2
water vapour/(hr m )
L = Water flow rate, kg of water/hr
NTU = Number of transfer units defined by equation (13)
Psat = Saturated water vapour pressure, mbar
Pw = Water vapour partial pressure, mbar
P = Total pressure mbar
RH = Relative humidity of water/air mixture, %
2
S = Cross-sectional area of the column, m
o
T* = Temperature at the gas-water interface at a specific height in the column, C
o
Tw = Water temperature at a specific height in the column, C
o
Ta = Air temperature at a specific height in the column, C
Y = Absolute humidity at a point in the column, kg of water vapour/k; of dry air
Y* = Absolute humidity of saturated air at water temperature T in the column, kg of
water vapour/kg of dry air
Z = Packed bed height in the column, m
λ = Ηeat of vapourization of water, kJ/kg
∆ = Rate of enthalpy imbalance, kJ/hr
Subscripts :
1. Bottom of the packed bed
2. Top of the packed bed
References :
1. Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L. and Andersen, L.B., Principles of Unit
Operations, 2nd. ed., Krieger Publishing, 1990, (Chapters 16 and 17).
2. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. and Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill N.Y., 1985, (Chapter 23).
3. Treybal, R., Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed: McGraw-Hill, 1980, (Chapter 7).
4. Wankat, P.C., Equilibrium Staged Separations, Prentice Hall, 1988, (Chapter 19).
5. Geankoplis, C.J., Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, 1993, pp. 602-
610, 632.
6. Stewart, J.S., Calculus : Early Transcendentals, 3rd ed., 1994.
,,,
APPENDIX – D
DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS AND CORRELATIONS IN HEAT
AND MASS TRANSFER
Heat Transfer Mass Transfer

Biot Number : M.T. Biot (Damkohler) Number
Ratio of conductive to convective heat Ratio of diffusive to convective M.T. resistance
resistance Bi = hDL/Dsolid
Bi = hL/ksolid
Fourier Number :
Ratio of current time to time to reach steady-state
Dimensionless time in temperature curves, used in explicit finite difference stability criterion
2 2
Fo = α t /L Fo = Dt /L
Reynolds Number :
Ratio of convective to viscous momentum transport
Pe = ρUL/η = UL/ν
Prndtl Number : M.T. Prandtl (Schmidt) Number
Ratio of momentum to species diffusivity Ratio of momentum to thermal diffusivity
Pr = ν/α = ηcp /k Pr = ν /D = η /ρD
Nusselt Number : M.T. Nusselt (Sherwood) Number
Ratio of lengthscale to thermal BL thickness Ratio of lengthscale to diffusion BL thickness
Used to calculate heat transfer coefficient h Used to calculate mass transfer coefficient hD
Bi = hL /kfluid Bi = hDL/Dfluid
Grash of Number :
Ratio of natural convection buoyancy force to viscous force
Control the ratio of lengthscale to natural convection boundary layer thickness
3 2 3 2
Gr = gβ∆TL /ν Gr = gβc∆TL /ν
Peclet Number :
Ratio of convective to diffusive heat/mass transport in fluid.
Pe = RePr = UL/α Pe = RePr = UL / D
Rayleigh Number :
Ratio of natural convective to diffusive heat / mass transport
Determines the transition to turbulence.
3 3
Ra = GrPr = gβ ∆ TL /να Ra = GrPr = gβc ∆ TL / νD
Note : It is not necessary to know the different names of the mass transfer dimensionless
numbers, just call them, e.g. “mass transfer Biot number”, as many people do. Those names are
given here because some people use them, and you'll probably hear them at some point in your
chemical engineering studies.
(D.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) D.2 Appendix – D : Dim. Groups & Correlations in Heat …
Relations between mass transfer coefficients, GASES
Defining equations Unit of mass transfer coefficient
dCA NA = yA N + JA
JA = – DAB db
 mol 
JA = kc (CAi – CA) NA = kc' (CAi – CA) s cm2 cm
=
mol s
cm3
 mol 
JA = ky (yAi – yA) NA = ky' (yAi – yA) s cm2 mol
=
(mol fraction) s cm2
 mol 
JA = kg (pAi – pA) NA = kg' (pAi – pA) s cm2
(atm) =
P pA cm3 atm
cA = yA ρM = yA RT = RT R = gas constant = 82.05 mol K
P mol
ky = kc ρM = RT = kgP ρM = molar density,
cm3
Relations between mass transfer coefficients, LIQUIDS
Defining equations Unit of mass transfer coefficient
JA = kc (CAi – CA) NA = kc' (CAi – CA)  mol 
s cm2 cm
= s
mol3
cm 
 mol2
JA = kx (xAi – xA) NA = kx' (xAi – xA) s cm  mol
=
(mol fraction) s cm2
 mol 
JA = kL (CAi – CA) NA= kL' (CAi – CA) s cm2
=
mol
cm3
ρx mol
cA = xA ρM = xA M ρM = molar density,
cm3
ρx ρx g
kx = kc ρM = M = kL ρM kL = M ρx = liquid density,
cm3
Overall mass transfer coefficients, defining equations
Based on liquid side Based on gas side
NA = Kx (xA* – xA) NA = Ky (yA* – yA)
NA = KL (CA* – CA) NA = Kg (pA* – pA)

Kx Ky
KL = Kg = P
ρm
Relationship to individual mass transfer coefficients
1 1 1 1 m 1
Kx = k + mk Ky = k +k
x y x y
1 1 ρM 1 H 1
= k +Hk Kg = +k
KL L g ρM kL g
Equilibrium relationships
pAi pA* yAi yA*
H = x = x m = x = x
Ai A Ai A
Height and number of mass transfer units

ZT = HTU × NTU
GM
V/S
Hy = k a = k aP
y g
Ny = ∫ ydy
– yi
L/S
Hx = k a =
Gx/ρx
kLa
Nx = ∫ xidx– x
x
V/S GM yb – ya
Hoy = K a = K aP
y g
NOy = ∫ y dy
– y*
=
∆yL
Gx/ρx xb – xa
L/S
HOx = K a = K a
x L
NOx = ∫ x*dx– x =
∆xL
(yb
*
) (
– yb – ya – ya
*
) (x* – x ) – (x* – x )
b b a a
∆yL = * ∆xL = *
yb – yb xb – xb
ln * ln *
ya – ya xa – xa
GM LM
HOy = Hy + m L Hx HOx = Hx + mG Hy
M M
L Va ya – La xa
y = V x + V
V : gas flow rate, mol/h.
L : liquid flow rate, mol/h.
S : cross sectional area of column, m2.
a : packing surface area per unit volume, m2/m3.
Gx : Molal velocity, mol/h.m2 (= Gx/M or Gy/M but used only for gas).
LM : Molal velocity for liquid, mol/h.m2 (= Gx/M).

Alternative Mass Transfer Coefficient Groupings
Height of a Transfer Unit, HTU Number of Transfer Units, NTU
Driving Force Symbol Equimolar Unimolecular Symbol Equimolar Diffusion1 Unimolecular Diffusion
Diffusion or Diffusion or Dilute Unimole-
Dilute Unimole- cular Diffusion
cular Diffusion
1. (y – y*) HOG G G NOG (1 – y)LM dy
KyaS '
Kya (1 – y)LM S
∫(y dy– y*) ∫(1 – y) (y – y*)
2. (p – p*) HOG G G NOG (P – p)LM dp
KGaPS '
KGa(1 – y)LMPS
∫(p dp– p*) ∫(1P– p)(p – p*)
3. (Y – Y*) HOG G' G NOG
KYaS KYaS ∫(YdY– Y*) ∫(YdY– Y*)
4. (y – y1) HG G G NG (1 – y) dy
kyaS '
kya (1 – y)LMS
∫(y dy– y ) ∫(1 – y) (y – y )
1
LM
1
5. (p – p1) HG G G NG dp (P – p)LM dp
kgaS '
kga (P – p)LM S
∫ (p – p1) ∫ (P – p) (p – p1)
6. (x* – x) HOL L L NOL (1 – x)LM dx

KxaS '
kxa (1 – x)LM S
∫(x*dx– x) ∫(1 – x) (x* – x)
7. (c* – c) HOL L L NOL (ρ/M – c)LM dx
KLaS '
KLa (ρ/M – c)LM S
∫(c*dc– c) ∫(ρ/M – c)(c* – c)
8. (X* – X) HOL L' L' NOL
KXaS kXaS ∫(X*dX– X) ∫(X*dX– X)
9. (x1 – x) HL L L NL (1 – x) dx
kxaS '
kxa (1 – x)LM S
∫(x dx– x) ∫(1 – x) (x – x)
1
LM
1
10. (c1 – c) HL L L
kLaS '
kLa (ρ/M – c)LM S NL ∫(c dC– c) ∫
1
(ρ/M – c)LM dC
(ρ/M – c)(c1 – c)
,,,
1The substitution K = K' y

y y BLM or its equivalent can be made.
APPENDIX – E
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical Properties of Water :
o
E.1 : Latent Heat of Water at 273.15 K (0 C) :
Latent heat of fusion = 1436.3 cal/g mol
= 79.724 cal/g
= 2585.3 btu/lb mol
= 6013.4 kJ/kg mol
o
Latent heat of vapourization at 298.15 K (25 C)
Pressure (mm Hg) Latent Heat
23.75 44 020 kJ/kg mol, 10.514 Kcal/g mol, 18925 btu/lb mol
760 44 045 kJ/kg mol, 10.520 Kcal/g mol, 18936 btu/lb mol
E.2 : Vapour Pressure of Water :
Temperature Vapour Pressure Temperature Vapour Pressure
o o
K C kPa mm Hg K C kPa mm Hg
273.15 0 0.611 4.58 323.15 50 12.333 92.51
283.15 10 1.228 9.21 333.15 60 19.92 149.4
293.15 20 2.338 17.54 343.15 70 31.16 233.7
298.15 25 3.168 23.76 353.15 80 47.34 355.1
303.15 30 4.242 31.82 363.15 90 70.10 525.8
313.15 40 7.375 55.32 373.15 100 101.325 760.0

