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Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180

16th CIRP Conference on Modelling of Machining Operations

Characterization of an Electrochemical Machining Process for Precise

Internal Geometries by Multiphysics Simulation
Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchena, Raphael Paula, Michael Kowalicka, Danny Kuhna, Gunnar
Meichsnerb, Mike Zineckera, Andreas Schuberta, b
a
Professorship Micromanufacturing Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chemnitz University of Technology, D-09107 Chemnitz, Germany
b
Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU, Reichenhainer Strasse 88, D-09126 Chemnitz, Germany
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 371 531 35131 fax: +49 371 531 835131. E-mail address: matthias.hackert@mb.tu-chemnitz.de

Abstract

In several fields of mechanical engineering internal precision geometries are applied. For this, application requirements like high shape
accuracy, sufficient stability, high wear resistance or an increase of life time have to be fulfilled. However, there is also a demand on quick and
precise manufacturing processes that are flexible in machining various internal geometries. Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a process
which meets these requirements. This process allows surface structuring and shaping of metal components with high shape accuracy
independently of the materials strength and hardness [1].
This study presents investigations on a developed process design for manufacturing internal precision geometries by pulsed electrochemical
machining (PECM) with help of multiphysics simulations. The peculiarity of this process is the shaping of the workpiece by the lateral working
gap. Multiphysics simulations were carried out to understand the respective interactions between several physical phenomena. Especially, fluid
dynamical effects are described in detail within the developed model. Furthermore, Joule heating and cathodic hydrogen formation are
included. The fluid flow ensures the removal of heat and hydrogen and a continual supply with fresh electrolyte, respectively. The electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte is modeled as a function of hydrogen volume concentration and temperature. Hence, both effects, Joule heating
and hydrogen formation, influence the current density distribution which in turn determines the material removal.
©©2017
2017TheThe Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier B.V.
B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 16th CIRP Conference on Modelling of Machining Operations, in the
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
person of the
Peer-review Conference
under Chairs
responsibility Prof. J.C.
of the scientifi Outeiroofand
c committee TheProf. G. Poulachon.
16th CIRP Conference on Modelling of Machining Operations

Keywords: Electrochemical machining (ECM), Finite element method (FEM), Multiphysics Simulation

1. Introduction flexible in machining various internal geometries and

Various shapes like involute splines or feather key grooves
are needed for example for shaft-hub connections. In this case
a precise manufacturing of internal precision geometries with
small tolerance ranges has to be realized. In some areas of
application high stresses occur in such parts, wherefore wear
resistant materials with high hardness are applied. Hence, the
processing by cutting technologies can be very difficult. In the
case of internal precision geometries broaching can be used.
Here, the broaching tool is complex, sophisticated to
manufacture and therefore expensive. Furthermore, the
geometries which can be machined are limited. So there is a
demand on quick and precise manufacturing processes that are
independent of the strength and hardness of the workpiece [1].
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a process which meets
these requirements.
For the manufacturing of internal precision geometries
pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM) was chosen. This
process is a further development of EC-lowering and is
characterized by a moving cathode and pulsed electric direct
current [2, 3]. Figure 1 schematically shows the principle of a
pulsed electrochemical machining process. The workpiece,
marked in gray, is connected to the positive electrical pole of a
power supply. The cathode which is marked in yellow is
connected to the negative pole and is moved with a defined
feed rate towards the workpiece.

2212-8271 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 16th CIRP Conference on Modelling of Machining Operations
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2017.04.021
176 Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchen et al. / Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180

investigations are to be performed using a cylindrical cathode

disk with 31.6 mm in diameter and a constant cathode feed
rate of vf = 1 mm/min. The flushing concept exhibits an
upward directed electrolyte flow from the predrilled bore of
the workpiece through the working gap into a flushing
chamber above. This chamber is not illustrated in the figure
for reasons of clarity. The flushing concept guarantees a
permanent exchange of electrolyte in the working gap and the
removal of reaction products and heat.

