Ational Law University Odisha, Cuttack: Subject

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WATER CRISIS IN ODISHA: A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA
NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY ODISHA, CUTTACK
SUBJECT
MACROECONOMICS
TOPIC
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WATER CRISIS IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA
SUBMITTED TO
MS. MADHUBRATA RAYSINGH
(Assistant Professor of Economics)
SUBMIT
TED BY
AAYUSH AKAR (18BA002)
ADITI MOHAN (18BA004)
RASHI VISHWAKARMA (18BA012)
MUSKAN MALVIYA (18BA066)
MUSKAN MESHRAM PRAKASH (18BA067)
PALLAVI (18BA073)
PARUL PRIYA NAYAK (18BA074)
SOMYA AGARWAL (18BA106)
TANAY SINGH (18BA109)
VARTIKA PRAJAPATI (18BA115)
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................7
Comprehensive Analysis Of Secondary Data..............................................................................8
RESEARCH GAP......................................................................................................................11
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................12
HYPOTHESIS..........................................................................................................13
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………….14
CHAPTER 1- INDIAN MONSOON.......................................................................15
Arrival Of Monsoon In India......................................................................................................15
Changing Pattern Of Monsoon In India......................................................................................16
Expected Future Change Pattern Of Inidan Monsoon................................................................17
Effects Of Change In Monsoon Pattern Of India........................................................................18
CHAPTER 2- WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA...................................................20
Rivers..........................................................................................................................................20
Lakes...........................................................................................................................................21
Groundwater Aquifers.................................................................................................................23
CHAPETR 3- FRESHWATER CRISES IN INDIA................................................25
Managing India’s Fresh Water....................................................................................................25
Reasons Behind Water Crises.....................................................................................................26
Affects And Remedies................................................................................................................27
Related Information And Data....................................................................................................28
Institutions And Modalities In Its Working................................................................................29
National Water Commission.......................................................................................................29
Melting Of Glacier In India.........................................................................................................29
CHAPTER 4- IMPACT OF WATER CRISIS IN INDIA.......................................34
Water Demand And Utilisation...................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 5- INTERSTATE WATER DISPUTES IN INDIA AND
CORRSPONDING LEGAL PROVISIONS............................................................37
Economies Of Water...................................................................................................................37
Constitutional Provisions............................................................................................................38
Mahanadi Water Dispute: A Case Study.....................................................................................40
INEXPLICABLE ‘UTILIZATION’ PROJECTION.................................................................................................41
2
CURRENT POSITION..................................................................................................................................................42
CHAPTER 6- CONTEMPORARY AREAS FACING WATER CRISIS AND

FLOODS...................................................................................................................44
Chennai........................................................................................................................................46
Mumbai.......................................................................................................................................47
Assam..........................................................................................................................................48
Bihar............................................................................................................................................49
CHAPTER 7- NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SUMMITS........................51
National Summit On Sustainable Water And Sanitation............................................................51
World Water Congress................................................................................................................51
PRIMARY SURVEY- A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA.........................................54
Interview- Manager, Water Resources Department Jobra..........................................................57
Google Form- National Law University Odisha, Cuttack...........................................................63
Household Survey: Sector 7........................................................................................................72
ANNEXURES OF PRIMARY SURVEY................................................................80
Photographs Of Household Survey.............................................................................................83
Photographs Of Cuttack Municipal Corporation........................................................................87
Photographs With Manager Of Water Resource Department, Jobra..........................................90
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................91
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................92
Some Of The Books And Articles Which We Use For Secondary Data Are.............................92
Some Of The Links Which We Use For Secondary Data Are....................................................92
Some Of The Case Laws Referred..............................................................................................93
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is the outcome of the guidance and support of some people who if we don’t
acknowledge, we'll be committing a sin. .
Firstly, we would like to thank the almighty without whose blessings, this project could not have
been completed. We convey our heartfelt thanks to Professor of Economics, Ms. Madhubrata
Rayasingh, whose constant encouragement and being readily available to clear any doubts
regarding the subject matter, showed us the right direction to go ahead in.
We would like to thank the librarian and other staff for providing us the required sources and
materials without which this project would have been just a dream. We would like to
acknowledge our seniors and friends for their enthusiasm and belief in us which encouraged us
to strive forward. Lastly, we thank our parents without whose constant support and being by our
side by thick and thin, this project could not have been completed.
4
INTRODUCTION
India has the sum total of about 4% of the world’s freshwater resources, the world’s fresh water
resources also count the numerous glaciers and vast ice sheets present in the north and South
Pole, ranking it among the top ten water rich countries. However, according to the “Working
Group II report of the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”,
India is designated a ‘water stressed region’ with current utilizable freshwater standing at 1122
cubic meter (cu m) per year and per capita compared to international limiting standards of 1700
cu m.1
India has a number of fresh water reserves and resources, at the local rural level, India has a lot
of man-made ponds in order to store water during the rainy season, many states in India which
suffer from acute water shortage in the summer season, tend to stock up of water in these
massive man-made reservoirs, which collect rain water and supply to nearby villages in times of
need, for example, after suffering from consequent droughts, the village of Latur, in Maharashtra
faced severe water shortage, and it became a national issue, garnering media attention and a
concern for the growing water problem that India is currently facing. After this several tankers of
water and water trains were sent to the villagers to provide for their basic needs like drinking
water and cooking. In the near future, If the fresh water resources of the country are exhausted at
the current rate it is expected that the country’s high demand will designate India as WSR or
‘Water Scarce Region’ if the total usable freshwater including all groundwater reserves, rivers,
lakes and ponds falls below the international standard of 1000 cu m per year and per capita.
India is still a developing nation, and with the world’s second largest population, the majority of
which lives in villages, it is witnessing an era of rapid industrialization and urbanisation which is
rapidly using all of its water resources. A glaring example of this is the city of Chennai, which is
considered by many as the hub of industries and tech spaces in India. During the last 2-3
decades, urbanisation has taken place at such a rapid pace that the water resources have not got a
chance to be replenished, The large amounts of water used by in construction of high rises in the
city, with the advancement of roads flyovers and other infrastructure developments in the city
have led to disproportionate channeling of water from different water resources and have led to
the situation the city is in today, most of the city is currently surviving through water tanks eat in
by the central government and municipal water tanker supply brought In from other regions. A
case study conducted by the Anna University has found that Chennai has lost 33 per cent of its
1
An International Food Policy Research Institute book about the intersection of water policy, globalization and
food security: Ringler, C., Biswas, A., and Cline, S., eds. 2010. Global Change: Impacts on Water and Food
Security. Heidelberg: Springer.
5
wetlands in the last one decade. During the same period, Chennai lost 24 per cent agricultural
land, crucial for improving groundwater table.
The Centre for Climate Change that conducted the study blamed road construction - highways
and flyovers, airports and high-rises for depleting water resources in Chennai. These
development projects were undertaken on reclaimed water bodies are largely to blame.2
Figure- Rivers of India3
2
"Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability". UNEP. Falkenmark and
Lindh 1976 quoted in UNEP/WMO Retrieved 3 February 2009.
3
<http://www.sakshieducation.com/Tclass/Story.aspx?nid=88846&cid=8&sid=662&chid=1119&tid=0> as
ascessed on 25 August 2019.
6
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is dedicated to make a short review of past reviews on the major issues and
significant findings on the topic under investigation. At this point of time, this review gives a
brief of current status of knowledge in the arena of investigation to discern the concept
concerning the study of water crisis particularly the area of causes and impact of water crisis in
India and pertinent solution, contemporary cases of water crisis in cities like Mumbai, and
Chennai, flood situation in Bihar and Assam, changes in monsoon pattern in India, impact of
global warming on the rivers of India, the inter-state water disputes and relating legal provision,
national and international summits on water crisis and analytical case study of water crisis in the
state of Odisha. Moreover, appropriate research methodology, design of the research, and the
various kind of methods used by the researchers till now have also been taken into consideration.
Most importantly it tries to discover the research gap that exist in that particular topic and how
this research study is a shot to fill the research gap that exist in the subject.
Research is an everlasting process that only ceases when the researcher decides. Information on
any subject is increasing each and every day. Researchers, scholars and authors add information
after going through the entire process of research and analysing the findings obtained. So, a
researcher or a scholar has to keep himself updated on the field that he is willing to research
including the related topic and should be well aware about the information that is available in the
present time. A review of the literature that is existing on water crisis presents the issues that is
pertaining to the entire nation. A huge amount of literature has been written on the subject from
different perspectives including sociological, political, economic and legal point of view.
In this study we will restrict ourselves to economic, political and legal aspect of it. We will
attempt to provide a comprehensive analysis of the state of water resources and relating issues in
India based on present secondary data. Further, we’ll conduct a survey to study the situation of
water crisis in the state of Odisha in order to collect the first- hand primary data and present with
an analytical study of the same. After thorough review, we will try to explore the research gap
that exists and will try to fill the gap.
7
COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY DATA

Water in a quintessential resource without which life cannot sustain. It ascertains the multitude of
the ecosystem services to meet the basic necessities of survival and support the cultural and
economic activities. This creates a wide horizon of research opportunities for the researchers and
various relating aspect of it. Authors try to retrieve information in this regard from various key
water reports. ADB, UNESCO and UN water are some of the important organisations that deal
with the study of water and issues relating thereto at different level. The reports by these
organisations are collected and analysed by the researchers, who then presents with a comprised
study.
In 1983, a National Water Resource Council headed by the Prime minister with concerned Chief
Ministers and Union Ministers of all the states and union territories was set up. On the
recommendation of the council, a National Water Policy was adopted in the year 1987. Optimised
utilization of water resources, sustainable development in harmony with the ecosystem are the
major objectives of the policy. The utmost important priority of the National Water Policy was to
provide the citizens with safe potable water. Assuring the availability of irrigation facilities
followed by water for industrial use was on the second priority.
Somini Sengupta in an article in the The New York Times wrote that “although the India’s
economy is marching towards at an enviable clip, middle class people are reduced to foraging for
water. Their predicament testifies to the government’s astonishing inability to deliver the most
basic services to its citizens at a time when India asserts itself as a global power.”4
According to Central Water Commission report of 20075, with an estimated per capita availability
of 1,588 cu m/capita/year, India does not fall under the category of a water scarce country per se,
rather it can be termed as a country under ‘water stress’.6 However, it is believed that a gross
estimation doesn’t present the actual scenario.
Adam’s in his speculative study published in 2009 said that ‘in 2030 based scenario, India faces a
vast gap between current supply and projected demand, amounting to 754 BCM or 50 percent of
the demand. At present, several towns in India are in the midst of acute water stress, and even at
places where quantity of water is not a concern, quality is compromised. 7
4
Somini Sengupta,’ In teeming India, Water crisis means dry pipes and Foul sludge’ The New York Times (29th
September, 2006).
5
Central Water Commission, “Annual Water analysis report” (2007-08).
6
According to the UN, an area experiences water stress when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cu m per
person. When annual water supplies drop below 1,000 cu m per person, the population faces water scarcity, and
below 500 cu m 'absolute scarcity'.
7
Adam Whitlock, Beth Welliford “Water Crisis in the global world” <
https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog808> accessed on 11th August, 2019
8
K.R. Gupta in his book “Water crisis in India” stated that “One of the most prominent reasons of
water crisis in India is the ever-growing population, which stands at 16.5% of the total population
of the world. In comparison to its population, its water resource share is approximately 4 per cent
which is insignificant. Other reasons include increase in per capita water consumption has led to
increased gap in the demand and supply of water, its solution is seen in the increment in the
supply of water.”8
Jain in his 2014 study states that “today, water along with other resources has become a victim of
man’s indifference. The ramification of such an attitude towards the life-giving source of water,
for the present as well as the future, has resulted in water crisis all over the world, especially the
third world countries.” In the Indian context, the National water policy is the key initiative.9
In India, a study on climate changes have indicated that it is likely to adversely affect the water
balance in different parts of India due to changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration and
rising sea levels, leading to increased saline intrusion into coastal and island aquifers. The
National Water Mission (NWM), a part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC), identifies the threat to water resources in India due to climate change in terms of the
expected decline in the glaciers and snow-fields in the Himalayas; increased drought like
situations due to the overall decrease in the number of rainy days over a major part of the country;
increased flood events due to the overall increase in the rainy day intensity; effect on groundwater
quality in alluvial aquifers due to increased flood and drought events; impact on groundwater
recharge due to changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration; and increased saline intrusion of
coastal and island aquifers due to rising sea levels
In the report ‘Water in India: Situation and Progress’ by the UNICEF in 2018 states that India
has the capacity to store about 200 BCM of water, an irrigated area of about 90 million hectare
and an installed hydro power capacity of approximately 30,000 Megawatt. 10 Aradhana Hans and
Alka Bharat in their article ‘Water as a resource: Different perspective in literature’ enunciated
that “it is due to enormous increase in population, rapid developmental growth and uneven
distribution of water, water requirement far outweighs its supply. In recent times, India’s water
management and policy matters has gained immense importance. The report focuses on the need
of new indices for the measurement of available water resources. It comes up with the finding
8
K.R. Gupta, “Water crisis in India” (Atlantic, 2009)
9
Vishal Jain, “India’s water crisis, the challenges of governance”[2014] 3 (2) <
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/Indias water crisis, the challenges of
governance/S1366701700000180> accessed on 2nd August, 2019
10
UNICEF Report, ‘Water in India: Situation and Prospect’ <http://unicef.in/PressReleases/30/Water-in-India-
Situation-andProspects> accessed 25 August 2019.
9
that demand for water is exceeding its supply and thus, leading to conflict between different
sectors.”11
India has achieved the Millennium Development Goal on drinking water supply in rural areas. 12
Further, a Strategic Plan for the rural drinking water and sanitation sectors has been prepared for
2018-19 with interalia, the goal of providing 90 % of rural households with 55 lpcd within or near
their premises. For irrigation systems, the key gap is in choosing the variety of crop based on the
water availability. Cropping pattern changes that are independent of water availability is leading
to heavy reliance on groundwater and its indiscriminate exploitation. Water bodies and river
systems are not protected and are hence leading to decline in local water availability and pollution
due to industries in many locations. There are policies in place to protect water resources and the
ecosystems but there is lack of political will to implement the policies in letter and spirit. Apart
from the political will, the social and economic constraints are one of the major blocks in policy-
divergent actions.
11
Aradhana Hans and Dr. Alka Bharat, ‘Water as a Resource: Different Perspectives in Literature’ (2014) 3
International Journal of Engineering Research.
12
Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation Report, ‘UN Millennium development Goal’ <https://jalshakti-
ddws.gov.in/> accessed 25 August 2019.
10
RESEARCH GAP
On research, we found out that there is not sufficient data available on water resources in the state
of Odisha. The source of available water in the state is nowhere found in any present secondary
data. We found a huge research gap in the available data regarding the water resources in the state
particularly the city of Cuttack. So, in order to fill this research gap, we conducted a survey in
Cuttack and other nearby cities. During the survey, we interviewed the Manager of Water
Resource Department of Odisha to know about the story behind the how water is made available
to the residents of the city, and what all reasons would likely to lead to water shortage (crisis) in
the city.
We came to know about the various challenges concerning the environmental and public health
issues relating to water consumption in the city, the current condition of drainage system in the
city. Also, stats on available tap- water connection of households in various zones, existing
service levels for sewerage for coverage of sewerage network services, efficiency of collection of
sewerage and efficiency in treatment and comparison with the provided benchmark by the
Ministry of Urban Development was provided by the Manager of the Water Resource
Department. Moreover, other quantitative data on total water storage capacity, capacity of
elevated and ground water reservoirs, total per capita water supplied in the city, the total number
of zones in which the whole city is divide. Other information with regard to the capacity of
existing sources of water; the nature of these water sources whether it is surface water or
underground water, if there is any treatment provided to the water sources.
Further, we created a google form to know about how much aware the students of National Law
University Odisha are about the issues pertaining to water resources in the state. 70 students took
the poll in total. The question specifically dealt with issues like; the current scenario with regard
to water shortage in the state, the steps taken by the state government to resolve the issues, and
finally what all problems were faced by them, when the cyclone Fani hit the state in May, 2019. 13
The last part of the paper gives all the data pertaining to the survey in the form of annexures.
Also, the analysis of the same have been presented in the paper.
13
Macroeconomics Project on Pg 63-80.
11
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 To find how much arrival of monsoon affects the water crisis in India.
 To find the major water resources currently in India.
 To find why there is crisis of fresh water in India.
 To find why lack of freshwater have adversely affected India and its impact.
 To find what interstate water disputes is India facing currently and what are its legal
provisions.
 To find out which cities are adversely affected by the water crisis in India.
 To find what national and international summits have done so far to tackle the
problem of water crisis.
12
HYPOTHESIS
India tops the list of countries with the most number of people living with water scarcity during at
least one part of the year and is facing the worst water crisis in its history. In this project we are
assuming that world’s seventh largest country is facing freshwater crisis and we will try to find
out reasons and know about the measures possible to overcome challenges of water scarcity.
Similarly we are assuming that the state of Odisha is also facing water crisis in urban and rural
areas and Government is not taking sufficient measures top overcome the challenges. For primary
analysis on the water crisis in Odisha we took survey of 10 household, visited Cuttack Municipal
Corporation and conducted a survey through google form to analyse the same.
13
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The present study is basically doctrinal study; exploration attempted is expressive in nature. Both
essential and auxiliary information has been utilized through primary and secondary data and
look at as a part of comprehensive way with the end goal of bringing out the detailed facts out in
the open.
14
CHAPTER 1- INDIAN MONSOON
ARRIVAL OF MONSOON IN INDIA