E.3 : Density of Liquid Water :
Temperature Density Temperature Density
o 3 3 o 3 3
K C g/cm kg/cm K C g/cm kg/cm
273.15 0 0.99987 999.87 323.15 50 0.98807 988.07
277.15 4 1.00000 1000.00 333.15 60 0.98324 983.24
283.15 10 0.99973 999.73 343.15 70 0.97781 977.81
293.15 20 0.99823 998.23 353.15 80 0.97l83 971.83
298.15 25 0.99708 997.08 363.15 90 0.96534 965.34
303.15 30 0.99565 995.68 373.15 100 0.95838 958.38
313.15 40 0.99225 992.25
(E.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) E.2 Appendix – E : Physical Properties
E.4 : Viscosity of Liquid Water :
Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity
o 3 o 3
K C [ (Pa – S)10 , K C [ (Pa – S)10 ,
3 3
(kg/m . s) 10 , or cp] (kg/m . s) 10 , or cp]
273.15 0 1.7921 323.15 50 0.5494
275.15 2 1.6728 325.15 52 0.5315
277.15 4 1.5674 327.15 54 0.5146
279.15 6 1.4728 329.15 56 0.4985
281.15 8 1.3860 331.15 58 0.4832
283.15 10 1.3077 333.15 60 0.4688
285.15 12 1.2363 335.15 62 0.4550
287.15 14 1.1709 337.15 64 0.4418
289.15 16 1.1111 339.15 66 0.4293
291.15 18 1.0559 341.15 68 0.4174
293.15 20 1.0050 343.15 70 0.4061
293.35 20.2 1.0000 345.15 72 0.3952
295.15 22 0.9579 347.15 74 0.3849
297.15 24 0.9142 349.15 76 0.3750
298.15 25 0.8937 351 .15 78 0.3655
299.15 26 0.8737 353 .15 80 0.3565
301.15 28 0.8360 355.15 82 0.3478
303.15 30 0.8007 357.15 84 0.3395
305.15 32 0.7679 359.15 86 0.3315
307.15 34 0.7371 361.15 88 0.3239
309.15 36 0.7085 363.15 90 0.3165
311.15 38 0.6814 365.15 92 0.3095
313.15 40 0.6560 367.15 94 0.3027
315.15 42 0.6321 369.15 96 0.2962
317.15 44 0.6097 371.15 98 0.2899
319.15 46 0.5883 373.15 100 0.2838
321.15 48 0.5683
E.5 : Heat Capacity of Liquid Water at 101.325 kPa (1 Atm) :
Temperature Heat Capacity cp Temperature Heat Capacity cp
o o o o
C K cal/g C kJ/kg.K C K cal/g C kJ/kg.K
0 273.15 1.0080 4.220 50 323.15 0.9992 4.183
10 283.15 1.0019 4.195 60 333.15 0.9992 4.183
(cntd.)
Temperature Heat Capacity cp Temperature Heat Capacity cp

o o o o
C K cal/g C kJ/kg.K C K cal/g C kJ/kg.K
0 273.15 1.0080 4.220 50 323.15 0.9992 4.183
10 283.15 1.0019 4.195 60 333.15 1.0001 4.187
20 293.15 0.9995 4.185 70 343.15 1.0013 4.192
25 298.15 0.9989 4.182 80 353.15 1.0029 4.199
30 303.15 0.9987 4.181 90 363.15 1.0050 4.208
40 313.15 0.9987 4.181 100 373.15 1.0076 4.219

E.6 : Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Water :
Temperature Thermal Conductivity
o o o
C F K but/h.ft. F W/m.K
0 32 273.15 0.329 0.569
37.8 100 311.0 0.363 0.628
93.3 200 366.5 0.393 0.680
148.9 300 422.1 0.395 0.684
215.6 420 588.8 0.376 0.651
326.7 620 599.9 0.275 0.476
E.7 : Vapour Pressure of Saturated Ice-Water Vapour and Heat :
Temperature Vapour Pressure Heat of

Sublimation
K o o kPa psia mm Hg btu/bm kJ/kg
F C
–1 –2
273.2 32 0 6.107 × 10 8.858 × 10 4.581 1218.6 2834.5
–1 –2
266.5 20 - 6.7 3.478 × 10 5.045 × 10 2.609 1219.3 2836.1
–1 –2
261.0 10 -12.2 2.128 × 10 3.087 × 10 1.596 1219.7 2837.0
–1 –2
255.4 0 -17.8 1.275 × 10 1.849 × 10 0.9562 1220.1 2838.0
–2 –2
249.9 – 10 - 23.3 7.411 × 10 1.082 × 10 0.5596 1220.3 2838.4
–2 –3
244.3 – 20 - 28.9 3.820 × 10 6.181 × 10 0.3197 1220.5 2838.9
–2 –3
235.8 – 30 - 34.4 2.372 × 10 3.440 × 10 0.1779 1220.5 2838.9
–2 –3
233.2 – 40 - 40.0 1.283 × 10 1.861 × 10 0.09624 1220.5 2838.9
E.8 : Heat Capacity of Ice :
Temperature Cp Temperature Cp
o K o kJ/kg.K o K o kJ/kg.K
F btu/bm. F F btu/bm. F
32 273.15 0.500 2.093 – 10 249.85 0.461 1.930
20 266.45 0.490 2.052 – 20 244.25 0.452 1.892
10 260.95 0.481 2.014 – 30 238.75 0.442 1.850
0 255.35 0.472 1.976 – 40 233.15 0.433 1.813
E.9 : Properties of Saturated Steam and Water (Steam Table) : SI Units
Tempe- Vapour Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy
rature Pressure 3 (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K)
(m /kg)
o (kPa) Liquid Sat'd Liquid Sat'd Liquid Sat'd
( C)
Vapour Vapour Vapour
0.01 0.6113 0.0010002 206.136 0.00 2501.4 0.0000 9.1562
3 0.7577 0.0010001 168.132 12.57 2506.9 0.0457 9.0773
6 0.9349 0.0010001 137.734 25.20 2512.4 0.0912 9.0003
9 1.1477 0.0010003 113.386 37.80 2517.9 0.1362 8.9253
12 1.4022 0.0010005 93.784 50.41 2523.4 0.1806 8.8524
15 1.7051 0.0010009 77.926 62.99 2528.9 0.2245 8.7814
18 2.0640 0.0010014 65.038 75.58 2534.4 0.2679 8.7123
21 2.487 0.0010020 54.514 88.14 2539.9 0.3109 8.6450
24 2.985 0.0010027 45.883 100.70 2545.4 0.3534 8.5794
25 3.169 0.0010029 43.360 104.89 2547.2 0.3674 8.5580
27 3.567 0.0010035 38.774 113.25 2550.8 0.3954 8.5156
30 4.246 0.0010043 32.894 125.79 2556.3 0.4369 8.4533
33 5.034 0.0010053 28.011 138.33 2561.7 0.4781 8.3927
36 5.947 0.0010063 23.940 150.86 2567.1 0.5188 8.3336
40 7.384 0.0010078 19.523 167.57 2574.3 0.5725 8.2570
45 9.593 0.0010099 15.258 188.45 2583.2 0.6387 8.1648
50 12.349 0.0010121 12.032 209.33 2592.1 0.7038 8.0763
55 15.758 0.0010146 9.568 230.23 2600.9 0.7679 7.9913
60 19.940 0.0010172 7.671 251.13 2609.6 0.8312 7.9096
65 25.03 0.0010199 6.197 272.06 2618.3 0.8935 7.8310
70 31.19 0.0010228 5.042 292.98 2626.8 0.9549 7.7553
75 38.58 0.0010259 4.131 313.93 2635.3 1.0155 7.6824
80 47.39 0.0010291 3.407 334.91 2643.7 1.0753 7.6122
85 57.83 0.0010325 2.828 355.90 2651.9 1.1343 7.5445
90 70.14 0.0010360 2.361 376.92 2660.1 1.1925 7.4791
95 84.55 0.0010397 1.9819 397.96 2668.1 1.2500 7.4159
100 101.35 0.0010435 1.6729 419.04 2676.1 1.3059 7.3549
E.10 : SI Units Continued :
Tempe- Vapour Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy
rature Pressure 3 (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K)
(m /kg)
o (kPa) Liquid Sat'd Liquid Sat'd Liquid Sat'd
( C)
Vapour Vapour Vapour
105 120.82 0.0010475 1.4194 440.15 2683.8 1.3630 7.2958
110 143.27 0.0010516 1.2102 461.30 2691.5 1.4185 7.2387
115 169.06 0.0010559 1.0366 482.48 2699.0 1.4734 7.1833
120 198.53 0.0010603 0.8919 503.71 2706.3 1.5276 7.1296
125 232.1 0.0010649 0.7706 524.99 2713.5 1.5813 7.0775
130 270.1 0.0010697 0.6685 546.31 2720.5 1.6344 7.0269
135 313.0 0.0010746 0.5822 567.69 2727.3 1.6870 6.9777
140 316.3 0.0010797 0.5089 589.13 2733.9 1.7391 6.9299
145 415.4 0.0010850 0.4463 610.63 2740.3 1.7907 6.8833
150 475.8 0.0010905 0.3928 632.20 2746.5 1.8418 6.8379
155 543.1 0.0010961 0.3468 653.84 2752.4 1.8925 6.7935
160 617.8 0.0011020 0.3071 675.55 2758.1 1.9427 6.7502
165 700.5 0.00l l080 0.2727 697.34 2763.5 1.9925 6.7078
170 791.7 0.0011143 0.2428 719.21 2768.7 2.0419 6.6663
175 892.0 0.0011207 0.2168 741.17 2773.6 2.0909 6.6256
180 1002.1 0.0011274 0.19405 763.22 2778.2 2.1396 6.5857
190 1254.4 0.0011414 0.15654 807.62 2786.4 2.2359 6.5079
200 1553.8 0.0011565 0.12736 852.45 2793.2 2.3309 6.4323
225 2548 0.0011992 0.07849 966.78 2803.3 2.5639 6.2503
250 3973 0.0012512 0.05013 1085.36 2801.5 2.7927 6.0730
275 5942 0.0013168 0.03279 1210.07 2785.0 3.0208 5.8938
300 8581 0.0010436 0.02167 1344.0 2749.0 3.2534 5.7045
E.11 : Prperties of Superheated Steam (Steam Table), SI units
3
ν Specic volume, m / kg. enthalpy, kJ/kg; s, entropy, kJ/kg.K) :
(ν
Absolute
pressure
o
kPa (Sat. Temperature ( C)
o 100 150 200 250 300 360 420 500
Temp., C)
ν 17.196 19.512 21.825 24.136 26.445 29.216 31.986 35.679
10 H 2687.5 2783.0 2879.5 2977.3 3076.5 3197.6 3320.9 3489.1
(45.81) s 8.4479 8.6882 8.9038 9.1002 9.2813 9.4821 9.6682 9.8978
ν 3.418 3.889 4.356 4.820 5.284 5.839 6.394 7.134
(Contd.)
Absolute
pressure
o
kPa (Sat. Temperature ( C)
o 100 150 200 250 300 360 420 500
Temp., C)
50 2682.5 2780.1 2877.7 2976.0 3075.5 3196.8 3320.4 3488.7