Fig. 1. Principle of a pulsed ECM process [4]

During the process a sufficiently conductive electrolyte is

flushed through the working gap between workpiece and
cathode. The material dissolution occurs during the electric
current pulse in the pulse-on time. After that the electric
current is paused, which is referred as pulse-off time. Within
this time reaction products like hydrogen, dissolved material
Fig. 2. Design concept for machining internal precision geometries with
as well as process heat are transported out of the machining
pulsed electrochemical machining [5]
area, before a new electric current pulse is triggered. This
strategy leads to enhanced accuracy of the production process. The presented design concept of the machining process is
In contemporary praxis, the design of the manufacturing the basis for the derivation of a 2D-axisymmetric model.
process is a time-consuming and cost-intensive empirical Figure 3 shows the respective model geometry containing the
procedure. As shown in a former study especially the process numbering of domains and boundaries.
design of machining internal geometries is difficult, because
the shaping of the workpiece is effected perpendicular to the
feed direction [5]. Therefore, the peripheral working distance
has to be determined, which is dependent on various process
parameters. This study presents investigations on a developed
process design by the help of multiphysics simulations. Due to
the process design and the spatial dimensions of the working
gap, fluid-dynamical quantities are experimentally hardly
accessible. Hence, the main focus of the present study is on
the investigation of the turbulent fluid flow during the
machining process.

2. Model Description

2.1. Geometry and Materials

For machining internal precision geometries using PECM a
design concept was developed. The basic structure of this
concept is shown in figure 2.
For reasons of usefulness an axisymmetric geometry is
regarded in this study. The main components are the
workpiece, a laterally insulated cathode body on which a
replaceable disk with the functional surface of the cathode is
mounted, as well as various clamping elements. The
replaceable disk has a thickness of 1 mm. The front working
gap between disk and workpiece measures 59 µm. The
cylindrical workpiece is pre-drilled. It has an outer diameter of
44 mm and a bore diameter of 25 mm. The edge of the bore
features a chamfer. The aspired diameter of the bore which is
to be machined by PECM is 32 mm. To realize this diameter
Fig. 3. 2D-axisymmetric geometry of the model containing the numbering of
domains and boundaries
This predefined fixed geometry represents a model of an
ongoing stationary machining process. The coordinate system
is fixed at the cathode. Hence, on the workpiece the surface-
normal components of the material dissolution velocity and
the relative workpiece motion are in equilibrium. The
predefined geometry was determined in preliminary
simulations considering constant electric conductivity of the
electrolyte. Due to the utilization of a predefined fixed
geometry and the negligence of geometry deformation, this
model is referred to as a pseudo-stationary model of PECM.
The model geometry consists of five domains with the
material parameters defined in table 1.
 Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchen et al. / Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180 177