The monsoon over India is basically formed due to the intense solar heating in the late spring due
to the movement of solar maximum towards the north from the equator. Temperature rises in the
Northern plains and also the Tibetan Plateau. The North Ocean sea temperatures are also
warmed. The Indian Ocean south on the other hand remains comparatively cooler than and this
leads to the formation of the pressure and the temperature gradients from south to north. The
pressure gradient further combines with the Earth’s rotation yields the familiar C-shape of the
summer monsoon winds in the lower troposphere as shown in the image below.
Figure- Description of pattern of monsoon in India.14
These winds carry evaporated moisture from the Indian Ocean and then converge over the
mountains on the west coast of India, before continuing to the Bay of Bengal. There they turn
toward the area of low pressure that is towards North and West, and these areas have more
rainfall. Thus, we may say that the difference between the winter and summer wind and
precipitation patters is what characterizes the monsoon over this region.
But over the span of time there has been observed a change in the monsoon pattern of India.
These changes have had a great impact over the water level of various cities and different region
of the country. Further, we will observe the various regions both natural and artificial for this
change in the otherwise consistent monsoon pattern. We will also be discussing various
aftermaths caused due to this change in pattern of rainfalls over different regions in the country.
14
<https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/monsoon-2019-in-india-live-news-and-
updates/> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
15
CHANGING PATTERN OF MONSOON IN INDIA
Figure- Change in pattern of monsoon in India.15
The above image shows the trend in the monsoon rainfall from the year 1961 to 2004. An
analysis of the data of the Indian Meteorological Department clearly points out to the change in
the rainfall trends of India, with greater incidents of excess rain in Uttarakhand in June. In 2011,
Uttarkashi received 146 per cent excess rainfall compared to the long period average (LPA). The
corresponding figures for 2010, 2009 and 2008 are 26 per cent, 31 per cent and 98 per cent.
Chamoli received 57 per cent excess rainfall in June in 2011, 18 per cent in 2010 and 59 per cent
in 2008. Rudraprayag also received a deficit rainfall in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2012, but the year
2011 witnessed excess rainfall of 70 per cent.
This data clearly depicts the change in the pattern of monsoon in the past years. This could be
understood to occur because of numerous reasons. Fewer monsoon pressure points over Bay of
Bengal are causing this shift in the duration and intensity of the rainy seasons. Indian monsoon
has now for third year in a row, has produced floods in the northwest and the northeast, while
southern parts of the country have suffered from a rainfall deficit. The most recent example of
this being the floods in Assam, parts of Maharashtra and northern Bihar. Rainfall extremes have
increased threefold over the last few years and has now extended all over central India- from
Gujarat to Odisha. One basic change that has been observed is that the moisture responsible for
the monsoon rainfalls is seeming to be derived from the northern Arabian Sea and not from the
depressions in the Bay of Bengal. This shift has led to a large scale variation in the amount and
pattern of rainfall over the Indian mainland. A similar change in rainfall pattern has been
15
<https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/southwestmonsoon.htm> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
16
observed all over the world. This is considered to be the effect in the variation of the El Nino
effect from stronger to weaker El Nino.
Figure- Delay in the monsoon in India for the third consecutive year16
During the monsoon reasons, there are random periods of time where there is hardly any rainfall.
They are basically called as “break periods”. All available data and the various models-blended-
with-data indicate that global warming is shortening the length of the “active periods” when it
does rain, while lengthening the break points. They also indicate that climate change is
decreasing the extremes in the active periods while increasing them in the break periods. Thus,
concluding we may say that everything about the monsoon is changing- rainfall intensity,
duration, frequency and spatial distribution.
EXPECTED FUTURE CHANGE PATTERN OF INIDAN MONSOON

Careful observation of the changing monsoon pattern generally suggest an increase in the
monsoon rainfall of India on a seasonal mean, area-average basis. The reason of this can be
twin drivers of an increasing land-sea thermal contrast, but more important and effecting
than this is the increasing warming over the Indian Ocean which allows more moisture to be
16
‘India’s Monsoon Is Delayed For Third Year in a Row — Climate Change Is Likely Cause | Robertscribbler’
<https://robertscribbler.com/2016/06/10/indias-monsoon-is-delayed-for-the-third-year-in-a-row-climate-change-
is-likely-cause/> accessed 26 August 2019.
17
carried to India. Different simulations suggest change in the amount of rainfall and also a
change in the rainfall pattern. Indian monsoon rainfall is expected to increase by 5-10%.
These small variations can influence things like agricultural production and the stock and
commodities market. Thus, these small variations can have significant impacts.
EFFECTS OF CHANGE IN MONSOON PATTERN OF INDIA

