God in Islam

ِ ْ al-ʾilāh, lit. "the God") is the absolute

In Islam, God (Arabic: َّٰ‫​ٱهلل‬, romanized: Allāh, contraction of ‫ٱإل ٰلَه‬
one, the all-powerful and all-knowing ruler of the universe, and the creator of everything in
existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular (tawḥīd​); unique (wāḥid​); inherently One
(aḥad​);[1] and also all-merciful and omnipotent.[2] According to Islam, God is neither a material
nor a spiritual being.[3] According to Islamic teachings, beyond the Throne (al-ʾArsh)[4] and
according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all
comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."[5]

In Islam there is only one God and there are 99 names of that one God (al-ʾasmāʾ al-ḥusnā lit.
meaning: "The best names"), each of which evokes a distinct attribute of God.[6][7] All these names
refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive God.[8] Among the 99 names of God, the most
familiar and frequent are "the All Merciful" (Ar-Raḥmān) and "the Especially Merciful" (Ar-
Raḥīm).[6][7] Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of prime mercy for which all
creatures praise God's attributes and bear witness to God's unity.

Contents
Etymology
Other names
Phrases and expressions
Attributes
Oneness
Creator
Mercy
Omniscience
Relationship with creation
Concepts in Islamic theology
Isma'ilism - Shia
Muʿtazila
Maturidi and Ash'ari
Sufism
Salafism and Wahhabism
Comparative theology
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Etymology
Allah is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions.[9][10][11] In the English language,
the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from
al-ilāh, which means "the god", and is related to El and Elah, the Hebrew and Aramaic words for
God.[12][13] It is distinguished from ilāh (Arabic: ‫)​إِ ٰلَه‬, the Arabic word meaning deity, which could
refer to any of the gods worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia or to any other deity.[14]

Other names
God is described and referred to in the Quran and hadith by 99 names that reflect his
attributes.[15] The Quran refers to the attributes of God as "most beautiful names".[16][17]
According to Gerhard Böwering,

They are traditionally enumerated as 99 in number to which is added as the highest

Name (al-ism al-ʾaʿẓam), the Supreme Name of Allāh. The locus classicus for listing the
Divine Names in the literature of Qurʾānic commentary is 17:110[18] “Call upon Allah,
or call upon The Merciful; whichsoever you call upon, to Allah belong the most
beautiful Names,” and also 59:22-24,[19] which includes a cluster of more than a dozen
Divine epithets."

— Gerhard Böwering, God and God's Attributes[20]

Some Muslims may use different names as much as Allah, for instance "God" in English. Whether
or not Allah can be considered as the personal name of God became disputed in contemporary
scholarship.[21]

Phrases and expressions

There are numerous conventional phrases and expressions invoking God.

Citation
Name Phrase
(Quran or Sunnah)

allāhu ʾakbaru
Takbir
‫​ٱهللَُّٰ أ َ ْكبَ ُر‬ 9:72, 29:45, 40:10
‫​تَ ْك ِبير‬
God is greater [than all things]

subḥāna llāhi
Tasbih 23:91, 28:68, 37:159, 52:43,
َِّٰ‫​سبْ َحا َن ٱهلل‬
ُ
‫س ِبيح‬
ْ َ‫​ت‬ 59:23
Glory to God

al-ḥamdu li-llāhi
Tahmid 1:2, 6:1, 29:63, 31:25, 34:1, 35:1,
َِّٰ‫​ٱ ْل َح ْم ُد هلل‬
‫​تَ ْح ِميد‬ 35:34, 39:29, 39:74, 39:75, 40:65
Praise be to God

lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāhu

Tahlil
َُّٰ‫َ​ال إِ ٰلَ َه إِ َّال ٱهلل‬ 37:38, 47:19
‫​تَ ْهلِيل‬
[There is] no god but God

muḥammadun rasūlu llāhi

Shahadatayn
َ ُ ‫س‬
َِّٰ‫ول ٱهلل‬ ُ ‫​ ُم َح َّم ٌد َر‬ 48:29
‫​ش َها َدتَ ْني‬
Muhammad is the messenger of God

bi-smi llāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīmi

Tasmiyah
ِ ‫سم ِ ٱهللَِّٰ ٱلر ْح ٰمَ ِن ٱلر‬
ِ ‫حيم‬ ْ ‫[ ​ ِب‬22] 1:1
‫س ِميَّة‬
ْ َ‫​ت‬ َّ َّ
In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful

ʾin shāʾa llāhu

Inshallah
َ ‫​إِ ْن‬ َ ‫​إِ ْن‬
َُّٰ‫شا َء ٱهلل‬ 2:70, 12:99, 18:69, 28:27, 48:27
َُّٰ‫شا َء ٱهلل‬
If God wills

mā shāʾa llāhu
Mashallah
َ ‫​ َما‬ َ ‫​ َما‬
َُّٰ‫شا َء ٱهلل‬ 6:128, 7:188, 10:49, 18:39, 87:7
َُّٰ‫شا َء ٱهلل‬
What God wills

salāmu -llāhi ʿalayhī

Alayhi as-Salam
‫​س َال ُم ٱهللَِّٰ َع َل ْي ِه‬
َ [23]
َّ ‫​ َع َليْ ِه‬
‫ٱلس َال ُم‬
Blessing of God be upon him

ṣallā llāhu ʿalayhi wa-ʾālihī wa-sallama

Salawat
‫​ص َل َوات‬
َ َ ‫​ص َّلىٰ ٱهللَُّٰ َع َليْ ِه َوآلِ ِه َو‬
‫س َّل َم‬ َ [24]

God bless him and give him salvation

raḥimahu llāhu / raḥimaka llāhu

Rahimahullah ِ ‫ ر‬/ َُّٰ‫ح َم ُه ٱهلل‬
ِ ‫​ر‬
ِ ‫​ر‬ َُّٰ‫ح َم َك ٱهلل‬ َ َ
َُّٰ‫ح َم ُه ٱهلل‬ َ
God have mercy upon him / God have mercy upon you

ʾastaġfiru llāhi
Istighfar
ََّٰ‫ستَغ ِْف ُر ٱهلل‬
ْ َ ‫​أ‬ 12:98, 19:47
‫​ٱس ِت ْغفَار‬
ْ
I seek forgiveness from God

ʾlā ḥawla wa-lā quwwata ʾillā bi-llāhi

Hawqalah Riyad as-Salihin 16:36 (http://sun
َِّٰ‫َ​ال َح ْو َل َو َال ُق َّوةَ إِ َّال ِبٱهلل‬
‫َ​ح ْو َق َلة‬ nah.com/riyadussaliheen/16/36)
There is no might nor power except in God

ʾinnā li-llāhi wa-ʾinnā ʾilayhi rājiʿūna

Istirja ِ ‫​إِنَّا هللَِّٰ َو إِنَّا إِ َليْ ِه َرا‬
‫ج ُعو َن‬
2:156, 2:46, 2:156
‫​ٱس ِت ْر َجاع‬
ْ
Indeed, (we belong) to God and indeed to Him we shall
return

jazāka llāhu ḫayran Riyad as-Salihin 17:32 (http://sun

Jazakallah nah.com/riyadussaliheen/17/32),
‫خيْ ًرا‬ َ ‫َ​جز‬
َ َُّٰ‫َاك ٱهلل‬ Tirmidhi 27:141 (http://sunnah.co
 َ ‫َ​جز‬
َُّٰ‫َاك ٱهلل‬ m/tirmidhi/27/141), Bukhari 7:3 (
http://sunnah.com/bukhari/7/3)
May God reward you well

ʾaʿūḏu bi-llāhi mina š-šayṭāni r-rajīmi

Ta'awwudh Riyad as-Salihin 1:46 (http://sunn
ِ ‫ٱلر‬
ِ ‫جيم‬ َّ ‫​أ َ ُعو ُذ ِبٱهللَِّٰ ِم َن‬
ِ َ‫ٱلش ْيط‬
َّ ‫ان‬
‫​تَ َع ُّوذ‬ ah.com/riyadussaliheen/1/46)
I seek refuge with God from the pelted Satan

fī sabīli llāhi
2:154, 2:190, 2:195, 2:218,
Fi sabilillah َ ‫ِ​في‬
َِّٰ‫س ِبي ِل ٱهلل‬
2:244, 2:246, etc.
in the cause (way) of God

yarḥamuka llāhu Bukhari 78:248 (http://sunnah.co

m/), Riyad as-Salihin 6:35 (http://
Yarhamuka-llah َُّٰ‫​يَ ْر َح ُم َك ٱهلل‬
sunnah.com/riyadussaliheen/6/3
5)
May God have mercy on you