(81.33) H 7.6947 7.9401 8.1580 8.3556 8.5373 8.7385 8.9249 9.1546
s 2.270 2.587 2.900 3.211 3.520 3.891 4.262 4.755
75 ν 2679.4 2778.2 2876.5 2975.2 3074.9 3196.4 3320.0 3488.4
(91.78) H 7.5009 7.7496 7.9690 8.1673 8.3493 8.5508 8.7374 8.9672
s 1.6958 1.9364 2.172 2.406 2.639 2.917 3.195 3.565
100 ν 2672.2 2776.4 2875.3 2974.3 3074.3 3195.9 3319.6 3488.1
(99.63) H 7.3614 7.6134 7.8343 8.0333 8.2158 8.4175 8.6042 8.8342
s 1.2853 1.4443 1.6012 1.7570 1.9432 2.129 2.376
150 ν 2772.6 2872.9 2972.7 3073.1 3195.0 3318.9 3487.6
(111.37) H 7.4193 7.6433 7.8438 8.0720 8.2293 8.4163 8.6466
s 0.4708 0.5342 0.5951 0.6548 0.7257 0.7960 0.8893
400 ν 2752.8 2860.5 2964.2 3066.8 3190.3 3315.3 3484.9
(143.63) H 6.9299 7.1706 7.3789 7.5662 7.7712 7.9598 8.1913
s 0.2999 0.3363 0.3714 0.4126 0.4533 0.5070
700 ν 2844.8 2953.6 3059.1 3184.7 3310.9 3481.7
(164.97) H 6.8865 7.1053 7.2979 7.5063 7.6968 7.9299
s 0.2060 0.2327 0.2579 0.2873 0.3162 0.3541
1000 ν 2827.9 2942.6 3051.2 3178.9 3306.5 3478.5
(179.9l) H 6.6940 6.9247 7.1229 7.3349 7.5275 7.7622
s 0.13248 0.15195 0.16966 0.18988 0.2095 0.2352
1500 ν 2796.8 2923.3 3037.6 3.1692 3299.1 3473.1
(198.32) H 6.4546 6.7090 6.9179 7.1363 7.3323 7.5698
s 0.11144 0.12547 0.14113 0.15616 0.17568
2000 ν 2902.5 3023.5 3159.3 3291.6 3467.6
(212.42) H 6.5453 6.7664 6.9917 7.1915 7.4317
s 0.08700 0.09890 0.11186 0.12414 0.13998
2500 ν 2880.1 3008.8 3149 1 3284.0 3462.1
(223.99) H 6.4085 6.6438 6.8767 7.0803 7.3234
s 0.07058 0.08114 0.09233 0.10279 0.11619
3000 ν 2855.8 2993.5 3138.7 3276.3 3456.5
(233.90) H 6.2872 6.5390 6.7801 6.9878 7.2338
s
E.12 : Physical Properties of Air at 101.325 kPa (a Atm Abs), SI Units)
T T p Cp 3 k NPr 3 2 2
µ × 10 β × 10 gβρ
βρ /µ
µ
o (K) 3
( C) (kg/m ) (kJ/kg . (Pa . s, or kg/m - s) (w/m . K) (K) 3
(l/k.m )
K)
–17.8 255.4 1.379 1.0048 1.62 0.02250 0.720 3.92 8
2.79 × 10
0 273.2 1.293 1.0048 1.72 0.02423 0.715 3.65 8
2.04 × 10
10.0 283.2 1.246 1.0048 1.78 0.02492 0.713 3.53 8
37.8 311.0 1.137 1.0048 1.90 0.02700 0.705 3.22 1.72 × 10
8
65.6 338.8 1.043 1.0090 2.03 0.02925 0.702 2.95 1.12 × 10
93.3 366.5 0.964 1.0090 2.15 0.03115 0.694 2.74 0.775 × 10
8
121.1 394.3 0.895 1.0132 2.27 0.03323 0.692 2.54 8

148.9 422.1 0.838 1.0174 2.37 0.03531 0.689 2.38 0.534 × 10
8
176.7 449.9 0.785 1.0216 2.50 0.03721 0.687 2.21 0.386 × 10
8
204.4 477.6 0.740 1.0258 2.60 0.03894 0.686 2.09 0.289 × 10
232.2 505.4 0.700 1.0300 2.71 0.04084 0.684 1.98 0.214 × 10
8
260.0 533.2 0.662 1.0341 2.80 0.04258 0.680 1.87 8
0.168 × 10
8
0.130 × 10
8
0.104 × 10
E.13 : Viscosity of Gases at 101.325 kPa (1 Atm Abs)
3
[Viscosity in (Pa . s)10 , (kg/,.s) 103 or cp ]
Temperature
K o o H2 O2 N2 CO CO2
F C
255.4 0 – 17.8 0.00800 0.0181 0.0158 0.0156 0.0128
273.2 32 0 0.00840 0.0192 0.0166 0.0165 0.0137
283.2 50 10.0 0.00862 0.0197 0.0171 0.0169 0.0141
311.0 100 37.8 0.00915 0.0213 0.0183 0.0183 0.0154
338.8 150 65.6 0.00960 0.0228 0.0196 0.0195 0.0167
366.5 200 93.3 0.0101 0.0241 0.0208 0.0208 0.0179
394.3 250 121.1 0.0106 0.0256 0.0220 0.0220 0.0191
422.1 300 148.9 0.0111 0.0267 0.0230 0.0231 0.0203
449.9 350 176.7 0.0115 0.0282 0.0240 0.0242 0.0215
477.6 400 204.4 0.0119 0.0293 0.0250 0.0251 0.0225
505.4 450 232.2 0.0124 0.0307 0.0260 0.0264 0.0236
533.2 500 260.0 0.0128 0.0315 0.0273 0.0276 0.0247
E.14 : Pradtl Number of Gases at 101.325 kPa (1 Atm Abs) :
Temperature
o o K H2 O2 N2 CO CO2
C F
–17.8 0 255.4 0.720 0.720 0.720 0.740 0.775
0 32 273.2 0.715 0.711 0.720 0.738 0.770
10.0 50 283.2 0.710 0.710 0.717 0.735 0.769
37.8 100 311.0 0.700 0.707 0.710 0.731 0.764
37.8 150 338.8 0.700 0.706 0.700 0.727 0.755
93.3 200 366.5 0.694 0.703 0.700 0.724 0.752
121.1 250 394.3 0.688 0.703 0.696 0.720 0.746
148.9 300 422.1 0.683 0.703 0.690 0.720 0.738
176.6 350 449.9 0.677 0.704 0.689 0.720 0.734
204.4 400 477.6 0.670 0.706 0.688 0.720 0.725
232.2 450 505.4 0.668 0.702 0.688 0.720 0.716
260.0 500 533.2 0.666 0.700 0.688 0.720 0.702
Fig. E.1 : Viscosities of gases at 101.325 kPa

E.15 : Viscosities of Gases (Co-ordinates for Use With Fig. E.1 )
No. Gas X Y No. Gas X Y
1 Acetic acid 7.7 14.3 29 Freon- 113 11.3 14.0
2 Acetone 8.9 13.0 30 Helium 10.9 20.5
3 Acetylene 9.8 14.9 31 Hexane 8.6 11.8
4 Air 11.0 20.0 32 Hydrogen 11.2 12.4
5 Ammonia 8.4 16.0 33 3H2 + 1N2 11.2 17.2
6 Argon 10.5 22.4 34 Hydrogen bromide 8.8 20.9
7 Benzene 8.5 13.2 35 Hydrogen chloride 8.8 18.7
8 Bromine 8.9 19.2 36 Hydrogen cyanide 9.8 14.9
9 Butene 9.2 13.7 37 Hydrogen iodide 9.0 21.3
10 Butylene 8.9 13.0 38 Hydrogen sulfide 8.6 18.0
11 Carbon dioxide 9.5 18.7 39 Iodine 9.0 18.4
12 Carbon disulfide 8.0 16.0 40 Mercury 5.3 22.9
13 Carbon monoxide 11.0 20.0 41 Methane 9.9 15.5
14 Chlorine 9.0 18.4 42 Methyl alcohol 8. 5 15.6
15 Chloroform 8.9 15.7 43 Nitric oxide 10.9 20.5
16 Cyanogen 9.2 15.2 44 Nitrogen 10.6 20.0
17 Cyclohexane 9.2 12.0 45 Nitrosyl chloride 8.0 17.6
18 Ethyne 9.1 14.5 46 Nitrous oxide 8.8 19.0
19 Ethyl acetate 8.5 13.2 47 Oxygen 11.0 21.3
20 Ethyl alcohol 9.2 14.2 48 Pentane 7.0 12.8
21 Ethyl chloride 8.5 15.6 49 Propane 9.7 12.9
22 Ethyl ether 8.9 13.0 50 Propyl alcohol 8.4 13.4
23 Ethylene 9.5 15.1 51 Propylene 9.0 13.8
24 Fluorine 7.3 23.8 52 Sulfur dioxide 9.6 17.0
25 Freon-l l 10.6 15.1 53 Toluene 8.6 12.4
26 Freon-12 11.1 16.0 54 2,3,3 - Trimethylbutane 9.5 10.5
27 Freon-21 10.8 15.3 55 Water 8.0 16.0
28 Freon-22 10.1 17.0 56 Xenon 9.3 23.0
Fig. E.2 : Viscosity of Liquids