The variations in the time of arrival and departure of monsoon and the duration of its stay
has greatly affected India. Similar flood patterns have been observed in various parts of
India in the past three years. The most recent example of the disastrous effect of the
changing rain patterns over India are the floods in various parts of Maharashtra, Assam and
north Bihar.
Figure- Effect of floods in Maharashtra and Assam, caused due to exceptionally heavy rainfall 17
On one hand where the variations in the monsoon pattern has caused an increase in the
amount and duration of the rainfall in certain parts of the country. On the other hand, this
change in the monsoon has caused rainfall deficit in certain parts of the country. Decrease in
the amount of rainfall and shortening of the duration of the “active period” has led to
droughts and fall in the ground water level of many Indian cities. According to a report
released by the Central Water Commission, a decrease of 10% in the water levels in the
major water reservoirs of India was observed. The major reason, according to the experts is
the change in rainfall pattern over the Indian mainland. Monsoon rain in the country has
been below average in five of the last six years to 2018 and pre-monsoon season–from
March to May–has seen 11 per cent less rainfall in 2018 than the average, for the third
consecutive year, the study found.
17
‘Floods Displacing Millions Partly Due to Reckless Development, Inefficient Water Management |
SabrangIndia’ <https://www.sabrangindia.in/article/floods-displacing-millions-partly-due-reckless-development-
inefficient-water-management> accessed 26 August 2019.
18
Figure- Scarcity of water in rivers of India 18
Thus the changing pattern of the Indian monsoon has been affecting the country in both
ways be it excess rainfall in some parts of the country or drought and water level decrease in
various major reservoirs. This has also adversely affected the agricultural production in
various states of the country. The recent incidents of rainfall deficit and floods have
questioned the management schemes of the government and the government is yet to come
up with a good enough model of management for the handling the situation.
CHAPTER 2- WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA
18
<https://www.researchgate.net/figure/map-of-Indian-major-river-basins-in-context-of-water-
availability_fig2_324801994> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
19
RIVERS
The most prominent water resource in India is its rivers which originate from the glacier melts of
the Himalayas. These rivers with its many tributaries across the nation providing water to every
small city, villages and towns. These rivers are the lifelines of India.
In India, rivers have been the lifelines of growth, culture and civilization. India’s drainage
system consists of a total twelve major river systems with numerous of smaller rivers and
streams. Major river systems in north India are the perennial 19. The Ganges-Brahmaputra and the
Indus systems are the biggest as they provide almost half of the nation’s water supply carrying
upwards of 40% of the total utilizable surface water from the Himalayan watershed to the ocean.
Most of India’s major rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal, the numbers are more than 70% while
the Arabian Sea receives 20% if the total drainage from the Indus and other rivers. The
remaining 10% gets deposited into man-made lakes, natural basins and other natural lakes.
India’s major rivers originate out of the Himalayan glaciers, however the flow of water in these
rivers is strongly influenced by the onset, offset and performance of monsoon resulting in an
annual peak in most rivers. The rivers in Northern India with their roots in the Himalayas see an
additional peak during the spring snowmelt. Because of this addition to the already healthy rivers
most of Northern India suffers from catastrophic floods every single year, this year too more
than 42 people in the state of Assam have lost their lives and lakhs have been displaced resulting
huge loss of private and public property, all due to flooding. During the dry season, the flow
diminishes in most large rivers and even disappears entirely in smaller tributaries and streams.
Due to low rains, and dry rivers, drought is another common calamity across vast areas,
especially the Deccan trap. Hence, some parts of India suffer from flood and some parts from
drought.
Apart from the floods and droughts, most Indian rivers are cesspools of waste dumped from
various urban and industrial centers, runoffs, erosion and silting, over withdrawal of water, and
inconsiderate religious practices. All 44 rivers in Kerala face extinction through deforestation,
sand mining, riverbank brick making and pollution.20
Irrigation canals and industrial units extract huge volumes of water, and in return, discharge
agricultural runoff waste and poisonous effluents. Many rivers suffer from silt deposition in its
bed- reducing flow, and disturbing the ecosystem. As the demand for water has increased
massively, the various state governments in their respective states have built large dams and
barrages to provide water for irrigation and for generating power which divert and store water
and which reduce the flow of the water causing silt to settle in the river beds which is mixed with
19
<http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/sites/default/files/-fky.pdf> accessed 18 August 2019.
20
<http://climatechangecentre.net/pdf/WaterResources.pdf> accessed 18 August 2019.
20
the poisonous runoffs from industries to deposit at the bed of the rivers, in addition to this major
deforestation near the source of the rivers, is leading to soil erosion, because the rivers are at
their faster and strongest while originating since there are no subtractions from the river, which
is leading to devastating, fatal and increasingly frequent landslides, floods, rivers digressing from
their original path to cause havoc and destruction in settlements.
It has been estimated that about 135 thousand million metric tons of sediment load and 32
thousand million tons of soluble matter enter into ocean through various rivers. Water flowing
through Indian rivers is 5 % of the water flowing through all the river of the world but carry 35
% of sediments.
Figure- River Ganga21
LAKES
India has been practicing storing water in lakes since the ancient time, even in the Vijaynagar
Empire, archaeologist found remains of man-made lakes and reservoirs to store water, Apart
from the rivers, India houses some of the most biggest and beautiful lakes of the worlds, some of
which are artificial while others are natural. The lakes are present in the high hill tops of the
21
< https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ganga-has-higher-proportion-of-antibacterial-agents-
study/article26890979.ece> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
21
Himalayas under massive ice sheath, and in the virgin northeast, there are lakes in the semi-arid
deserts of Rajasthan, in big metros like Mumbai, Delhi, and also in small towns and villages
In India, lakes serve as source of water for agriculture, drinking and even industries. It acts as
sewage absorbers, flood cushions and recharge zones for groundwater aquifers. It is an
ecosystem where a variety of birds and animals breed; pisciculture, and aquaculture thrive
leading to a source of income for people 22.and are important mostly from ecological sustenance
and as a source of livelihood for many people.
However, these prized possessions are slowly vanishing or have already vanished due to careless
and irresponsible use of these lakes, private companies take advantage of these resources by
extracting large amounts of water out of these lakes for free and then selling it to public for a
much higher price. Industries use the water in urban areas to expand their real estate and
factories, whereas in villages the boundaries of the lakes are broken to convert it into cultivable
land, Dumping of effluents- both industrial and domestic have resulted in a total collapse of the
limited marine life that these lakes inhabit and the fertilisers used in agriculture have rendered
many lakes beyond use due to the high contents sulphur and carbon mono oxide. In cities,
mainly in northern India the lakes have been polluted to such an extent that they have been
poisoned beyond repair due to Idol immersion, washing of clothes and discharge of pollutants
from the city during rainy season.
In many natural lakes, uncontrolled and highly invasive tourism has resulted in disturbance to the
biodiversity of the flora and fauna examples of this are the high altitude Tsomoriri and Tshangu
glacial lakes. The coastal lakes have also been affected due to disproportionate salinity levels,
leading to collapse of the much needed mangroves which are considered as the first force of
protection against oncoming floods and destructions caused by cyclones, this is attributed to lack
of balance between fresh water from the inland catchment of the lake and entry of seawater into
the lake at the mouth of the estuary.
22
<http://base.d-p-h.info/fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7825.html> accessed 18 August 2019.
22
Figure- Dal Lake23
GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS
Ground Water is the backbone of India’s agriculture and drinking water security in urban and
rural areas. Nearly 90% of rural domestic water use is based on groundwater while 70% of water
used in agriculture is pumped from aquifers. Increasing evidence points to the fact that 50% of
urban water usage is groundwater. Groundwater is also important for the industrial sector in a
large measure and if left unregulated may lead to serious inter-sectoral conflicts. Hence growth
in both agriculture and industry is impingent on how India is able to manage her groundwater
resources, particularly the aquifers in different parts of the country.24
A serious groundwater crisis prevails currently in India due to excessive over-extraction and
groundwater contamination covering nearly 60 percent of all districts in India and posing a risk
to drinking water security of the population. In addition to over-extraction and biological and
chemical contamination, excess groundwater and water logging is also a serious problem in
many regions, impacting livelihood security of large sections of society. The acute problems
relating to groundwater warrant a change in both the perspective on our aquifers as well as the
approach in the use and management of groundwater resources. It is necessary to acknowledge
the hydrogeological characteristics of groundwater and its integral link to land, vegetation and
surface water resources and perceive it as a ‘resource’ rather than a ‘source’
Groundwater development has been rampant across the country. Close to 80% of irrigation and
90% of drinking needs of the country are satisfied by ground water, since groundwater is
available in out parts of India, it is also the most abused water resource of the country. People
23
<http://base.d-p-h.info/fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7825.html> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
24
‘Kinds of Water Resources | Livestrong.Com’ <https://www.livestrong.com/article/264733-kinds-of-water-
resources/> accessed 26 August 2019.
23
dig illegal bore wells with no restriction on their own properties and use groundwater with
rampant wastage, this has led to rapid depletion of the large amounts of water stored
underground. Due to new technologies, it has become easier to find water underground, there are
20 million users of ground water in the country. A series of incessant and mindless withdrawal
over the past decades has resulted in a water crisis all throughout the country,
Excessive drilling of bore-wells, along with the use of mechanized pumping has led many parts
of the country’s groundwater aquifers to go dry and have been declared as ‘dark zones’. The rate
of extraction is alarming – for instance.25 The groundwater table in these areas has fallen below
300 m now, and drought has now become a yearly phenomenon.
Wells are drying at a fast pace 26-Another major problem due to the abstraction of groundwater
from the fossil aquifers resulted in chemical reaction of water with the rocks ushering in another
contaminated water. The aquifer waters became contaminated with high levels of arsenic and
fluoride from the rocky layers. People across many states are affected by diseases due to intake
of fluoride or arsenic laden water. Again, excessive abstraction of groundwater especially in
coastal areas has resulted in seawater ingression making the available water useless. The coastal
metro of Chennai has been dependent on groundwater for decades, and now the table has
plummeted to more than 80 to 100 m with water turning saline in many areas of the city.
25
< http://jalshakti-dowr.gov.in/sites/files/IEC_StrategyPlan_0.pdf> as accessed on 20 August 2019.
26
<https://imprint-india.org/domains/water-resources-river-systems> as accessed on 20 August 2019.
24
Figure- Groundwater aquifers27
CHAPETR 3- FRESHWATER CRISES IN INDIA
MANAGING INDIA’S FRESH WATER

India has made improvements over the past decades to both the availability and quality of
municipal drinking water systems, its large population has stressed planned water resources and
rural areas are left out. Regardless of improvements to drinking water, many other water sources
are contaminated with both bio and chemical pollutants, and over 21% of the country's diseases
are water-related. Furthermore, only 33% of the country has access to traditional sanitation. One
concern is that India may lack overall long-term availability of replenishable water resources.
While India's aquifers are currently associated with replenishing sources, the country is also a
major grain producer with a great need for water to support the commodity. As with all countries
27
<https://www.edwardsaquifer.net/intro.html> as accessed on 25 August 2019.
25
with large agricultural output, excess water consumption for food production depletes the overall
water table.28
India is facing one of its major and most serious water crisis. After two consecutive years of
weak monsoons, 330 million people— a quarter of the country’s population — area affected by a
severe drought. With nearly 50 per cent of India grappling with drought-like conditions, the
situation has been particularly grim this year in western and southern and western states that
received below average rainfall. According to the Composite Water Management Index
(CWMI) report released by the Niti Aayog in 2018, 21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai,
Hyderabad and others) are racing to reach zero groundwater levels by 2020, affecting access for
100 million people.29
However, 12 per cent of India’s population is already residing the 'Day zero' situation, way to
excessive groundwater pumping, an inefficient and wasteful water control gadget and years of
poor rains. The CWMI document additionally states that via 2030, the country's water demand is
projected to be twice the available deliver, implying intense water shortage for hundreds of
hundreds of thousands of humans and an eventual six in line with cent loss inside the USA’s
GDP. The Union government recently fashioned a brand new Jal Shakti (water) ministry, which
targets at tackling water issues with a holistic and included perspective at the subject. The
ministry has introduced an ambitious plan to offer piped water connections to every household in
India via 2024.
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that an individual requires around 25 litres of
water daily for meeting his/her basic hygiene and food needs. The rest is used for non-potable
purposes like mopping and cleaning. This indicates that for most of the non-potable uses, a
quality lower than drinking water is required. Thus, for economic efficiency and environmental
sustainability, water must be treated and supplied according to usage. To top this, are issues of
leakage losses, water pricing and metering of water. Lack of proper maintenance of existing
infrastructure causes further losses of almost 40 percent of piped water in urban areas.30
About half of India is facing drinking water crisis with Chennai and Bengaluru bearing the brunt
as monsoon got delayed and arrived without a brimming bucket. A Niti Aayog report released
last year predicts Day Zero for 21 Indian cities by next year. Day Zero refers to the day when a
place is likely to have no drinking water of its own. According to the Niti Aayog's Composite
Water Management Index (CWMI), Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi and Hyderabad are among the
28
<https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-india> as accessed on 20 August 2019.
29
<https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/india-s-water-crisis-the-clock-is-ticking-65217 > as accessed
on 20 August 2019.
30
Ibid.
26
most susceptible. The government has created a new Jal Shakti ministry to deal with drinking
water crisis.
While India has well enough freshwater, its spatial and temporal distribution may be much
skewed, and utilization inefficient and wasteful. The present day drought in numerous parts of
the country increases questions regarding how the management of the country’s water sources
can be improved by way of decreasing its dependence on the monsoon.
REASONS BEHIND WATER CRISES

AGRICULTURE
 Excessive use of groundwater for agriculture has additionally induced a strain within the
resource. Example:- ineffective strategies used for irrigation aligned with mismanagement
 Between eighty five and ninety per cent of all water fed on in India is utilized by the rural quarter
 Subsidized electricity and water pumps because farmers form a large portion of voting
population.
 Using sponsored energy, farmers pump groundwater at will, drawing up more annually than
China and America mixed.
 Maharashtra is a great instance of this as its sugar belt takes up simplest four in keeping with
cent of farmland but consumes overs 70 consistent with cent of the country’s irrigation water.
POLLUTION
Multiplied quantity of stable wastes in water systems which include lakes, canals and rivers also
heavily pollute the water. As much as 80 percent cent of all ground water in India is polluted.
Terrible sewage treatment facilities, little public sanitation, poverty, commercial runoff and an
absence of presidency regulation. Demand for freshwater is increasing with the growing
population. Lack of strict nation regulation on floor water improvement has triggered a strain on
the quantity of freshwater available. Indifference from bureaucratic powers and consistent
overlook has induced the hassle to heighten. Deforestation, land conversion and degradation, as
well as urban encroachment due to unlawful creation, pose important threats to the water bearing
capability.
27
Figure- Fresh water crisis in Odisha31
AFFECTS AND REMEDIES

AFFECTS
 Falling water levels will adversely have an effect on the agricultural enterprise, which is almost
completely cereal based and therefore extraordinarily water extensive.
 A struggling agricultural industry way the chance of unemployment for about 50 per cent of
India’s staff, as well as implications for food safety and human protection.
 Incidents of fever, contamination, dehydration, vomiting and kidney illnesses.
REMEDIES
 The idea of linking rivers isn't unusual, China delivered a comparable assignment over a decade
ago.
 Interlinking of rivers will assist water scarce areas to have water for the duration of the 12
months.
31
<https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/israel-offers-to-help-clean-ganga/article7440855.ece> as ascessed on
25 August 2019.
28
 Imposing Israel’s water control structures and technology.
 Long-time investment in academic packages, social awareness campaigns, improved

infrastructure and facilities, and water diplomacy.
 Rainwater harvesting can offer the country with reliable water materials in the course of the year.
 Building check dams on riverbeds will enhance groundwater tiers.
 Sustainable agricultural practices: Farmers need to be trained and encouraged to exchange to drip
irrigation.
 The World Bank’s Water Scarce towns Initiative seeks to promote an integrated method. It goals
at coping with water resources and provider transport in water-scarce cities as the premise for
constructing climate change resilience.
 Indigenous water harvesting structures want to be revived and guarded at the nearby level.
 The implementation of the United Countries Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

has a giant role within the sustainable availability of clean and secure water.
RELATED INFORMATION AND DATA

 18% of the world’s population which resides in India only has access to 4% of usable water
sources.
 India is suffering from ‘the worst water crisis’ in its history with about 60 crore people facing
high to extreme water stress and about two lakh people dying every year due to inadequate
access to safe water, NITI Aayog said.
 Cape Town in South Africa was facing the prospect of all its taps running dry by June-July this
year. Bengaluru is ranked second in the list of 11 global cities which might face the threat of
running out of drinking water.
 According to a forecast by the Asian Development Bank, India will have a water deficit of 50%
by 2030.
INSTITUTIONS AND MODALITIES IN ITS WORKING

 International Conference on Sustainable Water Management under the aegis of National
Hydrology Project, Union Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation is being organised by Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) in Mohali. It aims
to foster the participation of and dialogue between various stakeholders, including governments,
the scientific and academic communities, so as to promote sustainable policies for water
management.
29
 Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) by the NITI Aayog raises three main issues
related to data: limited coverage, unreliable data and limited coordination and sharing.
 UNESCO’s World Water Development Report states that India is the largest extractor of
groundwater in the world.
 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-
IITR) has developed a Drinking Water Disinfection System with trade name Oneer TM. It is
useful for continuous treatment of water and eliminates all disease causing pathogens such as
virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and cyst.
NATIONAL WATER COMMISSION

In one of the maximum sizeable reforms within the water zone in a long term, the authorities is
in the system of ordering a whole restructuring of the corporations liable for regulating using
water sources, with the goal of bringing in greater performance, better planning and extended
emphasis on conservation of water. Central Water commission (CWC): since 1945 the CWC has
been tasked with handling floor water and its associated structures inclusive of dams and
barrages, oversees irrigation projects, flood control and consuming water deliver.
A committee beneath Mihir Shah, a former member of the then making plans commission of
India, set up by the Ministry of Water resources had encouraged that a national Water
commission (NWC) be installation, which will subsume the central Water commission the
important ground Water Board. The key capabilities of the NWC will consist of:
 Incentivise nation governments to put in force irrigation tasks in reform mode,
 Lead the countrywide aquifer mapping and floor water management program,
 Develop a location-precise program for rejuvenation of rivers, etc.
MELTING OF GLACIER IN INDIA