Table 1. Definition of material parameters feed rate needs to be added here since the coordinate system is
Domain ߷ [kg/m³] ߪ [S/m] λ [W/(m·K)] cP [J/(kg·K)] fixed at the cathode and hence moved with its feed rate.
Boundary 6 is defined as a pressure outlet with ‫ ݌‬ൌ ͷǡͷ„ƒ”.
I ߷ୣ୤୤ (ϕEl,T) ߪୣ୤୤ (ϕEl,T) 0.599 3877
The production of hydrogen occurs on the cathode surface
II, VI 7600 ͳǤ͸ͻ ή ͳͲ଺ 21.5 410
(boundary 16) and is modeled by equation 4.
III 7900 [8] ͳǤ͵͹ ή ͳͲ଺ [8] 15 [8] 500 [8] ‫ܯ‬ୌ
Ȱୌమǡ௡ ൌ െ మ ‫ܬ‬መ௡
IV, V 1410 [9] 10-10 0.31 [9] 1500 [9] ʹ‫ܨ‬
(4)
Domain I is defined as a fluid which is a dispersion with a Here, the normal hydrogen mass flow density Ȱୌమǡ௡
dynamic viscosity of 1.042 mPaήs. The continuous phase of depends on the normal electric current density ‫ܬ‬መ௡ .
the dispersion is an aqueous sodium nitrate (NaNO3) Furthermore, ‫ܯ‬ୌమ  is the molar mass of hydrogen and F is the
electrolyte with a NaNO3 mass fraction of 8%. The dispersed Faraday constant.
phase is represented by small slip-free hydrogen bubbles. The Another significant phenomenon of the ECM process is
dispersion is regarded as a continuum. That means, the
heat transfer. Thus, the energy equation is solved for fluid and
detailed fluid structure with single bubbles is neglected.
solid domains. Joule heating is regarded in the fluid and solid
Instead, the hydrogen volume fraction ߶ୌమ and the electrolyte
domains as well as on the electrode-electrolyte interfaces. On
volume fraction ߶୉୪ ൌ ͳ െ ߶ୌమ are regarded. The effective the latter Joule heating occurs due to an electrochemical
density ߷ୣ୤୤ of the dispersion is defined by equation 1. potential drop at the interface, the overpotential. The ambient
‰ ‫ܯ݌‬ୌమ temperature of 20 °C is defined on boundaries 4, 8 and 10.
߷ୣ୤୤ ‫׷‬ൌ  ߶୉୪ ή ͳͲͷʹǤͷ ൅ ߶ ή Electrodynamics is modeled in a simplified way using a
ଷ ʹ ܴܶ
(1) pseudo-direct current approach. That means, the stationary
form of the equations of electrodynamics is used to determine
Here, ‫ ݌‬is the fluid pressure, ܶ the temperature, ‫ܯ‬ୌమ ൌ
the electric current density during the pulse-on time. During
ʹǤͲʹ g/mol the molar mass of hydrogen gas and ܴ the
pulse-off time the electric current density is defined to be zero.
universal gas constant. As it can be reasoned from equation 1
The ground potential is defined on boundary 4. The boundary
the Laplace pressure is neglected. The electrical conductivity
condition electric insulation is used on boundaries 5, 6, 7, 9
ߪ‡ˆˆ of the dispersion is defined by equation 2.
and 10. In this study the potential differences at the interfaces
ଷ
ܶ  ଶ are considered in a simplified way by defining an effective
ߪୣ୤୤ ‫׷‬ൌ ൬ͳǤ͸Ͷ͸ ൬ െ ʹ͹͵Ǥͳͷ൰ ൅ ͵ͻǤ͹ͻ͸൰  ή ߶୉୪ 
ͳ … working potential ߮ො on boundary 8, which is the process
(2) voltage during pulse-on time reduced by the overpotentials of
For this, experimental studies were performed to determine cathode and anode according to Table 2.
the electrical conductivity of the pure electrolyte as a function ߮ො ൌ ܷ െ ܷ୭ୡ െ ܷ୭ୟ
of the temperature T. The influence of the dispersed gas (5)
bubbles on the electrical conductivity is taken into account by The values of the overpotentials Uoc = 1 V and Uoa = 5 V
multiplying the electrical conductivity of the pure electrolyte were defined according to experimental results. A summary of
ଷȀଶ
with the term ߶ ୉୪ [6, 7]. Domain II represents the solid the electrodynamic boundary conditions is given in table 2.
workpiece. The material properties defined in this domain are Table 3 summarizes the regarded machining parameters.
based on a powder-metallurgical material named SAM 10.
Domain III represents the cathode which is made from Table 2. Boundary conditions in the interface electric currents for the
stainless steel 1.4301. Domain IV represents the clamping boundaries numbered in figure 3
element of the replaceable disk and domain V the lateral Boundary Definition
insulator of the cathode. Both components are made from 1-3 Axis of symmetry
polyoxymethylene (POM).
5-7, 9, 10 ‫ܬ‬መ୬ ൌ ͲȀ…;
4 ߮ො ൌ Ͳܸ
2.2. Physics
8 ߮ො ൌ ܷ െ ܷ୭ Ǣܷ୭ ൌ ܷ୭ୡ ൅ ܷ୭ୟ
The fully coupled model developed in this study is built up
using the COMSOL Multiphysics Bubbly Flow Interface. Table 3. Machining parameters of the regarded PECM process
Turbulence is modeled with the k-ε turbulence model. The Boundary Definition
Reynolds number in the front working gap is ܴ݁ ൎ ͵ͶͲͲ vf Feed rate 1 mm/min
which is relatively low. Hence, in this study the results of the U Voltage 14 V
k-ε turbulence model are to be regarded as an approximation
cI Duty cycle 0,8
of a realistic flow field. On boundary 10 the flow inlet was
defined with a normal inflow velocity ‫ݑ‬௡ . ܸሶ୉୪ Electrolyte flow 8 l/min
ሶ
ܸ୉୪ pOut Outlet absolute 5,5 bar
‫ݑ‬௡ ൌ ൅ ‫ݒ‬୤ pressure
‫୍ܣ‬୬
(3) TU Ambient Temperature 20 °C
The flow rate ሶ୉୪ is set to 8 l/min and AIn corresponds to
the cross-sectional area of the predrilled bore. The cathode
178 Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchen et al. / Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180
3. Results of the Simulation
In figure 4 the result of the pseudo-stationary simulation of
the turbulent fluid flow is shown by means of a streamline
false color rendering. The false color represents the flow
velocity.
Fig. 4. Streamline false color rendering of the fluid flow
The electrolyte enters the simulation domain through the
predrilled bore of the workpiece with a normal velocity of
0.27 m/s and flows through the front working gap. In this area
an acceleration of the flow velocity is observed as a
consequence of the decreased flow cross-section. Here a
maximum flow velocity of 30.3 m/s occurs. Within the lateral