E.16 : Viscosities of Liquid (Co-ordinates for Use With Fig. E.2)
Liquid X Y Liquid X Y
Acetaldehyde 15.2 4.8 Cyclohexanol 2.9 24.3
Acetic acid, 100% 12.1 14.2 Cyclohexane 9.8 12.9
Acetic acid, 70% 9.5 17.0 Dibromomethane 12.7 15.8
Acetic anhydride 12.7 12.8 Dichloroethane 13.2 12.2
Acetone, 100% 14.5 7.2 Dichloromethane 14.6 8.9
Acetone, 35% 7.9 15.0 Diethyl ketone 13.5 9.2
Acetonitrile 14.4 7.4 Diethyl oxalate 11.0 16.4
Acrylic acid 12.3 13.9 Diethylene glycol 5.0 24.7
Allyl alcohol 10.2 14.3 Diphenyl 12.0 18.3
Allyl bromide 14.4 9.6 Dipropyl ether 13.2 8.6
Allyl iodide 14.0 11.7 Dipropyl oxalate 10.3 17.7
Ammonia, 100% 12.6 2.0 Ethyl acetate 13.7 9.1
Ammonia, 26% 10.1 13.9 Ethyl acrylate 12.7 10.4
Amyl acetate 11.8 12.5 Ethyl alcohol 100% 10.5 13.8
Amyl alcohol 7.5 18.4 Ethyl alcohol 95% 9.8 14.3
Anilinc 8.1 18.7 Ethyl alcohol, 40% 6.5 16.6
Anisole 12.3 13.5 Ethyl benzene 13.2 11.5
Arsenic trichloride 13.9 14.5 Ethyl bromide 14.5 8.1
Benzene 12.5 10.9 2-Ethyl butyl crylate 11.2 14.0
Brine, CaCL2, 25% 6.6 15.9 Ethyl chlorite 14.8 6.0
Brine, NaCl, 25% 10.2 16.6 Ethyl ether 14.5 5.3
Bromine 14.2 13.2 Ethyl formate 14.2 8.4
Bromotoluene 20.0 15.9 2-Ethyl hexyl acrylate 9.0 15.0
Butyl acetate 12.3 11.0 Ethyl iodide 14.7 10.3
Butyl acrylate 11.5 12.6 Ethyl propionate 13.2 9.9
Butyl alcohol 8.6 17.2 Ethyl propyl ether 14.0 7.0
Butyric acid 12.1 15.3 Ethyl sulfide 13.8 8.9
Carbon dioxide 11.6 0.3 Ethylene bromide 11.9 15.7
Carbon disulfide 16.1 7.5 Ethylene chloride 12.7 12.2
Carbon tetrachloride 12.7 13.1 Ethylene glycol 6.0 23.6
Chlorobenzene 12.3 12.4 Ethylidene chloride 14.1 8.7
Chloroform 14.4 10.2 Fluorobenzene 13.7 10.4
Chlorosulfonic acid 11.2 18.1 Formic acid 10.7 15.8
Chlorotoluene, ortho 13.0 13.3 Freon-11 14.4 9.0
Chlorotoluene, meta 13.3 12.5 Freon-12 16.8 15.6
Chlorotoluene, para 13.3 12.5 Freon-21 15.7 7.5
Creol, meta 2.5 20.8 Freon-22 17.2 4.7
E.17 : Viscosities of Liquids, (Continued)
Liquid X Y Liquid X Y
Freon 113 12.5 11.4 Octyl alcohol 6.6 21.1
Glycerol 100% 2.0 30.0 Pentachloroethane 10.9 17.3
Glycerols 50% 6.9 19.6 Pentane 14.9 5.2
Heptane 14.1 8.4 Phenol 6.9 20.8
Hexane 14.7 7.0 Phosphorus tribromide 13.8 16.7
Hydrocloric acid 31.5% 13.0 16.6 Phosphorus trichloride 16.2 10.9
Iodobenzene 12.8 15.9 Propionic acid 12.8 13.8
Isobutyl alcohol 7.1 18.0 Propyl acetate 13.1 10.3
Isobutyric acid 12.2 14.4 Propyl alcohol 9.l 16.5
Isopropyl alcohol 8.2 16.0 Propyl bromide 14.5 9.6
Isopropyl bromide 14.1 9.7 Propyl chloride 14.4 7.5
Isopropyl chloride 13.9 7.1 Propyl formate 13.1 9.7
Isopropyl iodide 13.7 11.2 Propyl iodide 14.1 11.6
Kerosene 10.2 16.9 Sodium 16.4 13.9
Linseed oil, raw 7.5 27.2 Sodium hydroxide, 50% 3.2 25.8
Mercury 18.4 16.4 Stannic chloride 13.5 12.8
Methanol, 100% 12.4 10.5 Succinonitrile 10.1 20.8
Methanol, 90% 12.3 11.8 Sulfur dioxide 15.2 7.1
Methanol, 40%. 7.8 15.5 Sulfuric add, 110% 7.2 27.4
Methyl acetate 14.2 8.2 Sulfuric acid, 100% 8.0 25.1
Methyl acrylate 13.0 9.5 Sulfuric acid, 98% 7.0 24.8
Methyl i-butyrate 12.3 9.7 Sulfuric acid, 60% 10.2 21.3
Methyl n - butyrate 13.2 10.3 Sulfuryl chloride 15.2 12.4
Methyl chloride 15.0 3.8 Tetrachloroethane 11.9 15.7
Methyl ethyl ketone 13.9 8.6 Thiophene 13.2 11.0
Methyl formate 14.2 7.5 Titanium tetrachloride 14.4 12.3
Methyl iodide 14.3 9.3 Toluene 13.7 10.4
Methyl propionate 13.5 9.0 Trichloroethylene 14.8 10.5
Methyl propyl ketone 14.3 9.5 Triethylene glycol 4.7 24.8
Methyl sulfide 15.3 6.4 Turpentine 11.5 14.9
Naphthalene 7.9 18.1 Vinyl acetate 14.0 8.8
Nitric acid, 95% 12.8 13.8 Vinyl toluene 13.4 12.0
Nitric acid, 60% 10.8 17.0 Water 10.2 13.0
Nitobenzene 10.6 16.2 Xylene, ortho 13.5 12.1
Nitrogen dioxide 12.9 8.6 Xylene, meta 13.9 10.6
Nitrotoluene 11.0 17.0 Xylene, para 13.9 10.9
Octane 13.7 10.0
,,,
APPENDIX – F
DETERMINING MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
It is not reasonable to expect mass transfer coefficients to be readily available for any and all
systems.
The "best" solution is to experimentally measure coefficients on a bench scale (using a wetted-
wall column, etc.) and then use the results to design a full-scale separation column. When this is
not feasible, more approximate arrangements must be made.
Correlations :
Dimensional analysis of mass transfer suggests correlations of the form :
kcL
= f µ ,
LG µ 
… (1)
D  ρD 
Sh = f (Re, Sc)
A number of correlations matching this form are presented in many textbooks of mass
transfer.
Treybal (1987) suggest the following correlations for use with beds packed with Raschig rings
or Berl saddles :
2/3
kg pA Scg  ds GG 
= 1.195 
GGM  … (2)
µg (1 – εLO)
0.45
kc ds ds GL 0.5
= 25.1   Scl … (3)
Dl  µ1 
subject to the following definitions
mole
kg = mass transfer coefficient =
area × time × (partial pressure)
mole
kc = mass transfer coefficient =
area × time × (concentration)
pA = partial pressure of A in vopour phase
Sc = Schmidt number
µ = viscosity
DL = diffusivity (in liquid phase)
ds = sphere equivalent diameter of packing
GG = superficial mass velocity (mass flux) in vapour phase
GL = superficial mass velocity (mass flux) in liquid phase
GGM = superficial molar flux in gas phase
SLO = operating void space in packing
= ε–ø
LT
total liquid holdup volume
= void fraction – packed volume … (4)
Analogies :
Since the basic mechanisms of heat, mass, and momentum transport are essentially the same,
it is sometimes possible to directly relate heat transfer coefficients, mass transfer coefficients, and
friction factors by means of analogies.
(F.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) F.2 Appendix – F : Determining Mass Transfer Coefficients
Analogies involving momentum transfer are only valid if there is no form drag, hence they are
pretty much limited to flow over flat plates and inside (but not across) conduits. Also recognize
that if there is much heat or mass transfer, it may change fluid and flow characteristics enough to
make analogy worthless; in some cases, a viscosity correction may be used to compensate.
A simple, crude analogy recognizes that turbulent eddies transport heat and mass as well as
momentum, thus one can argue that the eddie diffusivities are the same for all modes of
transport, that is : ET = EH = EM. These values are seldom at hand, though.
Another analogy -- probably the oldest -- is the "Reynolds Analogy", which relates the Fanning
friction factor for fluid flow to heat transport :
1 h
2 fF = – = NSt … (5)
ρuzcp
where the right hand side is the "Stanton Number". The Stanton number is a dimensionless group
made up of other, more familiar groups. It can be defined for heat transfer or for mass transfer.
StH = Re • Pr =  k  dG c µ = c G (for Heat transfer)
Nu hd µ k h
    p  p
…(6)
StM = Re•Sc = D 
Sh kcL µ  ρD = kc (for Mass transfer) … (7)
  Luρ  µ  u
The Reynolds analogy gives reasonable values for gases where the Prandtl number is roughly
one.
Note that one-half the friction factor is the ratio of the overall momentum transported to the
wall to the inertial effects in the mainstream. The Stanton number represents the ratio of the
overall heat transport to the wall to the convective effects in the mainstream. The Reynolds
analogy says that these ratios are equal for mass and momentum transport.
The Reynolds analogy postulates direct interaction between the turbulent core of the flow
and the walls. If a laminar sublayer is included between these, the Prandtl-Taylor analogy applies :
1
2 fF
NSt = … (8)
uxδ
1+ (NPr – 1)
uxm
This form includes the ratio of the mean velocities in the sublayer and core as well as the
Prandtl number for heat transfer. Note that when the Prandtl number is equal to one, this equation
reduces to the Reynolds analogy.
Probably the most widely used is the Colburn (or Colburn-Chilton) analogy. It is based on
correlations and data rather than on assumptions about transport mechanisms. The Colburn "j-
factor" for heat transfer and the Colburn-Chilton j-factor for mass transfer are :
2/3
jH = StH Pr
2/3 h cpµ
= c G k
p   
…(9)
kc µ 2/3
= u  
2/3
jM = StM Sc … (10)
ρD
The heat transfer factor may be modified with the Seider-Tate viscosity correction
2/3 1
jH = StH Pr øv … (11)
although this does not seem to be universally done.

Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) F.3 Appendix – F : Determining Mass Transfer Coefficients
When the j-factors are used, the fluid properties in the Stanton number are evaluated at the
mean bulk average temperature and those for the Prandtl number at the film temperature (this
means two heat capacities).
The Colburn-Chilton analogy is simply
fsmooth
2 = jH = jM … (12)
valid for turbulent flow in conduits with NRe > 10000, 0.7 < NPr < 160, and tubes where L/d > 60
(the same constraints as Seider-Tate).
A wider range of data is correlated by the Friend-Metzner analogy :
0.14
f  µb 
NRe‚ b NPr‚ b 2 µ 
 w
NNu, b = … (13)
f –1/3
120 + 11.8 2 (NPr‚ b – 1) (NPr‚ b)
f
NSh 2
NRe NSc = … (14)
f –1/3
120 + 11.8 2 (NSc – 1) (NSc)
which is valid when NRe > 10000, 0.5 < NPr < 600, 0.5 < NSc < 3000.
Coefficients from Reference Conditions :
Another possibility is to estimate mass transfer coefficients by comparison with measured
values for reference systems.
For instance, the overall mass transfer coefficients for the oxygen-water system has been
measured and can be used to predict overall coefficients for other systems using
n
1 Gx
Hx = Sc … (15)
α µ
Literature suggest a typical value of n = 0.3, so new values can be obtained using
 µref 0.3
Hxℑnew = Hxℑref µ
Scnew
 … (16)
 new Scref
For gas-film coefficients, literature provide data for ammonia-water, and recommend
estimation using
SC
new
Hyℑnew = Hyℑref SC … (17)
ref
References :
1. Brodkey, R. S. and H. C. Hershey, Transport Phenomena : A Unified Approach, McGraw-
Hill, 1988, pp. 516-20.
2. McCabe, W. L., J. C. Smith, and P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
(5th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 1993, pp. 348-52.
3. McCabe, W. L., J. C. Smith, and P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
(6th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 2001, pp. 532-40, 580-88.
,,,
APPENDIX – G
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION OF EQUILIBRIUM STAGE PROBLEMS :
THE KREMSER EQUATION
Solving problems involving equilibrium stage separations requires simultaneous solution of
the equilibrium and operating (component balance) expressions. Choice of a solution technique --
algebraic, graphical, or numerical -- depends on the form of the expressions.
The Kremser Equation, an "absorption factor method", provides an algebraic solution for
analyzing equilibrium cascades. It cannot be used for every problem, but is convenient for several
cases, notably :
• Dilute gas absorption (when set up on "solvent free" basis)
• Distillation (use for the extreme ends of a high purity separation where the curvature of
the equilibrium curve is not significant)
Fig. G.1
Modeling :
The equations will be developed for a countercurrent cascade of N stages. Begin by writing
the steady state component balance over n-1 stages :
0 = L0x0 – Lx–1 xx–1 + Vnyn – V1y1 … (1)
Vnyn = Ln–1 xn–1 + (V1y1 – L0x0 ) … (2)
The equilibrium expression will be written in terms of a "K-value" (McCabe and Smith
develop these equations starting with a linear equilibrium expression with slope m)
yn = Kn xn … (3)
Vnyn = Vn(Knxn) … (4)
The absorption factor will then be defined. It is the ratio of the local slope of the operating
curve to that of the equilibrium curve. Similar expressions can be defined to serve as "stripping
factors", or "extraction factors", or "wash factors", etc.
 Ln 
Vn
  Ln
An = K = V K … (5)
n n n
Ln
VnKn = A … (6)
n
The absorption factor thus varies from stage to stage.
These three expressions (component balance, equilibrium, absorption factor) are then
combined and rearranged
L nx n
Vnyn = VnKnxn = A = Ln–1 xn–1 + (V1y1 – L0x0) …(7)
n
Lnxn = An (Ln–1 xn–1) + An (V1y1 – L0x0)
If the same steps were taken for a balance over n-2 and n-3 stages, the results would be :
Ln–1 xn–1 = An–1 (Ln–2 xn–2) + An–1 (V1y1 – L0x0 ) …(8)
(G.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. − I) G.2 Appendix – G : The Kremser Equation
Ln–2 xn–2 = An–2 (Ln–3 xn–3) + An–3 (V1y1 – L0x0 ) … (9)

These expressions are then "nested" into the first to obtain
Lnxn = An (An–1 (Ln–2 xn–2) + An–1 (V1y1 – L0x0)) + An (V1y1 – L0x0) … (10)
= An An–1 (Ln–2 xn–2) + (An + AnAn–1) (V1y1 – L0x0) … (11)
= An An–1 (An–2 (Ln–3 xn–3) + An–2 (V1y1 – L0x0)) + (An + AnAn–1) (V1y1 – L0x0)
… (12)
= An An–1 An–2 (Ln–3 xn–3) + (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2) (V1y1 – L0x0) … (13)
This process is repeated, until the balance over 1 stage is incorporated
L1x1 = A1(L0x0) + A1(V1y1 – L0x0) (14)
= A1(V1y1) … (15)
Lnxn = (An An–1 An–2 … A2A1) (V1y1) + (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … +
AnAn–1An–2 … A2) (V1y1 – L0x0) … (16)
The balance will be written one more time, over n stages
Lnxn = L0x0 + Vn+1 yn+1 – V1y1 … (17)
= Vn+1yn+1 – (V1y1 – L0x0) … (18)
Then the last two equations are set equal and rearranged :
Vn+1yn+1 – (V1y1 – L0x0)= (An An–1 An–2 … A1) (V1y1) … (19)
+ (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 – A2) (V1y1 – L0x0)
= (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 – A1) (V1y1)
– (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 – A2) (L0x0)
Vn+1yn+1 = (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 – A1 + 1) (V1y1)
– (An + AnAn–1 + AnAn–1An–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 …… A2 + 1) (L0x0)
If the absorbent fed is pure, x0 = 0, and the second term vanishes. It is then convenient to
define the "fraction NOT absorbed", the ratio of solute leaving to solute fed
Vn+1 yn+1 1
V1y1 = φA = A + A A + A … (20)
n n n–1 n n–1 n–2 + … + AnAn–1An–2 … A1 + 1
A A
which can sometimes be used to compact the notation. This equation allows calculation of the
recovery; but it is unlikely that anyone would have all the required absorption factors.
Group Method Approximation : The absorption factor A varies from stage to stage as the
liquid and vapor flows and equilibrium shift. The "group method" approximation says that we
can assume an average, "effective" value of the absorption factor that is defined to be the same for
all stages. Note, though, that if both the equilibrium curve and operating curve are straight lines,
no approximation is involved.
This allows algebraic simplication of the recovery fraction
a1
φA = 3 3 n …(21)
Ae + Ae + Ae + … + Ae + 1
Provided one remembers the rules for geometric series from calculus
1 – rn+1
sn = 1 + r + r2 + … + rn = 1 – r …(22)
1 – Ae Ae – 1
φA = n+1 = n+1 … (23)
1– Ae Ae –1
A similar simplification can be done on the L0x0 term, noting that the order is one less. The
full equation is thus
An+1 – 1 Ane – 1
= V1y1  A – 1  – L0x0  A – 1 
e
Vn+1 yn+1 … (24)
 e   e 
V1y1 Ae – 1
n
= L 0 x0  A – 1  … (25)
φA  e 
The coefficient on L0x0 represents the consequences of both impure absorbent and the fact
that vapor flow may do some stripping of the enriched absorbent. It thus makes sense to express
this quantity in terms of the stripping factor :
1 Se – 1
Se = A φs = n+1 … (26)
e Se – 1
Beginning by setting up a common denominator, the L0x0 coefficient can be rewritten to
obtain
Ane – 1 φA An – 1  Ae – 1   Ane – 1 

 
    = 1  e  An+1 – 1 = 1  n+1 
Ae – 1  φA φA Ae – 1   e  φA Ae – 1
1
 Sn – 1  S n+1   n+1 
=
1  e = 1  e – Se = 1 Se – 1 + 1 – Se … (27)
φA
 n+1
1
– 1
φ A  Sn+1 – 1  φA  Sn+1 – 1 
 e   e 
Se 
1  1 – Se  1
= 1 + n+1  = (1 – φs)
φA S –1 φA
 e 
So the the overall equation is
V1y1 L0x0 (1 – φs)
Vn+1 yn+1 = – … (28)
φA φA
This equation is useful in solving some problems.
Operating Equation Forms :
From here on we will assume that the flow rates L and V and the equilibrium K-value are
constants. This means that both the equilibrium and operating curves will be straight lines and
that the absorption and stripping factors are constants.
An+1 – 1 Ane – 1
= V1y1  A – 1  – L0x0  A – 1 
e
Vn+1yn+1 … (29)
 e   e 
V1  Ae – 1 L0  Ae – 1
n+1 n
yn+1
 
= V   A – 1  y1 – V   A – 1  x0
 n+1  e   n+1  e 
n+1 n
A –1 L A – 1
yn+1 = A – 1 y1 – V  A – 1  x0
 