Glaciers are considered to act as the sensors of climate change. Out of the 3% freshwater
available on earth, 67% is stored in glaciers and ice caps. Himalayan glaciers alone supply an
estimated 30-40% of the water to the Ganges which is particularly critical in the dry season prior
to the Monsoon rains in India.
Glaciers are the result of continuous snow falls over large period of time that compresses into
large, thickened ice masses. Put simply, a glacier is a mass of ice on land and forms when snow
remains in one location for a long time so that it transforms into ice.
Glaciers constitute the frozen part of the earth i.e. cryosphere and are very important to study the
effects of climate change. Glaciological studies give valuable insights on the earth’s changing
climatic patterns. Earth’s climate is dramatic and keeps on changing continuously. Earth’s
30
cryosphere has a lot of information stored in various layers of ice. Ice in the glaciers contains
detailed records of past climate in the form of air bubbles that capture samples of the earth’s
ancient atmosphere.32
Globally, glaciers occupied about 10% of the world’s total land area. 96% of all glacial ice on
this planet is in Antarctica and Greenland which is around 84% and 12% respectively. As per the
latest data provided by the Geological Survey of India, Ministry of Mines, Government of India,
Indian Himalaya contains 9,575 glaciers distributed in the States of Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Gangotri glacier is alone more
than 30 km long and covers an area of about 148 sq km.33
The scientists around the world have expressed concern on the effects of climate change on
glaciers. Many scientific studies have proven that the warming earth’s temperature is the main
culprit in the unusual melting of Glaciers. As the earth’s climate is very dynamic in nature, a
small variation in the climatic parameters can cause major variations over a period of time.
Climate is the long-term statistical expression of short-term weather. We can call climate as an
‘expected weather’ and when changes in the expected weather occur, it results in climate change.
Changes in climate can increase the temperature and dramatically alter the planet’s snow and
ultimately affects the cryosphere.34
The scientists around the world have expressed concern on the effects of climate change on
glaciers. Many scientific studies have proven that the warming earth’s temperature is the main
culprit in the unusual melting of Glaciers. As the earth’s climate is very dynamic in nature, a
small variation in the climatic parameters can cause major variations over a period of time.
Climate is the long-term statistical expression of short-term weather. We can call climate as an
‘expected weather’ and when changes in the expected weather occur, it results in climate change.
Changes in climate can increase the temperature and dramatically alter the planet’s snow and
ultimately affects the cryosphere.
ARE INDIAN GLACIERS REALLY MELTING?
In the last century, human migration in South Asia, the world’s most populous and most densely
populated region, was largely caused by geopolitics, wars, socioeconomic constraints and
environmental disasters. By the end of this century, however, climate change will have become
32
Kulkarni, A.V. 1992. Mass Balance of Himalayan Glaciers Using AAR and ELA Methods. Journal of
Glaciology 38(128): 101-104.
33
Bajracharya, S.R., Mool, P.K. and Shrestha, B.R. 2007. Impact of Climate Change on Himalayan Glaciers and
Glacial Lak Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C. and Lettenmaier, D.P. 2005. Potential Impacts of a Warming Climate on Water
Availability in Snow Dominated Regions. Nature 438(7066): 303-309.
es. International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu.
34
Kulkarni, A.V., Rathore, B.P., Mahajan, S. and Mathur, P. 2005. Alarming Retreat of Parbati Glacier, Beas Basin,
Himachal Pradesh. Current Science 88(11): 1844-1850.
31
the single biggest driver behind an unprecedented scale of migration and displacement across the
Indian subcontinent, potentially with destabilizing effects. Already vulnerable to natural
disasters, South Asia could be left grappling with millions of “climate refugees,” regional
conflicts, and militarized contests over precious resources like food and water.
Figure- Indian glaciers in Hindu Kush Region35
Global warming is increasingly disrupting weather patterns and precipitation across the planet. In
the HKH region, however, this will initially result in greater river flows by 2050-60 due to
rapidly melting glaciers. Increase in water volumes will mean a higher risk of frequent floods,
landslides, bursting of dams, soil erosion and crop failure. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOFs) in particular pose a serious threat to mountainous communities in Pakistan, Nepal,
Bhutan, China and India. As water levels begin to decline subsequently, that pattern is predicted
to reverse, bringing on harsh droughts, especially for downstream populations. Reduced inflows
will also result in water stress and lower energy output from hydropower dams, with serious
consequences for overall food and energy production in the region.36
Coastal economies, on the other hand, are predicted to face a greater existential threat amid
shrinking HKH ice fields. The impact of rising sea level through salinity intrusion, fresh water
contamination and repeated inundation is already evident in island nations and countries with
large coastlines around the world.
But how this gradual and irreversible thaw in HKH glaciers will manifest in socioeconomic
disruption and categorical human displacement should be a cause for grave concern for the
35
<https://greencleanguide.com/glaciers-in-india-are-himalayan-glaciers-really-melting/> as ascessed on 25
August 2019.
36
Mehta, M., Dobhal, D.P. and Bisht, M.P.S. 2011. Change of Tipra Glacier in the Garhwal Himalaya, India,
between 1962 and 2008. Progress in Physical Geography: 1-18. DOI: 10.1177/0309133311411760.
32
governments in the region. Due to its geography, high levels of poverty and dense population
centers, South Asia is recognized as one of three developing regions most vulnerable to the
impact of global warming. In a report in March 2018, the World Bank said unmitigated climate
change is likely to displace over 140 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin
America by 2050 creating “a looming human crisis and threatening the development process.”
By 2100, however, the number of climate refugees (a term yet to be legally defined) displaced as
a consequence of environmental degradation in the HKH countries alone could be
catastrophically high.
Pakistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh consistently rank among the 10 worst affected countries on
the Global Climate Risk Index due to recurrent natural disasters like cyclones, flash floods,
landslides, droughts and sea-water intrusion. Displacement and internal migration in these
countries have been strongly linked to environmental degradation. Poor resource management,
inadequate government planning and unstable political climate in Myanmar and Pakistan have
also exacerbated the impact of climate change on their most vulnerable communities. Heat stress
and drought are already negatively impacting wheat yields in Pakistan’s agrarian economy where
more than 50 percent of the rural population are landless labourers. Climate-induced migration in
the country in the foreseeable future is expected to grow manifold, according to a
recent research. The above mentioned study predicts environmental degradation and loss of rural
livelihoods would accelerate urban migration to 50 percent by 2030-35 and to 70 percent by
2100.37
Yet to fully recover from political instability and humanitarian crises, Myanmar ranks only
second out of 187 countries on the Climate Risk Index due to its exposure to extreme weather
events like tropical storms. In 2008, Cyclone Nargis killed 140,000 and displaced 800,000
people in the country. In 2015, massive floods and related landslides affected 9 million people,
aggravating Myanmar’s never-ending fight against climate change while pushing its
developmental goals further away. Coastal erosion, frequent inundation and large-scale
displacement in the future are likely to worsen conflict and political environment in the country,
making unmitigated climate distress the greatest threat to Myanmar’s peace and stability in the
decades ahead.
Bangladesh, on the other hand, is not only one of the poorest countries in the world, it also has
the largest climate migrant population anywhere on the planet. Sitting astride the world’s largest
37
Mishra, N.B. 2007. Modeling Glacier Mass Balance by Comparing in Situ Measurements with Remote Sensing
Derived Parameters: A Study of Chhota Shigri Glacier, Western Himalaya, India. Masters Dissertation, Asian
Institute of Technology, Thailand.
33
delta system, the riverine country is barely above the sea level and frequently suffers salinity
intrusion, fresh water contamination, crop failures and repeated inundation, destroying rural
livelihoods. On average this causes the displacement of over 700,000 rural Bangladeshis every
year. By 2050, scientists have warned, rising sea levels can swallow almost 20 percent of the
country’s landmass leaving up to 20 million climate refugees in its wake.
In China, extreme weather events like heatwaves and droughts are already being recognized as
major drivers behind growing urban migration. According to the Internal Displacement
Monitoring Center, natural disasters displaced nearly 6 million people in China during 2012.
The deteriorating environmental conditions, water stress and land erosion are increasingly
affecting rural livelihoods, forcing people to seek economic opportunities in coastal cities such
as Shanghai. Unfortunately, that particular major urban center is already creaking under pressure
from incessant exposure to typhoons and flooding, further compounding the continuous cycles of
internal displacement and worsening human conditions particularly for the new arrivals from the
countryside. In the country’s northwest, climate-distressed provinces like Ningxia are at the heart
of the world’s largest environmental migration project. Under the program over 1.14 million
people from the drought-hit province have been relocated and resettled over the years,
underlining the magnitude of challenge China faces in rehabilitating a growing number of what it
calls “ecological migrants” in the future amid changing global climate.
CHAPTER 4- IMPACT OF WATER CRISIS IN INDIA
With a diverse population that is three times the size of the United States but one-third the
physical size, India has the second largest population in the world. According to the World Bank,
India has taken significant steps to reduce poverty but the number of people who live in poverty
is still highly disproportionate to the number of people who are middle-income, with a combined
rate of over 52% of both rural and urban poor.
34
Although India has made improvements over the past decades to both the availability and quality
of municipal drinking water systems, its large population has stressed planned water resources
and rural areas are left out. In addition, rapid growth in India's urban areas has stretched
government solutions, which have been compromised by over-privatization.
Regardless of improvements to drinking water, many other water sources are contaminated with
both bio and chemical pollutants, and over 21% of the country's diseases are water-related.
Furthermore, only 33% of the country has access to traditional sanitation. India's population is
outgrowing its water supply. India is set to overtake China as the world's most populous country
in less than a decade -- and by 2050 it will have added 416 million urban residents, according to
the UN. Years of rapid urbanization with little infrastructure planning means most cities are ill
equipped to handle the additional population stress. Demand for water will reach twice the
available supply by 2030, the UN report said -- placing hundreds of millions of lives in danger.38
WATER DEMAND AND UTILISATION
India has traditionally been an agrarian economy, and about two-third of its population have
been dependent on agriculture. Hence, development of irrigation to increase agricultural
production has been assigned a very high priority in the Five Year Plans, and multipurpose river
valleys projects like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira
Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been taken up. In fact, India’s water demand at present is
dominated by irrigational needs.39
Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation as it accounts for 89
per cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation. While the share of
industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the
ground-water, the share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as
compared to groundwater. The share of agricultural sector in total water utilisation is much
higher than other sectors. However, in future, with development, the shares of industrial and
domestic sectors in the country are likely to increase.
In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net sown area is
under irrigation. Wheat and rice are grown mainly with the help of irrigation in these states. Of
the total net irrigated area 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana are irrigated
through wells and tube wells. This shows that these states utilize large proportion of their ground
water potential which has resulted in ground water depletion in these states. The over-use of
ground water resources has led to decline in ground water table in these states. In fact, over
withdrawals in some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased fluoride concentration
38
<https://niti.gov.in/content/composite-water-management-index-june-2018-0> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
39
<https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/doomed-displacement> as ascessed on 25 August 2019.
35
in ground-water, and this practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West
Bengal and Bihar.
The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population. The
available water resources are also getting polluted with industrial, agricultural and domestic
effluents, and this, in turn, is further limiting the availability of usable water resources. Available
water resources are degrading rapidly. The major rivers of the country generally retain better
water quality in less densely populated upper stretches in hilly areas. In plains, river water is
used intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial purposes. The drains carrying
agricultural (fertilisers and insecticides), domestic (solid and liquid wastes), and industrial
effluents join the rivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers, especially remains very high
during the summer season when flow of water is low. The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has been monitoring water quality
of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.40
Data obtained from these stations show that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be
the main source of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna River is the most polluted river in the
country between Delhi and Etawah. Other severely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at
Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the
Vaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride
and nitrates at different parts of the country.41
The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and
Environment Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively. The result is that in
1997, 251 polluting industries were located. The water from these polluting industries is not
treated for toxins and is released out in the wild as is, after the toxic water is released it will
follow two either paths - Either it will sit in a toxic waste dump near a factory and slowly and
steadily the toxins will seep into the ground contaminating all ground water in the local area or
the second path, that the water either ends up in a “nala” or a canal which will lead it directly
into the river, the water from the river is used up by settlements which are on river banks and is
drank by humans and animals alike. Either way it gets into the system of living beings and cases
detrimental health effects, because of toxins present in the water which is released by these huge
industries many endangered marine populations are going extinct rapidly. The Indo-Gangetic
Dolphin is one such example, Wide spread dead fishes are washing on the shores of major Indian
coastal cities because of contaminated water which is released in the ocean. An Independent
40
<https://thewaterproject.org/watercrisis/water-in-crisis-india.pdf> as accessed on 21 August 2019.
41
Allee, David J. “Discussion: Water Resource Economics.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 50,
no. 5, 1968, pp. 1666–1670, www.jstor.org/stable/1237370.
36
research done by a survey agency said that close 44% of all fishes caught in the pacific and
Indian Ocean are contaminated with mercury and is unhealthy for human consumption, this
constant cycle of toxin dumping and then ingesting it in some other forms has really posed a
great health risk among those who survive on piped drinking water and marine food.42
CHAPTER 5- INTERSTATE WATER DISPUTES IN INDIA AND