Honorifics often said or written alongside Allah

subḥānahū wa-taʿālā[25]
Subhanahu wa- 6:100, 10:18, 16:1, 17:43, 30:40,
ٰ‫​سبْ َحانَ ُه َوتَ َعا َلى‬
ُ
Ta'ala 39:67
Praised and exalted[26][27]

tabāraka wa-taʿālā

Tabaraka wa-Ta'ala ٰ‫ار َك َوتَ َعا َلى‬

َ َ‫​تَب‬
Blessed and exalted

jalla jalālahu

Jalla Jalalah ‫[ َ​ج َّل َج َال َل ُه‬28]

May His glory be glorified

ʿazza wa-jalla

Azza wa Jall ‫​ َعزَّ َو َج َّل‬

Prestigious and Majestic

Attributes

Oneness
Islam's most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called tawhid, affirming that God is one
and incomparable (wāḥid). The basic creed of Islam, the Shahada[29] (recited under oath to enter
the religion), involves َُّٰ‫( َال إِ ٰلَ َه إِ َّال ٱهلل‬lā ʾilāha ʾilla llāh), or, "I testify there is no god other than God."

Muslims reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to
polytheism.[30] Jesus is instead believed to be a prophet.
According to Vincent J. Cornell,[31] the Quran also provides a monist image of God by describing
the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all
existing things: "He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full
knowledge of all things."[32]

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession.[33] The deification or worship of
anyone or anything other than God (shirk) is the greatest sin in Islam. The entirety of the Islamic
teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.[34]

Creator

God is the creator of the universe and all the creatures in it.[35]

Praise be to Allah, the Creator of the heavens and the earth, Who appointeth the angels
messengers having wings two, three and four. He multiplieth in creation what He will.
Lo! Allah is Able to do all things.

— Quran 35:1 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3

A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D35%3Averse%3D1) (Translated by Pickthall)

We have built the heaven with might, and We it is Who make the vast extent (thereof).

— Quran 51:47 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%

3A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D51%3Averse%3D47) (Translated by Pickthall)

Verily We created man from a product of wet earth; Then placed him as a drop (of
seed) in a safe lodging; Then fashioned We the drop a clot, then fashioned We the clot a
little lump, then fashioned We the little lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh,
and then produced it as another creation. So blessed be Allah, the Best of creators!

— Quran 23:12-14 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Ate

xt%3A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D23%3Averse%3D12-14) (Translated
by Pickthall)

Mercy
The most commonly used names in the primary sources are Al-Rahman, meaning "Most
Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful".[36] The former compasses the whole
creation, therefore applying to God's mercy in that it gives every necessary condition to make life
possible. The latter applies to God's mercy in that it gives favor for good deeds. Thus Al-Rahman
includes both the believers and the unbelievers, but Al-Rahim only the believers.[37][38] God is said
to love forgiving, with a hadith stating God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but
still asked repentance.[39]
His mercy takes many forms as he says in the Quran "and My Mercy embraces all things." [7:156]
This is shown in Sahih Muslim narrated from Abu Hurairah, who said the Prophet said:

Allah has one hundred parts of mercy, of which He sent down one between the jinn,
mankind, the animals and the insects, by means of which they are compassionate and
merciful to one another, and by means of which wild animals are kind to their
offspring. And Allah has kept back ninety-nine parts of mercy with which to be
merciful to His slaves of the Day of Resurrection.[40][41]

God's mercy, according to Islamic theology, is what gets a person into paradise. According to a
hadith in Sahih Al Bukhari "No one’s deeds will ever admit him to Paradise." They said, "Not even
you, O Messenger of Allah?" He said, "No, not even me unless Allah showers me with His Mercy.
So try to be near to perfection. And no one should wish for death; he is either doing good so he will
do more of that, or he is doing wrong so he may repent."[41][42]

Omniscience

God is fully aware of everything that can be known.[43] This includes private thoughts and feelings.
The Quran asserts that one can not hide anything from God:

And, [O Muhammad], you are not [engaged] in any matter or recite any of the Qur'an
and you [people] do not do any deed except that We are witness over you when you are
involved in it. And not absent from your Lord is any [part] of an atom's weight within
the earth or within the heaven or [anything] smaller than that or greater but that it is in
a clear register.

— Quran, Surah Yunus (10), Ayah 61[44]

And indeed We have created man, and We know what his ownself whispers to him.
And We are nearer to him than his jugular vein.