Define the hypothetical equilibrium vapor composition, substitute, and rearrange.
*
y0 = Kx0
*
y0
x0 = K
n
An+1 – 1 L A – 1 *
yn+1 =  
A – 1 y1 – VK  A – 1  y0
n
An+1 – 1 A – 1 *
=  
A – 1 y1 – A  A – 1  y0
n+1 n *
yn+1 (A – 1) = (A – 1) y1 – A(A – 1) y0
n+1 n+1 * *
Ayn+1 – yn+1 = A y1 – y1 – A y0 + Ay0
y1 – yn+1 = A
n+1
(y1 – y*0) + A(y*0 – yn+1)
Next we need a rearranged version of the balance over n stages
Vn+1 yn+1 = V1y1 + Lnxn – L0x0
L L
yn+1 = y1 + V xn – V x0
*
L y0
yn+1 = y1 + (AK) xn – V K
* *
yn+1 = y1 + Ayn – Ay0
yn+1 – y1 = A yn – y0 (* *
)
(Note that y*n= yn) . This can be used to calculate A from known endpoint compositions.
yn+1 – y1
A = *
yn – y0
We might also combine the last two equations to get
y1 – yn + 1 = A y0 – yn ( * * ) = An+1 (y1 – y*0 ) + A (y*0 – yn+1)

(* * *
A y0 – yn – y0 + yn+1 ) = A
n+1
(y1 – y*0)
(yn+1 – y*n) =
*
A (y1 – y0 )
n
n
(yn+1 – y*n)
A =
(y1 – y*0)
yn+1 – y*n
nln(A) = ln  
 y1 – y* 
 0 
yn+1 – y*n yn+1 – y*n

ln   ln  
 y1 – y*   y1 – y* 
 0   0 
n = = … (30)
ln(A)  1 n+1
y
ln  *
– y
* 
 y0 – yn 
Which can be used to determine the number of stages needed to make a separation.
References :
1. McCabe, W.L., J. C. Smith and P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
(6th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 2001, pp. 632-38.
2. Seader, J.D. and E.J. Henley, Separation Process Principles, John Wiley, 1998, pp. 242-46.
,,,
STUDY QUESTIONS
To gain the best understanding of the material presented in this book, refer these study
questions for each chapter and write in your answers as you read.
Chapter 1 : Overview of Chemical Engineering Profession, Separation

Processes and Introduction to Mass Transfer Operations
1. What are the two key process operations in chemical engineering ?
2. What are the main auxiliary process operations in chemical engineering ?
3. What is the difference between a block flow diagram and a process flow diagram ?
4. Why do almost all industrial chemical processes contain separation operations ?
5. Is the separation of a mixture a spontaneous, natural process ?
6. What are the five general separation techniques and what do they all have in common ?
7. Why is mass transfer a major factor in separation processes ?
8. What limits the extent to which the separation of a mixture can be achieved ?
9. What are the two agents that can be used to create a second phase in the separation of a
chemical mixture ?
10. What is the most common method used to separate two fluid phases ?
11. List five separation operations that use an Energy Separation Agent (ESA) and five that
use a Mass Separation Agent (MSA).
12. Give three disadvantages of using an MSA.
13. What is the most widely used industrial separation operation ?
14. What is the difference between absorption and stripping ?
15. What is liquid-liquid extraction, when should it be considered, and how does it differ
from supercritical-fluid extraction and leaching ?
16. What is the basic requirement for removing liquid from a wet solid by
evaporation ?
17. Why is crystallization important in the semiconductor industry ?
18. Why can't osmosis be used to separate a liquid mixture ?
19. How do reverse osmosis and dialysis differs ? What do they have in common ?
20. In the separation of a mixture, how does the action of a membrane differ from that of a
solid adsorbent ?
21. What is the difference between adsorption and absorption ?
22. What is the difference between dialysis and electrodialysis ?
23. The degree of separation in a separation operation is often specified in terms of
component recoveries and/or product purities. How do these two differ ?
24. For a separation operation, is it possible to specify the recovery of a feed component and
the mole (or mass) fraction of that same component in one of the products ?
25. What factors of a separation operation influence the degree of separation ?
26. When selecting a separation method, what factors are important ?
27. What five separation operations are the most technologically mature ?
28. What are the three uses of thermodynamics in separation operations ? Is energy
conserved in a separation process ?
29. In chemical engineering, does mass transfer refer to the relative movement of chemical
species in a mixture or the flow rate of the entire mixture ?
30. What are the job responsibilities of Chemical Engineer in Chemical Process Industry
(CPI) ?
,,,
(S.1)
Principles of Mass Transfer Operations − I (Vol. −I) S.2 Appendix – S : Study Questions
Chapter 2 : Diffusion Mass Transfer

1. What is meant by diffusion ?
2. Explain the term "FLUX"
3. What are the two basic mechanisms of mass transfer ? When separating chemicals in
commercial equipment, which mechanism is preferred ? Why ?
4. Molecular diffusion occurs by any of what four driving forces or potentials ? Which one
is the most common ? Can molecular diffusion occur in solids, liquids, and gases ?
5. What is the bulk flow effect in mass transfer ?
6. What is a random-walk process ?
7. Is the mass-transfer rate proportional to the area normal to the direction of mass transfer
or to the volume of the mixture ?
8. For a binary mixture, what factors are involved in the rate of diffusion of a component,
according to Fick's law ?
9. How does Fick's law of diffusion compare to Fourier's law of heat conduction ?
10. What is the difference between a species diffusion velocity relative to stationary
coordinates and relative to the molar average velocity of the mixture that contains the
species ?
11. What is meant by equimolar counter diffusion (EMD) ? In what separation operation is it
closely approached ?
12. For a binary mixture, under what conditions is the diffusivity of A in B equal to the
diffusivity of B in A, and independent of composition ?
13. What is meant by unimolecular diffusion (UMD) ? In what separation operation is it
14. For UMD, are the mole fraction profiles linear or nonlinear with distance ?
15. Does EMD or UMD include the bulk-flow effect ? How does this effect modify Fick's
law ?
16. When measuring molecular diffusivities, why must a correction be made for bulk flow ?
17. Distinguish between molecular and eddy diffusion.
18. What is the difference between a mutual diffusion coefficient and a self-diffusion
coefficient ?
19. Derive from fundamentals the expression for steady state equimolal counter diffusion of
gas A through another gas B
20. Who used the kinetic theory of gases to develop a theoretical equation for estimating
molecular binary diffusivities in a gas mixture at low pressures ? Why is the empirical
equation of Fuller et al.preferred ?
21. At low pressures, what is the effect of temperature and pressure on the molecular
diffusivity of a species in a binary gas mixture ?
22. Draw a graph showing concentration gradient for equimolar diffusion.
23. What is the effect of pressure and temperature on the diffusion coefficient in
gases ?
24. Give the relationship between mass transfer coefficient and diffusivity
2
25. What is the order of magnitude of the molecular diffusivity in cm /s for a species in a
binary gas mixture at low pressure ?
26. Above about what pressure is a correction to the pressure effect on binary gas diffusivity
necessary ? What type of theory is used to make that correction ?
27. In general, for a binary liquid mixture, the diffusivity of A in B and the diffusivity of B in
A both depend on composition. Why is this so ?
28. Which equation is useful for estimating diffusivities of solutes in aqueous solutions ? On
what theory is that equation based ?
29. What is the order of magnitude of the molecular diffusivity in cm2/s for a species in a
liquid mixture ? By how many orders of magnitude is diffusion in a liquid slower or
faster than in a gas ?
30. How is liquid diffusivity related to viscosity ?
31. By what mechanisms does diffusion occur in solids ? Can Fick's law be used for
diffusion in solids ?
32. What is the order of magnitude of the molecular diffusivity in cm2/s for a species in a
solid ? By how many orders of magnitude is diffusion in a solid slower or faster than in a
gas ?
33. Derive an expression for finding the mass flux of diffusion of A through non-diffusing B,
A and B are liquids.
34. By what mechanisms does diffusion occur in porous solids ?
35. What is the effective diffusivity ?
36. Why is diffusion in crystalline solids much slower than in amorphous solids ?
37. Why is diffusion of very light gases in metals of major importance ?
38. Why is diffusion of light gases in ceramics important ?
39. Why is diffusion of gases and liquids in dense, nonporous polymers important ?
40. For diffusion across the radius of a hollow cylinder, what is the proper average area for
mass transfer when applying an integrated form of Fick's law ?
41. For diffusion across the radius of a hollow sphere, what is the proper average area for
mass transfer when applying an integrated form of Fick's law ?
42. What is Fick's second law ? How does it compare to Fourier's second law of heat
conduction ?
43. When comparing diffusion to heat conduction, is thermal conductivity or thermal
diffusivity analogous to molecular diffusivity ?
44. Is the rate of diffusion into a semi-infinite medium inversely proportional to time or
inversely proportional to the square root of time ?
45. Is the rate of diffusion into a semi-infinite medium proportional to diffusivity or
proportional to the square root of diffusivity ?
46. Molecular diffusion in gases, liquids, and solids ranges from slow to extremely slow.
What is the best way to increase the rate of mass transfer in fluids ? What is the best way
to increase the rate of mass transfer in solids ?
47. How does the Fourier number for mass transfer differ from the Fourier number for heat
transfer ?
48. In laminar flow, does mass transfer in a direction normal to the direction of flow occur
by molecular diffusion, eddy diffusion, or both ?
49. Describe a method to estimate the diffusivity of a volatile solvent into air.
50. Give the Wilke-Chang equation and explain the terms involved in it.
,,,
Chapter 3 : Mass Transfer Coefficients
1. Are the Prandtl number and Schmidt number analogous ? How ?
2. What is the defining equation for a mass-transfer coefficient ? How does it differ from
Fick's law ? How is it analogous to Newton's law of cooling ?
3. What is the Sherwood number ? How is it analogous to the Nusselt number ?
4. What does the entry length for flow in a circular tube mean ?
5. For mass transfer to or from the wall of a tube through which a fluid flows, is the
appropriate driving force an arithmetic or log-mean average ?
6. Explain what do you understand by jD and jH factors.
7. What is the eddy mixing length of Prandtl ?
8. What is the difference between Reynolds’s analogy and the Chilton- Colburn analogy ?
Which is more useful ?
9. What is the basic difference between the development of the Chilton- Colburn analogy
and the Prandtl analogy ?
10. What important result is given by the penetration theory ?
11. For mass transfer across a phase interface, what is the difference between the film,
penetration, and surface-renewal theories, particularly with respect to the dependence
on diffusivity ?
12. What is the two-film theory of Whitman ?
13. Is equilibrium assumed to exist at the interface of two phases ?
14. Why are expressions for overall mass-transfer coefficients more complex than
expressions for overall heat-transfer coefficients ?
15. Explain the two-film theory of interphase mass transfer. Discuss the reasons for
modifying this theory later, by Higle and Dauckwerts.
16. State Higbie's theory for mass transfer and the assumptions made in deriving the
expression for mass transfer coefficient.
17. Discuss the Reynolds analogy of heat and momentum transport. How Prandtl and Von
Karman rectify them in their analogies ?
18. Discuss the concept of the transfer units used in mass transfer problems. How is overall
height of a transfer unit related to the individual heights of transfer unit ?
19. In laminar flow, does mass transfer in a direction normal to the direction of flow occur
by molecular diffusion, eddy diffusion, or both ?
20. Are the Prandtl number and Schmidt number analogous ? How ?
21. What is the Peclet number for mass transfer ?
22. What is the defining equation for a mass-transfer coefficient ? How does it differ from
Fick's law ? How is it analogous to Newton's law of cooling ?
23. What is the Sherwood number ? How is it analogous to the Nusselt number ?
24. Do velocity, temperature, and concentration boundary layers on a flat plate all build up
at the same rate ? If not, why not ?
25. What does the entry length for flow in a circular tube mean ?
26. For mass transfer to or from the wall of a tube through which a fluid flows, is the
appropriate driving force an arithmetic or log-mean average ?
27. For laminar flow, can expressions for the mass-transfer coefficient can be determined
from theory using Fick's law ?
28. What is the significance of the j-factors for momentum, heat, and mass transfer ?
29. For mass transfer across a phase interface, what is the difference between the film,
penetration, and surface-renewal theories, particularly with respect to the dependence
on diffusivity ?
30. Is equilibrium assumed to exist at the interface of two phases ?
31. Discuss the operation principles of Wetted Wall tower and Ventury Scrubber.
32. What is momentum, thermal and mass diffusivity ? Are they analogues to each other ?
33. Define Prandtl number, Schmidt number and Lewis number.
34. What is Buckingham Pi Theorem ? How it is useful for dimensional analysis ?
35. What are equations for Taylor-Prandtl analogy for heat and mass transfer ?
,,,
Chapter 4 : Interphase Mass Transfer