CORRSPONDING LEGAL PROVISIONS
Water Dispute is a term expounding a conflict between countries, states, or groups over access to
water resources. According to the United Nations, water disputes results from opposing interest
of water users, public or private. 43 These disputes arise both over freshwater and saltwater, and
both between and within nations. However, most of the conflicts occur over freshwater, because
the need for these resources are indispensable, yet they are scarce in number. As freshwater is an
unevenly distributed natural resource, it’s availability often affects the living and economic
conditions of a country or a region.
42
<https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/india-water-crisis-permanent-problem-which-needs-permanent-
solutions-52896/> as accessed on 22 August 2019.
43
United Nations potential conflicts to cooperation potential<http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-
sciences/environment/water/wwap/> accessed on 1st August, 2019.
37
In India, most of the regions are relatively arid. With rise in pollution level and losses reducing
the available water, mechanisms for allocating scarce water have become the need of the hour
for the welfare of the citizens of the country. Moreover, climate changes are most likely to
worsen the situation as monsoon patterns changes, the increase in demand for water with
ascending temperature and, glaciers melt and sea level rise. There are several ways in which
water contributes for the welfare of the people; health (e.g. availability of potable water),
agriculture (e.g. irrigation), and industrial use (e.g. hydroelectric power generation).
In the post-independence era, the demand for water had been increasing at an accelerated pace
due to swift growth in the population, agricultural advancement, industrialisation, urbanisation,
etc. All this development has led to several inter-state water disputes of the rivers. Numerous
cases of water disputes have arisen since the independence. For instance, the dispute on the
Yamuna River among the states of Delhi, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Since then, various such
cases have come up. Thus, forming equitable and efficient mechanisms for allocating the river
water has become an integral legal and constitutional issue in this federal democracy.
ECONOMIES OF WATER
It has been well recognized that water has several features which make potential market failures.
These features may include non-excludability, externalities, non-rivalry, merit good features, and
significant transactional costs.
The existence of these features connotes that though increased dependence on market forces may
contribute essentially towards resolving water disputes, there is no escape from the need for the
parties to agree on a set of certain rules, an enforcement procedure, and an advance distribution
of property rights. Property rights have been claimed on the foundation of historical use, as well
as on the basis of the “Harmon Doctrine”, that what falls on our roof is ours to use, without
regard to any potential harm to downstream parties. Historical use works against trading water
rights, while the Harmon doctrine disregards all the externalities as well as all the past
investment related with the use of water.
The Coasian perspective (Coase, 1960) is the initial point for thinking about bargaining over
water. The ideal bargaining solutions provided in this perspective is a benchmark against which
one can differentiate reality. The crux of the Coasian perspective is that one must not presume
that central intervention is worthwhile or necessary in the inter-state water disputes. However,
there are times when multilateral or bilateral bargaining amongst the bothered states may not be
equitable or efficient on its own. One of the examples is that the centre can affect the starting
position in the bargaining procedure between states. The other example is that, in times when
38
there is inadequate information, even imperfect intervention by the centre can be better in
assumed terms than bilateral or multilateral bargaining. A third situation would be when there
are multiple issues to be bargained over, that may include spill overs to non- riparian states: the
Punjab- Haryana dispute mentioned earlier is an example of such scenarios.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
The residuary power to legislate in the Indian Constitution is with the Centre (Article 248), and
thus any matter not granted explicitly to the State legislatures, that is, a non-enumerated head of
legislation would by default inhere in the Parliament. Interestingly, there is no formal provision
in the Constitution that ‘vests' legislative power exclusively with either the Parliament or State
Assemblies. Rather, the power to legislate is scattered in several places and across several
institutions44 in the constitutional text.
Matters relating to rights over water are to be found in several laws relatable to several heads of
legislation.45 The legislative lists, while expressly dealing with water resources, have placed
water in both Central and State lists. In schedule 7, under list I that is union list, entry 56 and list
II, that is state list entry 17 elucidate the dealing of water resources by centre and states.
As the courts interpret the Lex loci and the Constitution, they naturally ascertain the jurisdiction
of interstate water disputes tribunals, the Article 262 of the constitution and also the Inter-States
Water Disputes Act, 1956 (since amended in 2017). In State of Karnataka v. State of Tamil
Nadu46 the supreme court ruled stating that tribunals set up for interstate water disputes have the
inherent authority to award interim reliefs. The court while striking down an ordinance passed by
the Karnataka government with the aim to subdue the order reiterated that the judgement was
final and binding and any law made in contravention with it will encroach upon the court’s
power of judicial review.47
As right to water is recognized as a fundamental right, it makes courts the appropriate forum for
the enforcement of this intrinsic right.48 The National Commission to Review the Working of the
Constitution, 2002 observed an important variation in its report where it stated that-
Further in the implementation of the decision of the tribunal the oustees or persons on behalf of
the oustees resort to enforcing their fundamental rights under article 21 by a remedy under article
44
INDIA CONST. arts. 245-55.
45
Thus, agriculture dealt by Entry 14 of List II, necessarily deals with water, similarly land improvement dealt by
Entry 18 of List II, would also have to be read with Entry 17, which deals specifically with water, and would in
turn be subject to Entry 56 List I. See Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, In re: Later in this paper.
46
State of Karnataka and Ors v. State of Tamil Nadu and Ors, 1991 Supp (1) SCC 240.
47
In the matter of: Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, 1993 Supp (1) SCC 96 (II).
48
A.P. Pollution Control Board II v. M.V. Nayadu, (2001) 2 SCC 62; Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India,
(2000) 10 SCC 664.
39
32, consequent on the emergence of their lands due to the construction of reservoirs. This leads
to adjudication by two forums one as to the use and distribution of water and the other relating to
the enforcement of fundamental rights in the process of implementation of the decision of the
Tribunal.49
50
This variation was also held by the court through its ruling in ‘Gandhi Sahitya Sangh’ where
residents of Karnataka challenged the setting up of Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal and the
(now amended) Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956. The court held that the water disputes
between two States can only be brought by a State, and therefore, the petitioner has no locus
standi to challenge the validity of the Act or the Tribunal and also for adjudication of the
Tribunal.
Such a statement about the immunity from judicial review to the parent Act that created a State is
indicative of the court’s developing views on the matter, given the fact that in an earlier case
involving the reorganisation of Punjab and Haryana, where river water was divided between the
two States based on the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966, Section 78, inter alia, the court held
that we leave open the question as to whether it is open to the State of Punjab to question the
vires of the Statute by which it was created.51
The imbalances and availability of limited judicial remedies even to states is an also a major
issue. Using the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 the parliament created a non-riparian state
Haryana from an existing hitherto riparian state Punjab. As a result, Haryana, being a non-
riparian State was no more eligible to raise a dispute concerning inter-State river water over
Sutlej-Yamuna Link Canal within the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 with Punjab. Only
after an amendment made in 1986 to the 1956 Act, the dispute was finally brought within
ambit.52
Over the years the courts have clarified that every inter-State river issue cannot be
‘constitutionalised’ as a water dispute. Thus, in the Mulla Periyar case, the court was categorical
that the dispute relating to the dam safety concerning water level under the Act was not a ‘water
dispute’ and thus the court had jurisdiction in the matter. This was a case filed by an organisation
challenging the safety of the dam under part III of the Constitution i.e. Article 32.53
49
The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution, 2002, para 8.11.3, Chapter 8, Volume I, of
the Report.
50
Gandhi Sahitya Sangh v. Union of India, (2003) 9 SCC 356.
51
State of Punjab v. State of Haryana, (2004) 12 SCC 673.
52
See the inserted Section 14 of the amended Act in 1986.
53
Further report of the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal under section 5(3) of the Inter-state water disputes act,
1956, Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal, Volume-1, Govt. of India, Ministry of Energy and Irrigation, Dept. of
Irrigation, 1980.
40
The petition filed by Tamil Nadu Cauvery Neerppasana Vilaiporulgal Vivasayigal Nala Urimai
Padhugappu Sangam54 under Article 32 lead the Apex Court to deliver an important judgment in
1990 directing the Central Government to set up a competent tribunal and refer the Cauvery
River waters dispute over to it.55
Over the years, in judicial review matters, the powers of the court have become much more
pronounced. As the 1990 case shows, that the court claimed jurisdiction, interpreted the law, and
gave directions to the government to constitute the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. Finally,
given that the Supreme Courts judicial review power is a basic tenet of the Indian Constitution, it
56
can never be ousted, of course, regardless of the Supreme Courts exclusion under Article 262,
Given the complex nature of the issues involved, the review power of the court may be adequate
in matters relating to river water disputes instead of further conferring it with an appeal power as
some commentators suggest.57 But as pointed out above the review power of the court itself
suffers from certain vices and thus it becomes pertinent to address these concerns.
MAHANADI WATER DISPUTE: A CASE STUDY

The dispute between the states of Odisha and Chhattisgarh over the river Mahanadi began when
Odisha alleged that a number of barrages over the river and have been created “illegally” by the
riparian state of Chhattisgarh that has affected the inflow of water in the Hirakud reservoir, in the
non-monsoon season. Odisha has also contended that the construction is killing the river. The
Hirakud dam and the reservoir serves as the heart of the dispute between the states. Its location
makes it the major contention of dispute. In a tripartite meeting between the Union government
and both the sparring states, it was stated that almost 90.6 percent of the reservoir’s catchment
area lies in Chhattisgarh and only the rest 9.4 percent rests in Odisha. The acclaimed engineer Sir
Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya had foreseen the problem, and emphasised the possible issue with
the project as the major portion of the catchment area lies outside the province, and thus is
beyond the power of the Odisha government’s jurisdiction.
54
Neerppasana Vilaiporulgal Vivasayigal Nala Urimai Padhugappu Sangam v. Union of India, (1990) 3 SCC 440.
55
The 2002 Amendment to the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 now makes such a reference mandatory
within one year of such a request being made by a State Government and where the Central Government is of the
opinion that such a dispute cannot be settled through negotiation.
56
L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India, (1997) 3 SCC 261.
57
R. RAMASWAMY IYER, WATER AND THE LAWS IN INDIA (Sage Publications 2009).
41
INEXPLICABLE ‘UTILIZATION’ PROJECTION
Source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/-maha-dispute-over-the-mahanadi-60542
In the tripartite agreement held in September, 2016, Odisha submitted the projected utilization of
water from the Hirakud reservoir. The about figure gives the graphical representation of the
same. The aggregate projected utilization is 83 percent viz. more than the total demand of the
project as determined in the report.
Source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/-maha-dispute-over-the-mahanadi-60542
The projected utilization plan by Chhattisgarh have been equally bizarre. The above figure
depicts the data provided by the state. From the figures it is observed that the state has planned
42
on utilising the amount of water, which it isn.t likely to get in a normal year i.e. a lot more than
the average normal potential of Mahanadi river in the whole state.
These "plans" indicate how irrational and irresponsible both Odisha and Chhattisgarh
governments have been in planning their "utilisation".
CURRENT POSITION
The major issue of contention arose when Odisha out of the blue came up with the declaration of
constructing at least seven barrages across the Mahanadi, downstream the Hirakud reservoir.
This declaration has evoked varied responses ranging from exuberant support to complete
rejection. The major pertinent question being if, the construction of barrages across Mahanadi in
Chhattisgarh is ‘illegal’ than how can the same act be ‘legal’ in India.
On 21st March, 2018 the Ministry of water resources, River development issued a notification
constituting the Mahanadi water dispute tribunal under section-4 of the Inter-State River Water
Disputes Act.58 Justice A.M. Khanwilkar, Justice Ravi Ranjan and Justice Indermeet Kaur
Koccher were nominated by the Chief Justice of India as the member of the tribunal. The
Tribunal has been constituted following orders of the Supreme Court dated 23 rd January, 2018 in
a suit filed by the Government of Odisha. The Government of Odisha had sought to refer the
water dispute regarding the inter-state river Mahanadi and its river valley to a Tribunal for
adjudication under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956.
On 9th February 2019, the tribunal directed both the concerned states to resolve the issue
amicably. An interim arrangement would be made, once a solution is reached by both the parties.
The bench, while hearing the interim application of Odisha Government, directed both states to
file a written submission in two weeks.
58
Press Information Bureau, <https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/-maha-dispute-over-the-mahanadi-
60542> accessed on 10nd August, 2019.
43
CHAPTER 6- CONTEMPORARY AREAS FACING WATER CRISIS AND

FLOODS
A combination of increased urbanization, climate change and weak infrastructure is rapidly