working gap the flow cross-section increases and hence the
flow velocity drops. When the fluid leaves the lateral working
gap its inertia leads to the formation of a vortex which fills the
area above the cathode disk. In this connection a backflow via
the outlet boundary occurs. Finally, the fluid exits the
simulation domain through the upper boundary of the model
that represents the passage to the flushing chamber. A detailed
view of the velocity field within the working gap is shown in
figure 5.
Fig. 5. Streamline false color rendering in a detailed view of the velocity field
within the working gap
It can be seen that the flow velocity maximum is located in
the working gap entering area. Along the gap the flow velocity
decreases. At the transition from the front to the lateral
working gap there is a curvature and a widening of the gap.
This leads to the detaching of the flow in the area of the lower
cathode rounding. As a consequence of this a vortex is formed
which reduces the effective flow cross-section. Near the
workpiece a wall jet is formed. This wall jet exceeds the
lateral working gap and sucks fluid from the upper side of the
cathode disk. Due to the presence of gas bubbles in the wall
jet the density of the mixture is reduced. In the experiment this
can lead to buoyancy force and support the formation of the
vortex which fills the area above the cathode disk.
When performing electrochemical machining Joule heating
occurs during the process. The released heat is removed from
the simulation domain by the fluid flow through boundary 6 as
well as by heat conduction through boundaries 4 and 8.
Figure 6 shows the temperature field in a detailed view of the
working gap.
Fig. 6. False color rendering in a detailed view of the temperature distribution
within the working gap
Here, the electrolyte enters the working gap with a
temperature of ca. 20 °C. Along the working gap the
temperature rises. The local temperature maximum in the area
of the working gap is ca. 29.7 °C and occurs near the anode in
consequence of Joule heating within the anodic double layer.
At the cathode interface there is a smaller heat release due to
the lower cathodic overpotential. In the lateral working gap
slightly increased temperatures are observed near the cathode.
In this area temperatures of ca. 27 °C to 28 °C occur as a
result of the decreased convective heat removal due to the
vortex. After exiting the working gap the released heat is
transported upwards by the wall jet near the anode wall.
In figure 7 a false color rendering of the electrolyte volume
concentration ߶୉୪ is shown. The corresponding hydrogen
volume concentration is ߶ୌమ ൌ ͳ െ ߶୉୪ .
Fig. 7. False color rendering in a detailed view of the electrolyte volume
concentration within the working gap
The fluid enters the working gap with a volume
concentration of ca. 100 % electrolyte. However, at the
cathode surface hydrogen is formed and partially displaces the
electrolyte. This mixture flows further through the gap and an
accumulation of hydrogen occurs. The minimum of the
 Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchen et al. / Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180
electrolyte volume concentration is in the front working gap
and has a value of 86 %. The minimum occurs in the area of a
pressure minimum which causes a reduction of hydrogen
density. In the lateral working gap a significant reduction of
the electrolyte volume concentration can be observed. Here,
the influence of the vortex is obvious. The vortex reduces the
convective removal of hydrogen. After exiting the working
gap the hydrogen is transported upwards by the wall jet.
According to equation 2 the electrical conductivity of the
electrolyte is influenced by the temperature and the volume
concentrations of electrolyte and hydrogen, respectively. This
can be seen when regarding the field of the effective electrical
conductivity shown in figure 8.
Fig. 8. False color rendering in a detailed view of the electrical conductivity
of the electrolyte within the working gap
The effective electrical conductivity of fresh electrolyte
that enters the front working gap with a temperature of 20 °C
is 7.27 S/m. The formation of hydrogen leads to a
progressively decreased effective electrical conductivity near
the cathode surface with a minimum value of 6.55 S/m.
Another local minimum is observed in the area of the vortex
within the lateral working gap. This is caused by a decreased
electrolyte volume concentration in the vortex. Near the anode
surface there is an increase of the effective electrical
conductivity due to higher temperatures which are a result of
Joule heating. A maximum of 8.62 S/m can be observed in the
curvature of the anode.
Based on the field of the effective electrical conductivity
shown in figure 8 electrodynamics is calculated. Figure 9
shows the magnitude of the current density in a detailed view
of the working gap.
Fig. 9. False color rendering in a detailed view of the magnitude of the
current density within the working gap
In the area of the pre-drilled bore the magnitude of the
current density is lower than 10 A/cm². At the entrance of the
front working gap the magnitude of the current density rises
up to about 100 A/cm² and remains nearly constant within the
front working gap. In the lateral working gap the magnitude of
179
the current density decreases to a value of about 30 A/cm² as a
consequence of the increased working distance. In the area of
the working gap exit above the cathode values of less than
10 A/cm² can be observed.
In the pseudo-stationary model of this work material