— Quran, Surah Qaf (50), Ayah 16

Relationship with creation

Muslims believe that God is the only true reality and sole source of all creation. Everything
including its creatures are just a derivative reality created out of love and mercy by God's
command,[45] "..."Be," and it is."[2][46] and that the purpose of existence is to worship or to know
God.[47][48][49] It is believed that God created everything for a divine purpose; the universe
governed by fixed laws that ensure the harmonious working of all things. Everything within the
universe, including inanimated objects, praises God, and is in this sense understood as a
muslim.[50] An exception are humans, who are endowed with free-will and must live voluntarily in
accordance with these laws to live to find peace and reproduce God's benevolence in their own
society to live in accordance with the nature of all things, known as surrender to God in the Islamic
sense.[50][51]
As in the other Abrahamic religions, God is believed to communicate with his creation via
revelations given to prophets to remind people of God. The Quran in particular is believed by
Muslims to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to Muhammad. Hadith are the records of
Muhammad's sayings and example, and Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, which Muslims
regard as the words of God repeated by Muhammad. According to Ali ibn Mohammed al-Jurjani,
the Hadith Qudsi differ from the Quran in that the former are "expressed in Muhammad's words",
whereas the latter are the "direct words of God".[52] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to
contact God who states in the Quran, "It was We Who created man, and We know what dark
suggestions his soul makes to him: for We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."[53] People
may enter a particular relationship with God any time and in different circumstances through the
divine names or attributes. Thus God is also a personal God who responds whenever a person in
need or distress calls Him.[2][54] Muhammad al-Bukhari, in his Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī, narrates a ḥadīth
qudsī that God says, "I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am."[55][56] When Sufis claim union
with God, it is not that they become one in essence, rather the will of the Sufi is fully congruent to
God.[57]

The Quran rejects dualism of Persian Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, which regarded good and
evil, light and darkness as two distinct and independed powers. The Quran affirms both powers to
be equally God's creation. Satan is not an independent power, but subordinated to God.[58]

Concepts in Islamic theology

Isma'ilism - Shia

According to Isma'ilism, God is absolutely transcendent and unknowable;[59] beyond matter,

energy, space, time, change, imaginings, intellect, positive as well as negative qualities. All
attributes of God named in rituals, scriptures or prayers refers not to qualities God possesses, but
to qualities emanated from God, thus these are the attributes God gave as the source of all
qualities, but God does not consist on one of these qualities.[60] One philosophical definition of the
world Allah is " The Being Who concentrates in Himself all the attributes of perfection " [61] or "
the Person Who is the Essential Being, and Who encompasses all the attributes of perfection".[61]
Since God is beyond all wordings, Isma'ilism also denies the concept of God as the first cause.[62]

Muʿtazila
The Muʿtazilites reject the anthropomorphic attributes of God because an eternal being "must be
unique". Accordingly, attributes would make God comparable. The descriptions of God in the
Quran are considered to be allegories.[63] Nevertheless, the Muʿtazilites thought God contains
oneness (tawhid) and justice. Other characteristics like knowledge are not attributed to God;
rather they describe his essence. Otherwise eternal attributes of God would give rise to multiplicity
entities existing eternal besides God.[64]

Maturidi and Ash'ari

Ash'ari and Maturidi are in agreement that God's attributes are eternal but neither hold to be
metaphorically (unlike Mu'tazilla) nor literally.[65] References to anthropomorphic attributes can
probably not be understood correctly by humans.[66] Although God's existence is considered to be
possibly known by reason, human mind can not fully understand God's attributes. For example,
when humans in paradise see God, they do not see God in the way humans are able to see on
Earth.[66] Ashʿari asserts, since God is the creator of everything that exists and creation does not
affect nor alter God, the Throne of God is not a dwelling place for God.[67] Accordingly,
expressions such as God is above his Throne means, God exist unattached of any place

Sufism
Since God in Islam is transcendental and sovereign but also immanent and omnipresent, the Sufi
view holds that in reality, only God exists. Thus everything in creation is reflecting an attribute of
God's names. Yet these forms are not God themselves.[68] The Sufi Saint Ibn Arabi stated: There is
nothing but God. This statement was mistakenly equalized to Pantheism by critics; however, Ibn
Arabi always made a clear distinction between the creation and the creator.[69] Since God is the
Absolute Reality,[70] the created worlds and their inhabitants are merely illusions. They just exist
because of God's command Kun, but everything that would be, was already known by God.[71]