depleting water supply in cities across the country. 59 Urbanization in India is raising many
challenges, but none are as critical as the provision of water. And, on many measures, this
challenge is far from being entirely met. A significant portion of urban Indians lacks access to
piped water. Even for the households with connections, their pipes are in danger of running dry
because of dwindling water supply. Across India, climate change is disrupting the quantity and
frequency of rainfall. A deficient monsoon can mean reservoirs struggle to fill up and less water
seeps into the ground, especially in areas with significant urban construction.
Water shortages though are not the only problem facing India’s cities. Because of climate change
and extreme rainfall, some cities can even suffer from excess water in the form of floods. One
common factor across both these water challenges is poor infrastructure. When it does rain
59
Vishnu Padmanabhan, ‘Which Indian city will run out of water first?’ (Livemint, 4 August 2019)
<https://www.livemint.com/news/india/which-indian-city-will-run-out-of-water-first-1564920315004.html>
accessed 16 August 2019.
44
heavily, water is not stored effectively. And, whatever water that is captured isn’t delivered
efficiently. After two consecutive years of weak monsoons, 330 million people, a quarter of the
country’s population, are affected by a severe drought. With nearly 50 percent of India grappling
with drought-like conditions, the situation has been particularly grim this year, in western and
southern states that received below average rainfall.60
The 21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad and others) are racing to reach zero
groundwater levels by 2020, affecting access for 100 million people. The Union government
recently formed a new Jal Shakti (water) ministry, which aims at tackling water issues with a
holistic and integrated perspective on the subject. The ministry has announced an ambitious plan
to provide piped water connections to every household in India by 2024. The ministry has set a
tough target at a time when hundreds of millions don't have access to clean water. Aiming at
laying huge pipeline networks for water supply means that yet again, we are giving more
preference to infrastructure. This indicates that there is a clear disconnect between water, society
and economy.61
Currently, we are interested in laying large networks, constructing huge storage dams, fetching
water from 150 kilometres and above, which involves a huge carbon footprint. We are valuing
land more than water, neglecting our local water bodies, which have either gone dry or
encroached. Also, in many Indian cities, water is not properly distributed. Some areas of mega
cities like Delhi and Mumbai are privileged to get more that than the standard municipal water
norm of 150 litres per capita per day while other areas get 40-50 litres per capita per day.62
Aggravating the problem is that the water being supplied currently is of drinking water
standards. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that an individual requires around 25
litres of water daily for meeting his/her basic hygiene and food needs. The rest is used for non-
potable purposes like mopping and cleaning. This indicates that for most of the non-potable uses,
a quality lower than drinking water is required. Thus, for economic efficiency and environmental
sustainability, water must be treated and supplied according to usage.
To top this, are issues of leakage losses, water pricing and metering of water. Lack of proper
maintenance of existing infrastructure causes further losses of almost 40 percent of piped water
in urban areas. Presently, India captures only eight per cent of its annual rainfall, among the
60
Ibid.
61
Mahreen Matto, ‘India’s water crisis: The clock is ticking’ (Down to Earth, 1 July 2019)
<https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/india-s-water-crisis-the-clock-is-ticking-65217> accessed 16
August 2019.
62
Radhika Barman, ‘Rising water crisis in India’ (State Herald, 26 June 2019)
<http://www.stateherald.com/2019/06/26/rising-water-crisis-in-india/> accessed 17August 2019.
45
lowest in the world. Another aspect is the treatment and reuse of wastewater. About 80 percent
of the water that reaches households, leaves as waste and pollutes our water-bodies and
environment. There is a huge potential in reusing and recycling this treated wastewater at least
for non-potable purposes, which is cost effective.
All this leads to the fact that we need to promote a decentralised approach, with a key focus on
water conservation, source sustainability, storage and reuse wherever possible. It is important to
understand that managing the water situation is not the job of only engineers but all
stakeholders including hydro-geologists, economists, planners and most importantly,
communities themselves. The world's second-most populous country is running out of water.
About 100 million people across India are on the front lines of a nationwide water crisis. A total
of 21 major cities are poised to run out of groundwater next year, according to a 2018 report by
government-run think tank NITI Aayog.
Groundwater, which has been steadily depleting for years, makes up 40% of the country's water
supply. But other sources are also running dry, almost two-thirds of India's reservoirs are running
below normal water levels. Already, 600 million people are facing acute water shortages
nationwide, and 200,000 die each year from inadequate or unsafe water supplies, according to
the NITI Aayog report.
As water runs out, the country may have to confront a series of associated problems: food
insecurity, vulnerability during heatwaves, disease due to deteriorating sanitation and regional
conflicts over water access. India's population is outgrowing its water supply. Years of rapid
urbanization with little infrastructure planning means most cities are ill equipped to handle the
additional population stress. Demand for water will reach twice the available supply by 2030, the
UN report said -- placing hundreds of millions of lives in danger.
Urban lakes and inlets have been lost to encroachment and environmental degradation, meaning
cities generally don't have places to store usable rainwater. They also have limited water
conservation infrastructure -- rainwater harvesting systems, water reuse and recycling, and waste
water treatment.63 Taps have long run dry in cities like Bangalore and Hyderabad, meaning
millions of people must rely on emergency government tanks for water. Tanker mafias have even
emerged, ruling who gets water and for what price. Without access to private tankers or
rainwater harvesting systems, these low-income families are almost entirely dependent on
groundwater for basic needs, and thus are hit hardest in crises like this.
63
Jessie Yeung, ‘India has just five years to solve its water crisis’ (CNN World, 4 July 2019)
<https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/27/india/india-water-crisis-intl-hnk/index.html> accessed 18 August 2019.
46
CHENNAI
Chennai, India's sixth largest city with a population of 4.6 million people, have run out of water.
Water is one of the vital substances that keep human cities running smoothly; without it, many
public services in Chennai, including hotels and restaurants, have had to shut down completely.
Air conditioning has been turned off in public spaces, staff are being sent home, hospitals are
struggling, and every day residents must line up for hours in the searing sun, waiting for
government trucks of water to be brought in from outer areas of the state.64 Those who can afford
it rely on private water tankers, although these are mostly inaccessible for the 820,000 people
who live in the city's slums.
Figure- Chennai water crisis65
The situation is becoming dire, and it's causing tension in the city. The groundwater around and
in Chennai is severely depleted and that local reservoirs are cracked and dry. The city has started
drilling new bore holes despite the fact that groundwater is scarce. Even now, there is little to no
recycling of water or rainwater throughout all of India, even though this may be the country's
only solution to what is inevitably a growing problem. By 2030, the country's water demand is
projected to be twice the available supply, implying severe water scarcity for hundreds of
millions of people.
64
Carly Cassella, ‘A major Indian city has nearly run out of water’ (Science alert, 21 June 2019)
<https://www.sciencealert.com/this-indian-city-has-all-but-run-out-of-water-and-no-one-is-talking-about-it>
accessed 18 August 2019.
65
<https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/how-chennai-lost-its-water-a-story-that-should-worry-you-1555096-
2019-06-24> as accessed on 25 August 2019.
47
MUMBAI
A major water crisis is looming large over Mumbai— the business, banking and financial capital
of India with storage levels in dams dipping because of insufficient rainfall. Though the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) has said that southwest monsoon has entered Maharashtra,
there has hardly been any rainfall in Mumbai. In addition, current water stocks may last for 20
to 30 days. The Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) expressed concern over the water
situation and asked people not to waste water. Mumbai receives water from six reservoirs/dams -
Upper Vaitarna, Modak Sagar, Tansa, Middle Vaitarna, Bhatsa, Vihar and Tulsi. These are left
with barely 4.95% of usable water stock in all the lakes.66
The BMC has asked the nearly two crores of citizens in Mumbai to use water judiciously.
"The civic administration has made arrangements of supplying water to the citizens up to July-
end, using reserve stocks of water. All are requested to cooperate and the citizens must use water
carefully," the BMC said. The amount of water left in all lakes was a measly 71,574 million
litres (4.95%). The comparative figures last year were 270,668 ML (18.70%) and in 2017, it was
351081 ml (24.26%), indicating a huge shortfall.
Figure- Mumbai water crisis67
66
Mrityunjay Bose, ‘Now, water crisis looms large over Mumbai’ (Deccan Herald, 27 June 2019)
<https://www.deccanherald.com/national/now-water-crisis-looms-large-over-mumbai-743241.html> accessed 18
August 2019.
67
< https://www.mid-day.com/articles/mumbai-water-for-two-hours-but-theres-no-crisis/408528> accessed 19
August 2019.
48
ASSAM
Flood situation in Assam aggravates with as many as 69 lives lost in the rising waters across the
state, which has been under a spell of extremely heavy rainfall this monsoon season.
The monsoon rainfall has wreaked havoc in the famed Kaziranga National Park, killing as many
as 209 animals in the 430 square km park situated along the Brahmaputra River.68 The flood
waters have destroyed several lakh hectares of cropland across the state, damaging houses,
embankments and other buildings. The road connectivity to some far-off villages has also been
affected.
According to the latest Central Water Commission (CWC) report river Manas, Beki and Gaurang
which are tributaries of the mighty Brahmaputra River are flowing in severe flood situation in
the districts of Baksa, Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta, Kokrajhar and Dhubri. The CWC has directed
authorities to step up the disaster relief measures, as rivers- Aie, Champamati, Gaurang, Manas
and Beki are currently flowing very near to their Highest Flood Level and may flow above the
level also during the next 24 hours.
The state received 42.9 mm rainfall against the normal of 13.5 mm during the 24 hours.
Meghalaya too received 86.6 mm against the normal of 23.8 mm during the day. 69 Western
Assam districts have been the worst hit. The situation is grim in Bihar as well, where rivers
Bagmati, Adhwara Group, Kamla Balan, Kosi and Mahananda continue to flow in severe to
above normal flood situation.
68
Srishti Choudhary, ‘Over 69 people, 204 animals killed as flood situation continues to worsen in Assam’
(Livemint, 25 July 2019) <https://www.livemint.com/news/india/over-69-people-204-animals-killed-as-flood-
situation-gets-worse-in-assam-1563962694011.html> accessed 19 August 2019.
69
Prabin Kalita, ‘Assam flood: Death toll reaches 69’ (Times of India, 23 July 2019)
<https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/assam-flood-death-toll-reaches-
69/articleshow/70350391.cms> accessed 18 August 2019.
49
Figure- Flood in Assam70
BIHAR
The death toll in Bihar and Assam floods mounted to 197, with a total of 1.24 crore people being
affected by the calamity in the two states. After a brief let up in the situation, Bihar has been
receiving above normal rainfall for the past couple of days and the situation worsened. The toll
in Bihar rose to 123, while the deluge in Assam claimed lives taking the total figure to 74.
According to the state disaster management department in Bihar, the death toll in the worst-
affected Sitamarhi district rose to 37. In Madhubani, raising the toll to 30, while in Muzaffarpur
the figure rose to four. The department has put the total number of people affected by the floods
at 81.57 lakh in 105 blocks of 12 districts. According to the Assam State Disaster Management
Authority, flood waters have inundated vast swathes of 20 of all 33 districts in the state, affecting
38.82 lakh people.71
70
71
PTI, ‘Death toll in Assam, Bihar floods reaches 197’ (Business Today, 25 July 2019)
<https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/trends/death-toll-in-assam-bihar-floods-reaches-197-around-124-crore-
people-affected/story/367569.html> accessed 19 August 2019.
50
Figure- Flood in Bihar72
CHAPTER 7- NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SUMMITS
NATIONAL SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE WATER AND SANITATION
While the India has experienced dynamic growth over the past few years, enormous challenges
remain. The region is home to a large share of the world’s poor and is facing rapid urbanization
with multiple megacities by 2030. Consequently, water demand is projected to increase due to
rapidly growing demand from domestic and industrial sectors. The agriculture sector also will
need to produce much more food for the growing population, thus competing for diminishing
72
51
water resources. Recent estimates indicate up to 3.4 billion people could be living in water-
stressed areas of Asia by 2050. The region’s water resources will be under enormous pressure—
which will be exacerbated with increasing climate variability and possible further degradation of
water quality.
As a part of the Nation’s vision various national initiatives are currently underway to improve
the levels of cleanliness through solid and liquid waste management activities and providing
every person in rural and urban India with adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and other
domestic basic needs on a sustainable basis. 4th Annual National Summit on Sustainable
Water and Sanitation was held in January 2019 in Bengaluru. With this year
theme “Modernizing Innovation in Water and Sanitation” the event brought together a range
of national & international water and sanitation experts, practitioners, government agencies
under one roof to share their experiences, technology best practices to address the current
challenges & issues.
The summit gathered over 200 attendees with a range of national & international water and
sanitation experts, practitioners, government agencies under one roof and shared their
experiences, technology best practices to address the current challenges & issues. 73 The summit
served as a capacity building platform for all attendees and decision makers with strategic
knowledge, directions and plans. Concurrent to the sessions, the NSWSS-2019 featured a trade
exhibition and marketplace of water and sanitation related organizations, private companies, and
other stakeholders who demonstrate and provide information, innovation, and technology for the
water and sanitation sector.
WORLD WATER CONGRESS
The 2020 World Water Congress & Exhibition in Copenhagen, Denmark is designed to
bring together over 10,000 water professionals from academia, utilities, industry, government,
regulators and NGOs and also engage the water-consuming industry, agriculture, architects and
urban planners, hydrologists and soil and groundwater experts, social sciences, ICT-sector, the
financial sector and others. The Congress is by nature a global forum for discussion.
We live in a time of great change and with that comes great responsibility. In 2020, we have 10
years left to deliver on the UN 2030 Agenda for Change and meet the Sustainable Development
73
Nispana, ‘Bengaluru hosts the 4 th National Summit Sustainable Water & Sanitation’ (India water portal, 20
January 2019) <https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/bengaluru-hosts-4th-national-summit-sustainable-
water-sanitation> accessed on 20 August 2019.
52
Goals, including making significant progress on climate change mitigation as well as
adaptation.74 This calls for a profound transformation, also in the water sector. The IWA World
Water Congress & Exhibition 2020 will take stock of the global water challenges we face, the
emerging scientific breakthroughs and the innovative approaches and inspiring solutions
validated around the world to set an unequivocal water-wise path ahead. With an emphasis on
SDG6, dedicated to water and sanitation, the Congress will also highlight the interwoven relation
of water with all 17 Global Goals and show examples of implementation and cooperation
towards the fulfilment of the SDGs.
Through the underlying theme ‘Water for smart liveable cities’, a concept in which Denmark is
leading, will explore smart, holistic and liveable city solutions that utilize synergies between
various intelligent systems, empower cities to adapt to a changing climate and meet the Paris
agenda, whilst improving the quality of life and well-being of our societies. In addition, will
contribute to developing a global culture of innovation that can enable the radical
transformations required.
The digitisation trend is reaching into every corner of our lives, and yet, water utilities still lag
behind other industries in leveraging the power of ‘being smart’. Understanding of the barriers to
technology adoption is critical to reinvent our current water and wastewater systems.
Multipurpose infrastructure for increased resilience
Our urban water infrastructure requires extensive renewal and expansion to effectively manage
water resources if we are to meet increasing demands. Whilst this is a significant challenge, it
also provides an opportunity to revolutionise how urban water systems are designed, or
retrofitted, to better manage our water resources. Incorporating multipurpose, green
infrastructure designed to manage storm water, demand-side management measures and
decentralised wastewater treatment systems into city planning can offer increased flexibility in
responding to a changing climate.
Towards energy-positive, carbon-neutral urban water utilities
The urban water utilities represent an untapped potential to further reduce overall GHG
emissions. If the urban water sector were to become carbon neutral, it could contribute the
equivalent of 20% of the sum of committed reductions by all countries in the Paris Agreement.
74
IWA, ‘IWA World Water Congress & Exhibition 2018’ (International Water Association, 23 August 2018)
<https://iwa-network.org/press/news-stories-iwa-world-water-congress-exhibition-2018/> accessed 20 August
2019.
53
The availability of groundwater determines far more than the shape of river basins
Rivers are the lifeblood of nations. Protecting basins and restoring those that are already
degraded should be a priority to ensure a balanced approach to development that sustains cities
and the ecosystems they rely on.
Strengthening Water-related Disaster Resilience for Sustainable Development
The Great East Japan Earthquake and subsequent Tsunami that swiped across Japan in 2011, or
the more recent flooding caused by torrential rain in June this year are testament of the increase
in frequency and severity of extreme climate events as a consequence of climate change.
Bridging Science to Practice
The water sector’s response to our critical water challenges is complicated by a disconnect
between leading science and technology research, and water utilities, cities and river basins
where it might be applied to solve the challenges facing water resource management. At the
IWA Congress, visionary researchers and technology enthusiasts will shed some light on
demonstrated approaches to implementing innovations successfully.
Governance: Aiming at better policies and innovation
Available and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all relies upon the collective
action of interdependent stakeholders, playing their role effectively and efficiently. Transitioning
to such a water-wise world starts with people –people that informs and implements the right
enabling environment.
PRIMARY SURVEY- A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA
CUTTACK
54
Pollution of ground water has been reported for a number of cities throughout the world. Dependence
on ground water resources for municipal supply is growing due to paucity and pollution of surface
water bodies. Cuttack, the erstwhile state capital of Odisha and is a traditional Indian town organically
developed over the time. The huge population of this area use ground water for drinking and other
purposes. A number of dug and tube wells have been constructed to meet the short supply of
municipality. So it is essential to have a study of ground water quality as it is being polluted.
MSW (Municipality Solid Waste) is heterogeneous in nature and contains paper, plastic, rag, metal,
glass pieces, ash, composite matter, dead animals, discarded chemicals, paints, hazardous hospital
waste and agricultural residues. Presently most of the MSW in Cuttack city is being disposed
55
unscientifically like other cities of India. Generally MSW is collected and deposited in sanitary
landfills. During land filling of solid waste continuous pressure results in the quizzing of a
contaminated liquid as leachate which contains dissolved, suspended and microbial contaminants from
solid waste. The leachate has high organic contents, soluble salts and other constituents capable of
polluting ground-water. This polluted ground water is unfit for drinking and causes jaundice, nausea,
asthma and infertility.
As per the 2011 census, the population of Cuttack Municipal
Corporation is 6.10 Lakh. The decadal growth rate of the city is @
14%. The population of the out growth area is about 0.53 Lakh. The
average floating population is about 15,000. Both horizontal and
vertical growth of the city is observed during the recent years,
however, the horizontal growth is restricted by the rivers Mahanadi
and Kathajodi. Nearby towns like Choudwar and Jagatpurare likely
to merge in the future to provide a regional commercial hub. It was
the old capital of Odisha till the year 1956. Cuttack is a city of
heritage importance with history of more than 1000 years! The city
is well connected by rail and road (NH 5). Cuttack is famous in the
country and abroad for silver filigree works by its artisans. Cuttack
is the trading hub of the state for which it is also known as the
commercial capital of the state. With presence of the
‘maalgowdown’, economy of the city revolves around whole sale
trading.
The city has skilled manpower in the field of tourism, hospitality and
handicraft. The city has also immense potential in food processing.
Surrounded by rivers there is adequate availability of potable water in
Cuttack to match national benchmark.
The municipal solid waste is managed on PPP mode including landfill and treatment. Good
public transport facility with city bus service on PPP mode is available. MRTS is proposed to
connect Cuttack, Bhubaneswar, Khurda and Jatni. Educational facility in the city is good with
presence of a major medical college cum hospital, private hospitals, nursing homes, engineering
colleges and ITI centers.
56
Figure- River Mahanadi
57
INTERVIEW- MANAGER, WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT JOBRA
We group members had interviewed Manager, Water Resource Department, Odisha to know
about the water crisis and supply in Cuttack.
The main objectives of conducting interview are-
 To find out how water is supplied in the city of Cuttack

