LESSON 6.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

BASIC CONCEPT
Sampling means choosing from a large population the respondents or subjects to answer your research questions. The
entire population is involved but for your research study, you choose only a part of the whole.
The word population is a technical term in research which means a big group of people from where you choose the
sample of the chosen set of people to represent the population. Sampling frame, on the other hand, is the list of the members of
the population to which you want to generalize or apply your findings about the sample, and sampling unit is the term referring
to every individual in the population. The sampling, as well as the research results, is expected to speak about the entire
population. Unless this does not refer to the population, in general, the sample selection procedure has no scientific value.
(Emmel 2013; Lapan 2013)
Factors Affecting Sample Selection
1. Sample Size – how big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decisions on their own experience and n
research studies they have already read. But the best way to determine the right sample size is the representativeness
of the sample with respect to the population. See to it that the sample truly represents the entire population.
2. Sampling Technique – fall under two categories: probability and non-probability sampling. The basic distinction in
modern sampling theory is between probability and the non-probability sampling. The first one uses random selection;
the second, a purposive or controlled selection. Probability sampling gives all population members an equal
opportunity to be chosen as sample and is a precise way of sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an
accurate manner of selecting the right people to represent the population.
3. Heterogeneity of Population – heterogenous population is composed of individuals with varied abilities. There is a wide
variation among the people composing the population. If it a Homogenous population where lots of uniformity in
abilities exist among the population members, a sample of one will do. But for a heterogenous group, a sampling
techniques that will widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all members of the population is necessary.
4. Statistical Techniques – the accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate your methods are in
calculating the numbers used in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a certain value to each of hem. Any error
in your use of any statistical method or computing numbers representing the selected subjects will turn in unfounded
results.
5. Time and Cost – choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole population, with each member of this large
group needing your attention, time and effort, let alone the amount of money you will for out for the materials you will
need in making the sampling frame. Hence, considering all these things, your sample selection makes you spend
some of your time deliberating or mulling over several factors affecting or influencing your sample selection.
SAMPLING METHODS
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using some objective chance
mechanism, thus, involving randomization. They require the use of a sampling frame (a list/map of all the sampling units in the
population.). The probabilities of selection are known. They are generally referred to as Random Sample For A Finite
Population.
Probability sampling is the only approach that makes possible representative sampling plans. It makes possible for the
investigators to estimate the extent to which the findings based on their sample are likely to differ in what they would have found
by studying the population. The use of probability sampling enables the investigator to specify the size of the sample that they
will need if they want to have the given degree of certainty that their sample findings do not differ by more than a specified
amount from those that a study of a whole population would yield.
Commonly used probability sampling techniques:
1. Simple Random Sampling – is the basic probability sampling design, in which the sample is selected by a process
that does not only give each element in the population a chance of being included in the sample but also makes
the selection of every possible combination of the desired number of cases equally likely. The sample is selected
in one of two ways: by means of a table of random numbers or by using the lottery technique.

2. Systematic Random Sampling – is affected by drawing units at regular intervals from a list. The starting point or
the first units to be taken is a random choice. It differs from one simple random sampling where each member of
the population is not chosen independently. Once the first member has been selected, all the other members of
the random sample are automatically determined. The population list in the systematic sampling must be in
random order.

3. Stratified Random Sampling – is selecting sub-samples proportionate in size to the significant characteristics of
the total population. Different strata in the population are defined and each member of the stratum is listed. Simple
random sampling is applied to each stratum. The number of units drawn from each stratum depends on the raito of
the desired sample in the population. (n/N). Stratified sampling assures the researcher that his/her sample will be
 representative of the population in terms of certain critical factors that have been used as the basis for
stratification. It also assures adequate cases for sub-group analysis.

4. Cluster Sampling – is a technique in which the unit of sampling is not the individual but the naturally occurring
group of individuals. The technique is used when it is more convenient select individuals from a defined
population. It considers a universe divided into N mutually exclusive sub-groups called clusters. It has simpler
frame requirements. A random sample of n clusters is selected and their elements are completely enumerated. It
is administratively convenient to implement and its main advantage is saving time and money.

5. Multi-stage Sampling – refers to the procedure as in cluster sampling which moves through a series of stage from
more inclusive to the less inclusive sampling units until arriving at the population elements that constitute the
desired sampling.

Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these probability sampling techniques are considered by many as
more capable than the non-probability sampling techniques in coming out with the accurate or exact samples.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
This is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each element has of being included
in the sample and no assurance that every element has a chance of being included.
Major Forms of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Accidental or Availability Sample – is one which the investigator simply reaches out and takes the cases that are
at hand, continuing the process until the sample reaches a designated size. This is one of the most common
technique of sampling. This is also known as the man on the street interviews conducted frequently by television
news program to get quick reading of public opinion. In clinical practice, clients who are available to medical
people are usually their sample. In research, samples are usually those who simple volunteer for the study. The
problem here is the lack of evidence that they are the representatives of the population you are interested in
generating.

2. Purposive Sampling or Judgment Sampling – is used when practical considerations prevent the use of probability
sampling. Since sampling errors and biases cannot be computed for non-probability samples, purposive or
judgmental sampling should be limited to situations like when the probable errors are not serious when probability
sampling is practically impossible. Data from judgmental samples at best suggest or indicate conclusions but in
general they cannot be used as the basis of statistical testing procedures.

3. Quota Sampling - is a technique with provision to guarantee the inclusion in the sample of diverse elements in the
population and to make sure that these diverse elements are taken into account in proportion in which they occur
in the population. In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota. There two
types of quota sampling: proportional and non-proportional.

a. Proportional quota sampling – if you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by
sampling a proportional amount of each. For example, if you know the population has 70% women and
30% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those
percentages and then you will stop. So, if you have already got the 70% women for your sample, but not
the 30% men, you will continue to sample men even if legitimate women respondents come along. You
will not sample them because you have already “met your quota”. The problem here is that you have to
decide the specific characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education
race, religion, etc?
b. Non-proportional sampling - is a bit less restrictive. In this technique, you specify the minimum number of
sampled units you want in each category. You will not be concerned with having numbers that match the
proportions in the population. Instead, you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be able to
talk about even small groups in the population. This technique is the non-probabilistic analogue of
stratified random sampling. It is usually used to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in
your sample.
4. Snowball sampling –is a non-random sampling technique wherein the initial informants are approached who
through their social network nominate or refer the participants that meet the eligibility criteria of the research under
study. Thus, this method is also called as the referral sampling method or chain sampling method.
5. Voluntary Sampling – selecting people who are very much willing to participate as respondents in the research
project.
RANDOM SAMPLING VIS-À-VIS STATISTICAL METHOD
The most preferred sampling technique in qualitative or quantitative research is random sampling. However, this kind
of probability sampling requires the use of statistical method in measuring the sample. Three probability sampling techniques:
simple random, stratified, and systematic depend greatly on statistics for sample accuracy.
Contributing to the accuracy of sampling through the use of statistical methods in stratified sampling is your adherence to the
following steps of this unbiased sampling technique:
1. Decide on the size of the sample.
2. Divide the sample into sub-sets or sub-samples, with the sub-samples having the same aggregate number as that of
the sample they came from.
3. Select the appropriate sub-sample randomly from each sub-group or stratum.
4. Put together the sub-sample results to get the total number of the overall sample.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FIVE BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Unavailable list of the entire population sometimes
Random Sampling The most accurate theoretically; influenced only or prevention of random sampling by practical
by chance considerations.
Stratified Assures a large sample to subdivide on important Can be biased if strata are given false weights,
Sampling variables; needed when population is too large to unless the weighing procedure is used for overall
list; can be combined with other techniques analysis.
Systematic Similar to random sampling, often easier than
Sampling random sampling. Sometimes permits bias in selection of samples.
Cluster Sampling Easy to collect data on the subject Prone to bias when the number is small.
Quota Sampling Available when random sampling is impossible; Presence of bias not controlled by the quota
quick to do. system.

INSTRUMENTATION
An important part of the research study is the instrument in gathering the data because the quality of research output
depends to a large extent on the quality of research instruments used. Instrument is the generic term that researchers used for
a measurement device like survey, test, questionnaire, and many others. To help distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action which is the process of
developing, testing, and using the device.
Researchers can choose the type of instruments to use based on their research questions or objectives. There are two
broad categories of instruments namely: 1. Researcher-completed instruments and 2. Subject-completed instruments.
Examples are shown below:

Research-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices

A critical portion of the research study is the instrument used to gather data. The validity of the findings and
conclusions resulting from the statistical instruments will depend greatly on the characteristics of your instruments. We will
discuss the general criteria of good research instruments which are validity and reliability.
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure and performs as it is designed
to perform. It is unusual and nearly impossible that an instrument is 100% valid that is why validity is generally measured in
degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are
numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments that generally involves pilot testing.
There are three major types of validity. These are content validity, construct validity and criterion validity which are presented in
the table below:

Types of Validity Description

Content Validity The extent to which a research instrument accurately measures all aspects of a construct.
Construct Validity The extent to which a research instrument (or tool) measures the intended construct.
The extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments that measure the same
Criterion Validity variables.
 1. Content Validity – looks at whether the instrument adequately covers all the content that it should with respect to the
variable. In other words, it refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. It answers the question “ Do
the measures, (questions, observation logs, etc) accurate assess what you want to know?” or “Does the instrument
cover the entire domain related to the variable, or construct it was designed to measure?”
2. Construct Validity - refers to whether you can draw inferences about test scores related to the concept being studied.
For example, if a person has a high score on a survey that measures anxiety, does this person truly have a high
degree of anxiety? Another example is a test of knowledge or medications that requires dosage calculations which
instead testing the mathematics knowledge or skills. There are 3 types of evidence that can be used to demonstrate a
research instrument has construct validity:
a. Homogeneity – this means that the instrument measures one construct
b. Convergence – this occurs when the instrument measures concepts similar to that of other instruments.
Although if there are no similar instruments available this will not be possible to do.
c. Theory Evidence – this is evident when behavior is similar to theoretical propositions of the construct
measured in the instrument.

3. Criterion Validity – A criterion is any other instrument that measures the same variable. Correlations can be conducted
to determine the extent to which the different instruments measure the same variable. Criterion validity is measured in
3 ways:
a. Convergent validity – shows that an instrument is highly correlated with instruments measuring similar
variables.
Example: geriatric suicide correlated significantly and positively with depression, loneliness and
hopelessness.
b. Divergent validity – shows that an instrument is poorly correlated to instruments that measure different
variables.
Example: there should be a low correlation between an instrument that measures motivation and one that
measures self-efficacy.
c. Predictive validity – means that the instrument should have correlation with future criterions.
Example: a score of high self-efficacy related to performing a task that should predict the likelihood a
participant completing the task.

RELIABILITY
Reliability relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument should be ale to obtain
approximately the same response when applied to respondents who are similarly situated. Likewise, when the instrument is
applied at two different points in time, the responses must highly correlate with one another. Hence, reliability can be measured
by correlating the responses of subjects exposed to the instrument at two different time periods or by correlating the responses
of the subjects who are similarly situated.
An example of this is when a participant completing the instrument meant to measure motivation should have
approximately the same responses each time the test is completed. Although it is not possible to give an exact calculation of
reliability, an estimate of it can be achieved through different measures. The 3 attributes of reliability are outlined below:

ATTRIBUTES DESCRIPTION
Internal Consistency of The extent to which all the items on a scale measure one construct.
Homogeneity
Stability or Test-Retest Correlation The consistency of results using an instrument with repeated testing.
Equivalence Consistency among responses of multiple users of an instrument or among alternate
forms of an instrument.

CONCEPT EXPLANATION:
A. Write C on the space before the number, if the sentence is correct; NC, if it is not correct.
1. Sampling unit is synonymous with sampling frame.
2. Population in relation to sampling refers to the citizens of the Philippines.
3. The principal purpose of sampling is the application of results in the population.
4. You look forward to having several group samples in a stratified sampling.
5. In a stratified sampling, you randomly choose samples from several groups.
6. Sampling decisions depend 100% on your own dispositions or judgement.
7. You are detached from your personal inclination when you do a random selection of subjects.
8. Non-probability sampling Is not very particular about statistics.
9. Probability sampling techniques are suitable for Quantitative research studies.
10. Bias can only be minimized; can’t be totally eliminated.
 B. From the box, choose the appropriate sampling technique for each given situation. Write your answer on the line
before the number.

A. Quota sampling B. Cluster Sampling C. availability D. Snowball

E. Purposive F. systematic G. voluntary H. stratified

I. probability J.statistics K. Simple random

_____________________________1. Going to different areas to obtain a sample from varied set of people.
_____________________________2. Offering varied sampling techniques whose validity depends much on
statistics.
_____________________________3. Interviewing people buying fish at the market place.
_____________________________4. Selecting respondents from each of these sections: A, B, C, and D.
_____________________________5. Making sections A, B, C, and D as your respondents.
_____________________________6. Choosing from your class the native speakers in English as the subjects in
your study entitled: The Extent of the Grammatical Competence of Senior High School in Balian INHS>
_____________________________7.Putting all the names of population members in a box and draw from the
box the total number of the sample.
_____________________________8.Selecting the exact number of samples possessing comparative features or
traits with the population.
_____________________________9. Accommodating extra-willing people to act as the respondents.
_____________________________10. Taking every 15 th person in the sampling frame as the chosen respondent.

C. CONCEPT TRANSFORMATION

Using your own research topic, decide on which appropriate sampling technique you would use. Make a written
report defining, explaining and describing every aspect of your sampling design or plan. (10 points)