Salafism and Wahhabism

Salafism and Wahhabism refuse interpretations on Quran to avoid altering of its message, thus
taking the descriptions of God literally and oppose widespread theological concepts including the
Ash'ari view.[72] Therefore, descriptions such as "God's hands" or "sitting on (above) a throne,
should be taken at their linguistic meaning, without asking how, as it is regarded as the only
possibility to understand God's attributes.[73]

Comparative theology
Islamic theology identifies God as described in the Quran as the same God of Israel who
covenanted with Abraham.[74] It rejects the belief once held by pre-Islamic Arabians that God has
daughters. Islam and Judaism alike reject the Trinity of Christianity. But the Islamic concept of
God is less personal than in the Judeo-Christian tradition,[48] and is known only from natural
signs and can only be spoken about in parables.[75] Muslim Turks further assimilated Tengri, the
personification of the eternal heaven, with the Islamic concept of God.[76]

See also
Conceptions of God
Existence of God
God in Abrahamic religions

References
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2. "Allah." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
 3. Benjamin W. McCraw, Robert Arp Philosophical Approaches to Demonology Taylor & Francis
2017 ISBN 9781315466767 page 138
4. Britannica Encyclopedia, Islam, p. 3
5. Quran 6:103 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.000
4%3Asura%3D6%3Averse%3D103) (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
6. Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the
Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
7. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, Allah
8. Annemarie Schimmel,The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic,
SUNY Press, p.206
9. "God" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgo
d.html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Archived from the original (https://www.pbs.org/empires/is
lam/faithgod.html) on 2014-03-27. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
10. "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and
Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
11. Gardet, L. "Allah" (http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/allah-
COM_0047). In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.
(eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Online. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
12. Zeki Saritoprak (2006). "Allah" (https://books.google.com/books?redir_esc=y&id=isDgI0-0Ip4C
&q=ilah#v=snippet&q=ilah&f=false). In Oliver Leaman (ed.). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia.
Routledge. p. 34.
13. Vincent J. Cornell (2005). "God: God in Islam". In Lindsay Jones (ed.). Encyclopedia of
Religion. 5 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA. p. 724.
14. "God" (https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS.
Retrieved 2010-12-18.
15. Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the
Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
16. Quran 7:180 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.000
6%3Asura%3D7%3Averse%3D180), Quran 17:110 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D17%3Averse%3D110), Quran 20:8 (http:
//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D20
%3Averse%3D8), Quran 59:24 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Ate
xt%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D59%3Averse%3D24)
17. "Names of God - Oxford Islamic Studies Online" (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/o
pr/t125/e1708). oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 2018-08-13. "Encouraged by the Quran
(7:180; 17:110; 20:8), Muslims selected ninety-nine attributes of God, describing His
perfection, from the Quran and traditions. Referred to as “the most beautiful names of God,”
they describe a range of characteristics that balances the power of God (the Creator, the
Sovereign, and the All-Knowing) with His love and mercy (the All-Loving, the Most Gracious,
and the All-Forgiving). The names are frequently memorized and used in supplications.
Preceded by the words Abd or Amat (male or female servant), they are often used in proper
names (e.g., Abd al-Rahman, “servant of the Merciful”)."
18. Quran 17:110 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.00
06%3Asura%3D17%3Averse%3D110)
19. Quran 59:22–24 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.
0006%3Asura%3D59%3Averse%3D22)
20. Böwering, Gerhard. "God and God Attributes". Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.
21. Andreas Görke and Johanna Pink Tafsir and Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the
Boundaries of a Genre Oxford University Press in association with The Institute of Ismaili
Studies London ISBN 978-0-19-870206-1 p. 478
22. The phrase is encoded at Unicode code point U+FDFD ﷽
23. The phrase is encoded as a ligature at Unicode code point FDFA ‫ﷺ‬
24. The phrase is encoded as a ligature at Unicode code point FDFA ‫ﷺ‬
25. Often abbreviated "SWT" or "swt".
26. Grob, Eva Mira (2010). Documentary Arabic private and business letters on papyrus: form and
function, content and context (https://books.google.com/books?id=yTSOUNIHJiwC&pg=PA26).
New York, N.Y.: De Gruyter. p. 26. ISBN 3110247046.
27. Reynolds, Gabriel Said, ed. (2011). New perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in its
historical context 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6dqoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA259).
London: Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 1136700781.
28. The phrase is encoded as a ligature at Unicode code point U+FDFB ‫ﷻ‬
29. Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85,
27–272
30. The concise Oxford dictionary of world religions (http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093
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32. Quran 57:3 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0004
%3Asura%3D57%3Averse%3D3) (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
33. D. Gimaret, Tawhid, Encyclopaedia of Islam
34. Tariq Ramadan (2005), p.203
35. "Islam: An Overview - Oxford Islamic Studies Online" (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/arti
cle/opr/t125/e1087). oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 2018-08-13. "Allah is believed to be
the transcendent, all-powerful, and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the
universe."
36. Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the
Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
37. Prince Sorie Conteh Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Africa: Interreligious
Encounters and Dialogue Cambria Press 2009 ISBN 978-1-604-97596-3 page 80
38. Mahmoud Ayoub The Qur'an and Its Interpreters, Volume 1 SUNY Press 1984 ISBN 978-0-
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39. "Allah would replace you with a people who sin" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131014174102
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40. "My Mercy Prevails Over My Wrath" (http://www.onislam.net/english/ask-about-islam/faith-and-
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www.onislam.net. Retrieved 2015-10-04.
41. "The Mercy of Allah Towards His slaves - islamqa.info" (https://islamqa.info/en/20468).
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42. "The Spiritual Season Part 3: Ramadan | Al-Madina Institute Blog" (http://almadinainstitute.org/
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43. "BBC - Religions - Islam: Basic articles of faith" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/b
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45. Sachiko Murata The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought
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6%3Asura%3D2%3Averse%3D117)
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48. David Leeming The Oxford Companion to World Mythology Oxford University Press 2005
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50. Roger S. GottliebThe Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology Oxford University Press, 9
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51. Rebecca Stein, Philip L. Stein The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft Routledge
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6%3Asura%3D2%3Averse%3D186)
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57. Maha Elkaisy-Friemuth God and Humans in Islamic Thought: Abd Al-Jabbar, Ibn Sina and Al-
Ghazali Routledge 2006 ISBN 978-1-134-14676-5 page 146
58. Shabbir Akhtar The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam Routledge, 31 Oct
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59. Farhad Daftary Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions Routledge 2017 ISBN 978-1-351-
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61. Tabatabai, Muhammad Husayn. Tafsir al-Mizan (https://almizan.org/). 1, 2. pp. 45, 140.
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62. Arzina R. Lalani Degrees of Excellence: A Fatimid Treatise on Leadership in Islam I.B.Tauris
2009 ISBN 978-0-857-71202-8 page 3
63. John Renard Islamic Theological Themes: A Primary Source Reader Univ of California Press
2014 ISBN 978-0-520-95771-8 page 138
64. Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes Dictionary of Islam Asian Educational Services, 1995
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65. Abdullah Saeed Islamic Thought: An IntroductionRoutledge 2006 ISBN 978-1-134-22564-4
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66. Andrew Rippin Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Psychology Press 2005
ISBN 978-0-415-34888-1 page 86
67. Imam Al-Bayhaqi Allah's Names and Attributes ISCA 1999 ISBN 978-1-930-40903-3 page 19
68. Karin Jironet The Image of Spiritual Liberty in the Western Sufi Movement Following Hazrat
68. Karin Jironet The Image of Spiritual Liberty in the Western Sufi Movement Following Hazrat
Inayat Khan Peeters Publishers 2002 ISBN 978-9-042-91205-2 page 32
69. J. I. Laliwala Islamic Philosophy of Religion: Synthesis of Science Religion and Philosophy
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74. According to Francis Edward Peters, "The Quran insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm
that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews [see Quran 29:46 (http://
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3Averse%3D46)]. The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham".
75. Rebecca Stein, Philip L. Stein The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft Routledge
2017 ISBN 9781315532158 chapter: Islam
76. Yves Bonnefoy Asian Mythologies University of Chicago Press 1993 ISBN 9780226064567 p.
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Bibliography
Al-Bayhaqi (1999), Allah's Names and Attributes, ISCA, ISBN 1-930409-03-6
Hulusi, Ahmed (1999), "Allah" as introduced by Mohammed, Kitsan, 10th ed., ISBN 975-7557-
41-2
Muhaiyaddeen, M. R. Bawa (1976), Asmāʼul-Husnā: the 99 beautiful names of Allah, The
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Netton, Ian Richard (1994), Allah Transcendent: Studies in the Structure and Semiotics of
Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Cosmology, Routledge, ISBN 0-7007-0287-3

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