 To find out existing source of water in the city.
 To analyse the loopholes regarding the water supply.
Question: What kind of baseline information is available for water supply system of
the city? Detail out the data, information, plans, reports etc related to sector. Is zone
wise information available?
Ans. All the base line information for W/S system such as source, distribution network,
storage & service connection etc. is available. Ward wise detail data is available. Consumer
and asset database is maintained and updated annually. One project is ongoing under
UIDSSMT for surface source development.
Question: What are existing service levels for water supply in the city? What is the
coverage of water supply connections? What is per capita supply of water? How much
is the extent of metering? How much is non-revenue water? Provide information in
table.
Ans. The existing service levels for water supply to Cuttack are given below in the
prescribed table.
TABLE 1: Status of Water Supply Service
Sr. Indicators Present status MOUD Reliability Level

No. Benchmark
1 Coverage of water supply connections 57.3% 100% B
2 Per capita supply of water 136 135 C
3 Extent of metering of water 0.05% 100% D
connections
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4 Extent of non-revenue water 55.7% 20% C

5 Quality of water supplied 100.0% 100% C
6 Cost recovery in water supply services 42.5% 100% C
7 Efficiency in collection of water 83.0% 90% B
supply
related charges
Chart Title
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
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tio at on at pl
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at r c
g ua re
w Pe in ten Q t
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ag m
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Co t
t en
Ex
Present Status MOUD Benchmark Realiability
Question: What is the existing source of water? Is it surface water source or

underground water source? What is the capacity of these sources?
Ans. The existing source of water is ground. The total capacity of the surface source is
103.12 MLD. The ground source will be transited to surface source once the ongoing, Intake
& WTP are completed.
Question: Is there any treatment provided to water from these sources? How
much water is required to be treated daily? What is the treatment capacity
installed in the city?
Ans. Yes, Disinfection process is adopted for all ground source.
59
Question: What per capita water supply in LPCD (liter per capita per day)
comes out, if you divide total water supply by the total population?
Ans. 136 LPCD is provided.
Question: City is divided in how many zones for water supply?
Ans. City is divided into 15 Zones with 2 to 3 sub zones each for water supply purpose.
Question: Provide details of total no of Households (HH) in each zone, no of HH

with and without water tap connections in the Table.
Ans. Detailed information give below-
TABLE 2: Zone Wise Coverage of Households
Zon Households with direct Households without direct

e Total No of water supply water supply
No Households Connection connections
1 7414 3538 3876
2 7797 6992 805
3 11477 3683 7794
4 11526 4445 7081
5 12140 4915 7225
6 11995 7122 4873
7 8273 3011 5262
8 7457 4167 3290
9 8532 3326 5206
10 6572 3485 3087
11 4478 307 4171
12 8395 4270 4125
13 4095 597 3498
14 3450 220 3230
15 3219 92 3127
Total 116820 50170 66650
60
Chart Title
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
Total no of household Households with direct water supply Connection

Households without direct water supply connections
Question: What is the total water storage capacity in the city? What is capacity
of elevated and ground water reservoirs?
Ans. Total water storage capacity including ongoing projects=5.93ML ESR =2.1 ML
GSR=3.83ML
Question: What is the total road length in the city? Is the pipe lines are laid in
all streets? Is the objective of universal coverage of water supply pipe line is
achieved?
Ans. The city has 860.57 Km of road length. No, pipe lines are not laid in all streets for
which universal coverage could not be achieved
Question: What are major challenge facing the city in regard to achieving health and
sanitation free status?
Ans. The major environmental and public health problems in Cuttack are due to:
 Storm drains which are used as sewage collection facilities.
 Inadequate hydraulic capacity of existing drains & absence of proper drainage network.
 Stagnation & flooding in some low lying pockets.
 Inadequate capacity of existing Main Pumps & some sluices.
61
 Absence of systematic solid waste collection and open dumping without leachate treatment and soil
cover, resulting in choking of drains and groundwater contamination.
 Lack of financial resources and human capacity in institutions responsible for sewerage, drainage and
solid waste management.
Question: What is the capacity and condition of these drains? Is sufficient to carry the
peak flow of the catchment/water shed?
Ans. The condition of these drain are as follows-
 Drains get silted up frequently due to insufficiency in channels hydraulics.
 Constriction in the water way and carrying capacity of the drains, further gets aggravated as
silting results in growth of weeds, shrubs, water hyacinth etc.
 Some portions of drains have been narrowed by encroachments and widening of adjacent
roads.
 Constructions have occurred at many reaches of drains due to construction of Pucca houses.
At many places restrictions exist on both banks leaving no space for periodic cleaning,
maintenance and repair.
 Crossing overs by Hume pipe culverts, foot bridges, low level bridges and (crossing of)
water supply pipelines cause severe obstruction to flow.
 Clogging of drains gets aggravated due to uncontrolled intrusion of utility services like
Electricity, Telephone Poles etc.
 Many areas lack drainage channels. These result in prolonged drainage congestion and
localized flooding.
 Un-civic practice like throwing garbage into drains is rampart and there is neither safe guard
nor civic awareness.
 Most tributary drains are with less than adequate capacity and the water way provided in
general has little relation to their drainage areas.
 Roads are often at a lower elevation than drain full flow level causing reverse flow of drain
water on to the roads.
 At several reaches slums have developed by the side of drains and encroachment over right
of way of existing drainage channels. Many of the slum areas inside the city are not
provided with drains of any sort.
62
Question: What are existing service levels for sewerage for coverage of sewerage
network services, efficiency of collection of sewerage and efficiency in
treatment? Provide information in table.
Table 3: Status of sewerage network and Service levels
Sr. Indicato Existing Service MOUD

No rs level Benchmark
Coverage of
1 latrines (individual 84% 100%
or community)
2 Coverage of sewerage network services 15% 100%
3 Efficiency of collection of sewerage 15% 100%
4 Efficiency in Treatment: Adequacy of 37% 100%

sewerage treatment capacity
Chart Title
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Coverage of latrines Coverage of sewerage Efficiency of collection Efficiencyin Treatment
services of sewerage Adequacy of sewerage
treatment capacity
Existing Service Level Column1
GOOGLE FORM- NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY ODISHA, CUTTACK
The Google Form was created to know the views of the students of NLUO. It is mainly
survey to know the views of students about water crisis in Odisha. The form has received
response of 80 students. There are three main objectives of doing survey-
 To find out the students view on water shortage in Cuttack.
 To find out whether the State Government is taking sufficient measures to deal with the
63
problem.
 To find out whether they faced problem during Cyclone Fani.
The following survey of 70 students is done in the questionnaire form and provided are the
final results-
Q1) Are you experiencing water shortages in NLUO (Cuttack) where you live?
64
Water shortage is the major problem faced by our country for decades. As per this survey 70
students have participated in it and filled their response. We can find out that 36 students
have agreed with the view that they are experiencing water shortages in NLUO (Cuttack)
where they are living.
24 students do not agree with the fact that they are experiencing any water shortage in
NLUO. 10 students are still confused to answer this question. Hence, because of the
majoritarian view, we can say that students of NLUO are facing the problem of water
shortage.
Q2) Who do you believe is responsible for solving the Odisha's safe drinking water
65
crisis?
Although 70 students have participated in the survey, 32 students are of view that municipal
is the best option for solving water crisis in Cuttack. 24.3% of the students have viewed that
government of Odisha can solve water crisis in Cuttack.
Rest of the students view that water companies, large companies, farmers and non-
governmental organizations have little role to play for solving water crisis in Cuttack. It was
astonishing that students do not agree with the fact that individual citizen can also solve
water crisis in Cuttack. Since there is no majoritarian view, hence there is no proper answer
66
to this question.
Q3) Is Odisha Government taking sufficient measures to solve water crisis in the state.
As per the responses of the students, we can say that there is no proper consensus among the
students to reply to this question. 23 students even not majority view that Odisha
Government is taking sufficient measures to solve water crisis in Cuttack. 19 students are of
view that the State Government is not taking sufficient measures to solve water crisis in
Cuttack. Interestingly 28 students are still puzzled to answer this question.
67
Q4) Do you think that administration of NLUO provides sufficient drinking water to
students and staff.
It is very interesting question as NLUO students are best person we think to answer this
question. There is proper consensus among students to answer this question. Majority i.e. 36
students are of view that administration of NLUO provides sufficient drinking water to
students and staff. 20 students think that administration of NLUO does not provide sufficient
drinking water to students and staff. 14 students are still puzzled to answer this question.
68
Hence, we can say that administration of NLUO provides sufficient drinking water to
students and staff.
Q5) Do you faced issue of water shortage during the time of cyclone FANI.
The Cyclone FANI had caused major destruction in the premise of NLUO, Cuttack. Despite
of major hurdle administration tried its best to provide safety and clean water to its students
so that they could not any difficulty in the premise. As per the response of 70 students are
also same view that administration tried its best to provide safety and clean water to its
students. 15 students are not satisfied with the administration efforts to deal with clean water
during Cyclone FANI. 13 students are still puzzled to answer this question.
69
Hence, we can say that majoritarian students did not face any issue of water shortage during
Cyclone FANI as per this survey.
Q6) Is Cuttack faces issue of water logging during monsoon season.
As per the responses of the students, we can say that there is no proper consensus among the
students to reply to this question. 30 students are of view that Cuttack faces issue of water
logging during monsoon season but interestingly we can say that 20 students are of view that
Cuttack city do not face any issue of water logging during monsoon season. 20 students are
still confused to answer this question.
70
Q7) Do you think rainwater harvesting is the best measure to solve water crisis in Cuttack.
Rainwater harvesting is the best option anywhere to deal with the problem of water crisis.
Rain water harvesting is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater into natural
reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers.
As per this survey, there is proper consensus among students to answer this question.
Majority i.e. 36 view that rainwater harvesting is the best measure to solve water crisis in
Cuttack. 11 do think that it is not the best measure to solve water crisis in Cuttack. 23
students are still confused to answer this question.
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Hence, it is the best measure to solve water crisis in Cuttack as per this survey.
Q8) Do you think Odisha can become India's freshwater state.
We think that students have given proper response to this question. As per this survey, there
is proper consensus among students to answer this question. In India till now there is no
state which has full freshwater for its people. Majority of the students have responded in the
same direction and stated as per this survey that Odisha can become India's freshwater state.
72
11 students have responded that it cannot become India's freshwater state. 21 students are
still confused what they should reply for this question. So we can go by majority that Odisha
can still become India's freshwater state
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY: SECTOR 7-
Here we took the survey of 10 people in the locality of sector 7 which have answered to our
question. This is basically an external survey to know about the water crisis in Cuttack.
Annexures of the survey of people is attached at the back. This is the analysis report of the
water crisis in Sector 7.
The objective of this survey is to know about challenges related to water shortage in Cuttack,
impact of Cyclone FANI on the people and measures taken by the Government of Odisha to
deal with it.
73
Q1) What type of water system do you use in use in the locality?
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Public Water System Motar Well River Water