1. Discuss the need for defining the interphase mass transfer resistance in terms of overall
coefficients. How they are related to individual coefficients ?
2. Discuss the importance of equilibrium in interphase mass transfer.
3. Write the material balance equations for following operations:
(a) Steady-state co-current operations
(b) Steady-state countercurrent operations
(c) Cascades
4. Define J factors for heat and mass transfer. State its applications and limitations.
5. How will define Murphree stage efficiency ?
6. What do you understand by 'liquid film controlling' in gas absorption ? Suggest methods
of increasing the rate of transfer for this condition.
7. Derive Kremser-Brown-Souders equation for the calculation of number of theoretical
stages for absorption in a stage wise contact tower.
8. When are the concepts of HETP and HTU used ? What is the difference between the two
? Drawing an equilibrium diagram, indicate clearly the two concepts.
9. Illustrate the significance of operating line and equilibrium line for a steady state
counter-current process.
10. Discuss the use of Murphree efficiency for the design of an absorber.
11. Discuss briefly how the minimum solvent requirement in counter-current gas absorption
may be determined.
12. Explain the term stage and stage efficiency.
13. What is a separation cascade ? What is a hybrid system ?
14. What is the difference between a countercurrent and a crosscurrent cascade ?
15. What is the limitation of a single-section cascade ? Does a two-section cascade overcome
this limitation ?
,,,
Chapter 5 : Gas Absorption
1. In absorption, what is a solute ?
2. Can absorption be accompanied by a temperature change ? Why ?
3. What is the difference between physical absorption and chemical (reactive) absorption ?
4. What is the difference between an equilibrium-based and a rate-based calculation
procedure ?
5. What is a trayed tower ? What is a packed column ?
6. What is the difference between entrainment and occlusion ?
7. What are the three most common types of openings in trays for the passage of vapor ?
Which of the three is rarely specified for new installations ?
8. In a trayed tower, what are weirs and downcomers ?
9. In a trayed tower, what do flooding and weeping mean ?
10. Why are liquid distributors and redistributors necessary in a packed column, but not in
a trayed tower ?
11. What is the difference between random and structured packings ?
12. What are the four generations of column packings ?
13. What are the advantages of the more-expensive structured packings over the random
packings ?
14. For what conditions is a packed column favored over a trayed tower ?
15. Why do most retrofits involve the replacement of trays with packing ?
16. What factors must be considered when designing an absorber or a stripper ?
17. What are the characteristics for an ideal absorbent ? What are the characteristics of an
ideal stripping agent ?
18. In general, why should the operating pressure be high and the operating temperature is
low for an absorber, and the opposite for a stripper ?
19. For a given recovery of a key component in an absorber or stripper, does a minimum
absorbent or stripping agent flow rate exist for a tower or column with an infinite
number of equilibrium stages ?
20. When using a graphical method for determining the number of equilibrium stages
required for an absorber or stripper, when is it advisable to express solute
concentrations in mole ratios, rather than mole fractions ?
21. What is an operating-line equation ?
22. What is the difference between an operating line and an equilibrium curve ?
23. On a Y-X plot for an absorber, is the operating line above or below the equilibrium curve
? Explain.
24. On a Y-X plot for a stripper, is the operating line above or below the equilibrium curve ?
Explain.
25. What is a reasonable value for the optimal absorption factor when designing an absorber
? Does that same value apply to the optimal stripping factor when designing a stripper ?
26. When stepping off stages on a Y-X plot for an absorber or a stripper, does the process
start and stop with the operating line or the equilibrium curve ?
27. When should the use of an algebraic method, rather than a graphical method, be
considered for determining stage requirements for an absorber or stripper ?
28. At near ambient pressure, what four methods should be considered for estimating the K-
value of a solute ?
29. Is stage efficiency usually based on heat transfer, mass transfer, or a combination of the
two ?
30. What is the definition of Lewis for the overall stage efficiency ?
31. What are the main factors that influence the overall stage efficiency ?
32. What are the four methods for predicting stage efficiency ?
33. In general, do absorbers or strippers have the higher stage efficiency ? Why ?
34. Why do longer liquid-flow paths give higher stage efficiencies ?
35. Why do large diameter towers often use multiple-pass trays ?
36. What are the assumptions in the Murphree vapor (tray) efficiency ?
37. What is the difference between the Murphree tray and point efficiencies ?
38. Under what conditions is the Murphree vapor tray efficiency equal to the Lewis overall
stage efficiency ?
39. What kind of a laboratory column is used to obtain data suitable for scale-up to
commercial columns ?
40. What are the four conditions for ideal stable operation of a trayed column ?
41. What is the difference between downcomer flooding and entrainment flooding ? Which
is the more common type of flooding ?
42. Why does the flooding velocity depend on the tray spacing ?
43. Why does foaming tendency affect the flooding velocity ?
44. Is surface tension a major factor in determining flooding velocity ?
45. What are the major factors that determine tower diameter ?
46. What is meant by turndown ratio ? What type of tray has the best turndown ratio ?
Which, the worst ?
47. How do the new high-capacity trays differ from conventional trays ?
48. What are the three contributing factors to the vapor pressure drop across a tray ?
49. Does vapor velocity affect both vapor-phase and liquid-phase mass transfer
coefficients ?
50. Can the Chan-Fair method be used to predict both vapor-phase and liquid-phase mass-
transfer coefficients ?
51. Why does the vapor-phase mass-transfer coefficient decrease as the flooding velocity is
approached ?
52. For what type of tray is weeping potential the most serious ?
53. Can the rate of liquid entrainment be estimated ? If so, how ?
54. Why is the clear liquid head in the downcomer greater than the vapor pressure drop per
tray expressed as a liquid head ?
55. What is the HETP ? Does it have a theoretical basis ? If not, why is it so widely used ?
56. What are typical values of HETP for random packings and for structured packings ?
57. Under what conditions is the HETP equal to the HTU, and the number of theoretical
stages equal to the NTU ?
58. Why are there so many different kinds of mass-transfer coefficients ? How can they be
distinguished ?
59. What is the loading point in a packed column ?
60. What is the flooding point in a packed column ?
61. At low superficial gas velocities, does the holdup depend on gas velocity or just liquid
rate ?
62. For operation below the loading point, what is the relationship between the pressure
drop for vapor flow, but without liquid flow, and that for vapor flow with liquid
flow ?
63. What is the loading region ? Is it best to operate a packed column in that region or in the
pre-loading region ?
64. Can a packed column be operated efficiently without achieving complete wetting of the
packing with liquid ?
65. What is an approximate value of the pressure drop in a packed column when flooding is
66. Are liquid density and viscosity important in determining flooding velocity in a packed
column ?
67. What is the most widely used correlation for estimating dry-bed pressure drop ?
68. How does the HETP vary with the F-factor ?
69. Which has the greater influence : (a) the gas velocity on the liquid-phase volumetric
mass-transfer coefficient, or (b) the liquid velocity on the gas phase volumetric mass-
transfer coefficient ?
70. When the solute concentration is moderate to high, instead of dilute, why are
calculations for packed columns much more difficult ?
71. What is the Kremser method ? To what type of separation operations are it applicable ?
What are the major assumptions of the method ?
72. What is an absorption factor ? What is a stripping factor ?
73. Why is a stripper frequently coupled with an absorber ?
74. When solving a separation problem, are the number and kind of specifications obvious ?
If not, how can the required number of specifications be determined ?
75. What is the number of degrees of freedom for an N-stage countercurrent cascade of non-
adiabatic equilibrium stages ? Can the degrees of freedom be determined for a hybrid
system ? If so, what is the easiest way to do it ?
,,,
Chapter 6 : Humidification and Dehumidification Operations