removal is not considered in detail. That means, the model
geometry is not deformed depending on a material removal
model. However, it is revealing to regard the normal current
density on the anode surface, since in real ECM processes it
significantly influences material removal. Not at least the
material removal rate can be modeled as a function of the
normal current density [5]. Figure 10 shows a scheme of the
geometry which divides the anode surface into 4 sections.
Fig. 10. Defined sections along the workpiece surface and the arc length L
Section A corresponds to the surface of the pre-drilled
bore. Section B and Section C are the workpiece surface in the
front working gap and lateral working gap, respectively.
Section D corresponds to the surface of the machined bore.
The arc length L is defined as a tangential boundary
coordinate on the workpiece surface, starting inside the pre-
drilled bore and increasing upwards.
In figure 11 the normal electric current density on the
workpiece surface is plotted against the arc length L. The
sections defined in figure 10 are highlighted. Furthermore, in
the figure the characteristic current density of 11 A/cm² is
marked. This value corresponds to the passivation limit of
SAM 10 with the regarded NaNO3 electrolyte. That means,
below this normal current density value no material removal
occurs.
Fig. 11. Resulting normal current density along the workpiece surface as a
function of the arc length L shown in figure 10
It can be seen that inside the pre-drilled bore the normal
current density is below 11 A/cm². Hence, no material
dissolution takes place. About 0.3 mm below the edge of the
180 Matthias Hackert-Oschätzchen et al. / Procedia CIRP 58 (2017) 175 – 180
bore the normal current density increases and exceeds the
passivation limit at L ൎ 14.7 mm. In the transition area to the
front working gap the current density rises steeply. In section
B the maximum value of the normal current density is
ca. 100 A/cm². In this section the bulk of the material
dissolution occurs. Inside the front working gap the normal
current density slightly rises until ‫ ܮ‬ൎ ͳ͹. This variation
is due to the fixed geometry in the pseudo-stationary model. In
a model incorporating geometry deformation a constant
normal current density would appear in the equilibrium status
of the front working gap as a result of geometry deformation.
In the transition area to the lateral working gap, section C, a
steep drop of the normal current density can be observed. The
low value leads to a slower material dissolution in the lateral
working gap. At ‫ ܮ‬ൎ ͳͻǤʹ the normal current density falls
below the passivation limit.
4. Summary
In this study a multiphysics simulation of the
electrochemical machining of an internal precision geometry
was performed. For this, a 2D-axisymmetric geometry of the
machining process was developed. The regarded fully coupled
physical phenomena are fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and
electrodynamics. In addition to that, the formation and
transport of hydrogen was regarded in the model. The
turbulent bubbly flow was modeled using the COMSOL
Multiphysics Bubbly Flow Interface with the k-ε turbulence
model. At the cathode hydrogen formation was modeled
according to Faraday’s law. Joule heating was regarded in the
fluid and solid domains as well as at the electrode-electrolyte
interfaces as a result of the electrochemical overpotential. The
effective electrical conductivity of the fluid in the working gap
was modeled as a function dependent on temperature and
hydrogen volume concentration. A temperature rise causes an
increase of the effective electrical conductivity, whereas the
presence of hydrogen bubbles leads to a decreased effective
electrical conductivity. Applying this simulation model the
effect of the flow field on the machining process could be
regarded. At the lateral cathode edge the formation of a vertex
was observed. The vertex leads to a reduced convective
removal of heat and hydrogen. Hence, it influences the
effective electrical conductivity, the normal current density
distribution on the workpiece and the material removal,
respectively. Furthermore, it was observed that close to the
anode Joule heating is the dominating phenomenon
concerning the effective electrical conductivity in the working
gap. There, the effective electrical conductivity is increased.
In contrast, close to the cathode hydrogen production is
dominating and reduces the effective electrical conductivity.
In general, the resulting distributions of both quantities
temperature and hydrogen volume concentration significantly
influence the machining results. The model can hence be used
to gain a better understanding of the relevant phenomena
influencing the machining process. In the context of process
design the model allows for a time- and cost-efficient
determination of proper process parameters and enables
conclusions for the optimization of the cathode geometry.
In continuative research work the developed model will be
validated experimentally regarding the total pressure drop and
hydrogen mass flux. Therefore a commercial machine tool of
type PEMCenter 8000 from PEMTec SNC (Forbach, France)
will be applied. Furthermore, the model can be extended for
predicting the surface conditions of the machined workpiece
based on the normal electric current distribution and the
microstructure of the workpiece material.
Acknowledgements
This project is funded by the Federal Ministry of
Economics and Technology, following a decision of the
German Bundestag.
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