0
According to our survey most of the people used public water system, (i.e. a40%) 10%
people used motor bore system (i.e. extracting water from ground water level) 10% used
well and 30% people received water from government is corporate water system and some
locality (10%) used (Mahanadi) river water, directly as they lived on the bank of the river.
74
Q2) Do you have proper drainage system?
Drinage System
Yes No
When we asked about drainage system, we came to know that 60% of the people have
facility of proper water drainage system, while 40% of the people don’t have proper
drainage system. This implies that Sector 7 has no such problem of drainage as per the
survey.
75
Q3) What is your monthly water bill?
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
No bill 100-120 120-150 150-180
As per the survey most probably people either used their private well (10%), river (10%)
water or public water system (30%) of which constitute 50% people actually not paying or
given any water bill, rest are 20% pay on an average between Rs.100 – 120, 50% and other
30% pay on an average Rupees 150 – 180.
76
Q4) What problem you faced during FANI?
Problens Faced During Fani
In sufficient water supply No problem No drinking water at all Using Generator
The 20% people say there was no pure drinking water at all as water was contaminated
during FANI people who used river water and public water were was affected by this
problem. The 30% people faced no problem usually those are people who have their well or
motor bore system.
77
The 30% of people faced problem of insufficient water supply problem as they were the one
who were depended on municipal-corporation and because of water and power cut they are
faced problem 3- 4 weeks. The 20% faced a little hardship in getting water as they were
using generator to run motor which cost them nearly 1500 for one water tank for 1 hour.
Q5) What measures were taken by MNC after the FANI Cyclone to reassure water
supply?
Providing generator CMC Provided with Tank People not effected
The 40% of the people who actually didn’t needed nor received any help from CMC during
or after FANI, 30% people used generator so they were provided with water but after paying
extra charges and other 30% got tanks for like an hour for like an hour or 2 on payment of
extra amount as per our survey.
78
Q6) What are the effects of FANI on water supply?
Lack of pure drinking water No drinking Water

Not effected
Most common effect of FANI on water supply was lack of s drinking water as per 50% of
the people, 40% of the people felt that there was lack of pure drinking water and 10% felt
that they did not face any problem as per our survey.
79
Q7) Is there any measure taken for rainwater harvesting by the Government.
No May be
Odisha government in build a 100 core rooftop rain water harvesting scheme in a beat to
conserve rain water harvesting .This scheme was to be implemented in Bhubaneswar,
Berhampur, Titlagarh and Jharsuguda. Government thought of implementing it on rooftop of
both private and government building and provide with financial assistance with such
project Mr. Sri Pratap Jena (water resource secretary). This scheme started in 2014-15 fiscal
year and was meant to be continued fiscal year 2018 -19.
But on the ground level after inquiring various department we came to know that no such
work in progress or no fund was allotted in ground reality. When we asked local people
80
about it they said their maybe be any such step taken by government but they are not aware
of it. 90% of people said that there are no such step taken.
ANNEXURES OF PRIMARY SURVEY
STUDENTS WHO PARTICIPATED IN THE SURVEY ARE
70 responses

Not accepting responses

Message for respondents
This form is no longer accepting responses
SUMMARY
INDIVIDUAL
Name & Year: 70 Responses
1. VARUN LITORIYA & 3RD YEAR

2. Amiya Upadhyaya 2nd Year
3. Ronita Biswas 2nd Year
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4. Advait D Hyanki (2nd Year)

5. Nikita Minz (2018-23)
6. Indrasish Majumder,2nd Year
7. Deepti Manisha Bara (2nd Year)
8. Aayush Akar, 2018
9. Shantanu Dubey (Batch Of 23)
10. Shivani Singh, 2nd Year
11. Swapnil Singh 2nd Year
12. Akshita Goel, 2nd Year
13. Priyank, 2nd Year
14. Ritu Panhotra, (2018-23)
15. Raghav Kansal 2nd Year
16. Priyadarshee Mukhopadhyay 2nd Year
17. Dharini
18. Rithika Mathur, 2nd Year
19. Ananya Satish- 2nd
20. Bipin Punia 2018
21. Hitesh Gangwani 2018
22. Anuj 2018
23. Jayanti Jaya 2018
24. Jeevan Justin 2018
25. Deval Garg 2018
26. Parul Priya 2018
27. Riddhi Khandelwal 2018
28. Darshit 2018
29. Abhishek Rai 3rd Year Bba Llb
30. Rohan Zaveri 2018
31. Sarthak Arora 2018
32. Falguni 2018
33. Jhalak 2018
34. Shivanshu Tripathy Bba Llb 1st Year
35. Natwarlal Prabhashankar Udhaiwala
36. Tushar Bba Llb 5th Year
37. Saurav Satavan
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38. Hindustani Bhau

39. Tejas Geetey
40. Shivali Bba Llb 1st Year
41. Shreya Singh Bba Llb 1st Year
42. Manas Srivastava
43. Yash Sharma
44. Tejas Bba Llb 4th Year
45. Keshav Yadav
46. Tuku Pradhan 2018
47. Abhinav Bba Llb 1st Year
48. Mohit Meena Second
49. Priyanshu Bhyana 1st Year
50. Saurav Bba Llb 1st Year
51. Manu Goswami 2018
52. Armaan Arora 1st Year
53. Arsh Bba Llb 1st Year
54. Jay Agarwal Year
55. Kaushiki Bba Llb 1st Year
56. Aryan Jagrat 2018
57. Raghav Chandak Ba 1st Year
58. Shreyas 2018
59. Sayan Das Ba 1st Year
60. Anurag Ba 1st Year
61. Esha Bba Llb 1st Year
62. Anand Santis
63. Swikriti Bba Llb 1st Year
64. Ambuj Ba 1st Year
65. Arjun Tyagi 1st Year
66. Bba Llb 2019 Vipasha Verma
67. Ujjwal
68. Aniruddha Mukherjee 4th Year Ba
69. Arth Singhal
70. Kirti Malik
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PHOTOGRAPHS OF HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
84
85
86
87
PHOTOGRAPHS OF CUTTACK MUNICIPAL CORPORATION
88
89
90
91
PHOTOGRAPHS WITH MANAGER OF WATER RESOURCE DEPARTMENT, JOBRA
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CONCLUSION
A simple addition of a ‘water free’ male urinal in our homes can save well over 25,000 liters
of water, per home per year. The traditional flush dispenses around six liters of water per
flush. If all male members including boys of the house use the ‘water free urinal’ instead of
pulling the traditional flush, the collective impact on the demand for water will reduce
significantly. This must be made mandatory by law and followed up by education and
awareness both at home and school. The amount of water that is wasted during dish washing
at home is significant. We need to change our dish washing methods and minimize the habit
of keeping the water running. A small step here can make a significant saving in water
consumption.
Every independent home/flat and group housing colony must have rain water harvesting
facility. If efficiently designed and properly managed, this alone can reduce the water
demand significantly. Waste water treatment and recycling for non-drinking purposes.
Several low cost technologies are available that can be implemented in group housing areas.
Very often, we see water leaking in our homes, in public areas and colonies. A small steady
water leak can cause a loss of 226,800 liters of water per year! Unless we are aware and
conscious of water wastage we will not be able to avail the basic quantity of water that we
need to carry on with our normal lives.
93
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOME OF THE BOOKS AND ARTICLES WHICH WE USE FOR SECONDARY DATA ARE
 Bajracharya, S.R., Mool, P.K. and Shrestha, B.R. 2007. Impact of Climate Change on
Himalayan Glaciers and Glacial Lakes. International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu.
 Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C. and Lettenmaier, D.P. 2005. Potential Impacts of a Warming
Climate on Water Availability in Snow Dominated Regions. Nature 438(7066): 303-309.
 However, this report focuses on the physical and quantitative assessment of the resource.
FAO Corporate Document Repository, Review of World Water resources by Country.
Natural resource Management and Environment department. PDF Version.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4473e/y4473e06.htm.
 An International Food Policy Research Institute book about the intersection of water policy,
globalization and food security: Ringler, C., Biswas, A., and Cline, S., eds. 2010. Global
Change: Impacts on Water and Food Security. Heidelberg: Springer.
 Further report of the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal under section 5(3) of the Inter-state
water disputes act, 1956, Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal, Volume-1, Govt. of India,
Ministry of Energy and Irrigation, Dept. of Irrigation, 1980.
SOME OF THE LINKS WHICH WE USE FOR SECONDARY DATA ARE
 https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/-maha-dispute-over-the-mahanadi-60542
 https://thewaterproject.org/watercrisis/water-in-crisis-india.pdf
 http://www.sakshieducation.com/Tclass/Story.aspx?
nid=88846&cid=8&sid=662&chid=1119&tid=0
 http://www.stateherald.com/2019/06/26/rising-water-crisis-in-india/
 https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/27/india/india-water-crisis-intl-hnk/index.html
 https://www.downtoearth.org.in
 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/
 https://greencleanguide.com/glaciers-in-india-are-himalayan-glaciers-really-melting/
94
CASE LAWS REFERRED
 State of Karnataka and Ors v. State of Tamil Nadu and Ors, 1991
 In the matter of: Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, 1993
 A.P. Pollution Control Board II v. M.V. Nayadu, 2001
 Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India, 2000
 Gandhi Sahitya Sangh v. Union of India, 2003
 State of Punjab v. State of Haryana, 2004
The primary survey is done in the form of google form, household survey and
interviews with people.
95

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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WATER CRISIS IN ODISHA: A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA

NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY ODISHA, CUTTACK

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WATER CRISIS IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA

CHAPTER 6- CONTEMPORARY AREAS FACING WATER CRISIS AND

Figure- Rivers of India3

COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY DATA

 To find the major water resources currently in India.

 To find why there is crisis of fresh water in India.

CHAPTER 1- INDIAN MONSOON

ARRIVAL OF MONSOON IN INDIA

Figure- Description of pattern of monsoon in India.14

Figure- Change in pattern of monsoon in India.15

EXPECTED FUTURE CHANGE PATTERN OF INIDAN MONSOON

EFFECTS OF CHANGE IN MONSOON PATTERN OF INDIA

Figure- Scarcity of water in rivers of India 18

CHAPTER 2- WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

Figure- River Ganga21

Figure- Dal Lake23

Figure- Groundwater aquifers27

CHAPETR 3- FRESHWATER CRISES IN INDIA

MANAGING INDIA’S FRESH WATER

REASONS BEHIND WATER CRISES

Figure- Fresh water crisis in Odisha31

AFFECTS AND REMEDIES

 Incidents of fever, contamination, dehydration, vomiting and kidney illnesses.

 Imposing Israel’s water control structures and technology.

 Long-time investment in academic packages, social awareness campaigns, improved

 Building check dams on riverbeds will enhance groundwater tiers.

 The implementation of the United Countries Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

RELATED INFORMATION AND DATA

INSTITUTIONS AND MODALITIES IN ITS WORKING

NATIONAL WATER COMMISSION

 Incentivise nation governments to put in force irrigation tasks in reform mode,

 Develop a location-precise program for rejuvenation of rivers, etc.

MELTING OF GLACIER IN INDIA

Figure- Indian glaciers in Hindu Kush Region35

CHAPTER 4- IMPACT OF WATER CRISIS IN INDIA

CHAPTER 5- INTERSTATE WATER DISPUTES IN INDIA AND

MAHANADI WATER DISPUTE: A CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 6- CONTEMPORARY AREAS FACING WATER CRISIS AND

A combination of increased urbanization, climate change and weak infrastructure is rapidly

Figure- Chennai water crisis65

Figure- Mumbai water crisis67

Figure- Flood in Assam70

Figure- Flood in Bihar72

CHAPTER 7- NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SUMMITS

NATIONAL SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE WATER AND SANITATION

WORLD WATER CONGRESS

Multipurpose infrastructure for increased resilience

Towards energy-positive, carbon-neutral urban water utilities

Strengthening Water-related Disaster Resilience for Sustainable Development

Bridging Science to Practice

Governance: Aiming at better policies and innovation

PRIMARY SURVEY- A CASE STUDY ON ODISHA

Figure- River Mahanadi

INTERVIEW- MANAGER, WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT JOBRA

The main objectives of conducting interview are-