1. What do you mean by humidification and dehumidification operations ?
2. What is adiabatic saturation process ? What is a adiabatic saturation temperature ? Can
you derive the final expression for the same ?
3. What are common uses of gas liquid contact in industry ?
4. Derive an expression to determine height of cooling tower. What are the assumptions in
this derivation ?
5. What is the blow down losses in cooling tower ?
6. Discuss the significance and application of psychometric charts in simultaneous
heat/mass transfer operations.
7. Discuss the theory of wet-bulb thermometry. Under what conditions the wet-bulb
temperature and adiabatic saturation temperature will be identical.
8. Discuss in detail the design of a cooling tower based on enthalpy transfer unit concept.
State the important assumptions made and the limitations in application.
9. Describe the various types of cooling towers employed in cooling hot water from process
plants.
10. State and derive Lewis relationship. What are its applications and limitations ?
11. What is psychometric ratio ? Indicate the methods by which the mass transfer coefficient
and heat transfer coefficient are obtained when Lewis relationship fails.
12. Define humidity
13. What is meant by percentage humidity ?
14. How the cooling effect in a cooling tower can be increased ?
15. Describe the methods available for estimating humidity of a sample of air.
16. What are the different types of cooling towers used in industries ? Briefly explain them.
17. Explain the theory of humidification.
18. Define all the humidity terms you know.
19. What is Lewis relation ? What is value of Lewis number for air-water vapor system ?
20. What is meant by wet bulb temperature approach ?
21. How you calculate total losses in cooling towers ?
22. What are the design considerations for cooling towers ?
23. What is the principle of 'recirculating liquid gas humidifier' ?
24. Define Dew point
25. Explain the theory of adiabatic saturation curves and wet bulb temperature theory.
,,,
Chapter 7 : Equipments for Gas-Liquid Operations
1. What are the examples of gas-liquid operations that are carried out in the chemical
industry ?
2. What is sparger ? What are the typical industrial applications of the same ?
3. What is gas hold up ? How will calculate slip velocity for countercurrent flow of liquid ?
4. What are the types of impellers ?
5. What is vortex formation ? How will you prevent ?
6. What are baffles ? What is the purpose ?
7. What are the similarity considerations in agitated vessels ?
8. What is geometric similarity ?
9. What is kinematic similarity ?
10. What is dynamic similarity ?
11. What are priming, coning, weeping, and dumping ?
12. What is operating characterstics of sieve trays ?
13. What are different schemes for directing the liquid flow ?
14. What is turndown ratio ?
15. What are the types of proprietary trays ?
16. What are valve and counterflow trays ?
17. What is entrainment ? Is it advantages ?
18. What is purpose of Redistributor plate ?
19. What is purpose of entrainment eliminators ?
20. What are the types of packing ? What are the desirable properties of good
packings ?
21. Why packing restrainers are used in packed towers ?
22. What is a design criterion for packed towers ?
23. Compare tray towers and packed towers
24. What is Ventury scrubber ? What are the applications ?
25. What is wetted wall tower ? State applications
26. What is spray tower ? How it works ?
27. Give merits and demerits of spray towers.
28. What are spray chambers ? What are the applications ?
29. What are the advantages and disadvantages of packed towers ?
30. Give a typical arrangement for Bubble cap tray.
,,,
Chapter 8 : Drying Operations
1. What are some of the industrial applications of drying ?
2. Discuss the purposes of drying operations.
3. How will express moisture content on dry basis and dry basis ? What is basic difference
between these two moisture content ?
4. What are types of moisture ?
5. What are the equipments available for drying operations ? What are the merits and
demerits ?
6. How will select a particular dryer for given process ?
7. What are the general principles for efficient energy utilization in drying operations ?
8. What are the most commonly employed modes of heat transfer for drying ? Does the
temperature of the solid during drying depend on the mode ?
9. Why is there such a large variety of drying equipment ?
10. When is a batch dryer usually preferred over a continuous dryer ?
11. What is the difference between a direct-heat dryer and an indirect-heat dryer ?
12. For a tray dryer, under what conditions can hot air be passed through the solids ? When
must the hot air be passed over the solids in the tray ?
13. When are agitated batch dryers used ?
14. What types of continuous dryers can be used with wet, solid particles ?
15. What is the difference between a direct-heat and an indirect-heat rotary dryer ?
16. For what types of wet solids can fluidized-bed, spouted-bed, and pneumatic-conveyor
dryers be used ?
17. What types of dryers can be used with slurries ?
18. How do infrared, dielectric, and microwave drying differ from direct heat drying ?
19. What is freeze-drying and when is it a good choice ?
20. What is psychrometry ?
21. What are the differences among absolute humidity, relative humidity, and percentage
humidity ?
22. What is the wet-bulb temperature ? How is it measured ? How does it differ from the
dry-bulb temperature ?
23. What is the adiabatic-saturation temperature ? Why is it almost identical to the wet-bulb
temperature for the air-water system ?
24. For systems other than air-water, why is the wet-bulb temperature always higher than
the adiabatic-saturation temperature ?
25. What is the psychrometric ratio ? How is it related to the Lewis number ? What is the
Lewis number ?
26. Under what drying conditions is the moisture evaporation temperature equal to the wet-
bulb temperature ?
27. Distinguish between:
(a) Total-moisture content (b) Free-moisture content
(c) Equilibrium-moisture content (d) Unbound moisture
(e) Bound moisture
28. How does the equilibrium-moisture content depend on temperature and relative
humidity ?
29. How does hysteresis affect equilibrium-moisture content ?
30. What are the different periods that may occur during a drying operation ?
31. Under what conditions is a constant-rate-drying period observed ?
32. Under what conditions is a falling-rate-drying period observed ?
33. What is the critical-moisture content ?
34. What are the two most applied theories to the falling-rate-drying period ?
35. In the dryer models for a belt dryer with through-circulation and a direct-heat rotary
dryer, is the rate of drying based on heat transfer or mass transfer ?
36. What is achieved by using a multiple-zone, through-circulation belt dryer with hot air
flow reversal between zones ?
37. What is final equation for total time required for drying operation ?
38. What are the final expressions for drying time for droplets ? Can you derive these
equations ? What are the assumptions ?
39. What are the regimes of fluidization of a bed of particles by a gas ?
40. What regime of operation is preferred for drying ?
41. Find an expression for obtaining the total drying time for the drying of a wet solid
material under constant drying conditions of to final moisture content well below the
critical moisture content.
42. List and explain the different ways in which the drying rate of a given substance in the
constant rate period may be increased.
43. Giving reasons, indicate the type of dryer that can be used for the following
purpose :
(a) Removal of the last 6 percent moisture from salt
(b) Drying of cakes of soap
(c) Drying of heat sensitive materials like pharmaceuticals
(d) Drying of paddy
44. Which drier is suitable for handling fragile crystals ?
45. Define the term Equilibrium moisture and free moisture content of solid
46. What is freeze-drying ?
47. What is meant by holdup in a rotary dryer ?
48. Which type of drier is used in the manufacture of (a) tablets (b) Paraffin wax ?
49. Define the term "Bound moisture"
50. Describe the method of obtaining the length and diameter of a rotary dryer.
,,,

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A TEXT BOOK OF

Covering the Revised Syllabus of :

And also for

DR. KIRAN D. PATIL

Professor in Chemical Engineering,

(Prof. Dr. Vishwanath D. Karad)

1. Principles and Fundamentals of Mass Transfer Operations-I (Volume I)

Volume – I consists of following chapters :

1) Overview of Chemical Engineering, Profession, Separation Processes and Mass

Pune Kiran D. Patil

Pune Mr. Kiran D. Patil

Pune Mr. Kiran D. Patil

Pune Mr. Kiran D. Patil

Appendix A : SI Systems, Fundamental Constants and

OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

1.4 Selection of Feasible Separation Process

1.1 OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROFESSION

Fig. 1.1 : Foundation of Chemical Engineering Science

1.1.3 Disciplinary Definition

Fig. 1.2 : Domain of Chemical Engineering in Time and Length Scale

1.1.9 Other Career Opportunities

Job Function Description

Job Function Description

Wet natural gas

Fig. 1.4 : Technology Maturity and Use for Unit Operations

• Various drinks, medicines extracted from plants,

1.3 SELECTION OF SEPARATION PROCESSES

1.4 SELECTION OF FEASIBLE SEPARATION PROCESS

Table 1.2 : Examples of Separation Processes and Separating Agents

Process Separating agent(s) Application(s)

1.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF DISTILLATION AND OTHER VAPOUR-

1.6 FACTORS WHICH FAVOUR SEPARATION PROCESSES FOR LIQUID

• Azeotropic/Extractive Distillation • Extraction

1.7 PROCEDURE FOR SEPARATION PROCESS SELECTION

1.9 CLASSES OF SEPARATION OPERATIONS

1.10 MASS TRANSFER OF COOKING-CHEMICAL ENGINEERING THROUGH

• Stripping is the reverse of Absorption. Stripping of dissolved and contaminating volatile

Experimental observation tells us that, at equilibrium, the concentration of each chemical

Initial state Final state

1.12 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF MASS TRANSFER KNOWLEDGE ?

(e) With a simultaneous chemical reaction.

Examples of Separation Processes :

Gas mixture separation

Adsorption (Principle : Adsorption affinity of gas/liquid on a solid adsorbent) : Air separation.

Cryogenics (Principle : Condensation of gas to a liquid form) : Air separation.

Liquid mixture separation

Settler (Principle : Density difference) : Waste water treatment.

Electromagnetic (Principle : Electromagnetic affinity) : Fe removal from non-ferrous matter.

Separation System Design Guidelines :

• In chemical process, differences in composition dominate the design of the process,

• If a feed impurity is a catalyst poison or corrosive, remove it.

• Save difficult separations for last.

Factors to consider in designing separation systems :

• Phases present : Liquid gas, solid.

1.16 CHOICE OF SEPARATION METHOD

1.17.1 Solute Recovery and Fractionation

1.17.2 Unsteady-state Operation

For the average kinetic energy,

where u is the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) speed.

From the equation for the r.m.s. speed,

Fig. 2.1 : Random walk process

Now consider a container with a mixture of two components A and B at constant

Fig. 2.2 : Diffusion in Binary mixture