Human Bones From A Late Minoan IB House at Knossos

Human Bones from a Late Minoan IB House at Knossos
Author(s): S. M. Wall, J. H. Musgrave and P. M. Warren

Source: The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 81 (1986), pp. 333-388
Published by: British School at Athens
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30102903
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HUMAN BONES FROM
A LATE MINOAN IB HOUSE AT KNOSSOS
(PLATES 21-37)
AMONG the most intriguing discoveries in the recent excavations in the city of Knossos,
Stratigraphical Museum site, was the find of human bones in a small room of a Late Minoan IB
(c.I1450Bc) house, which occupied the north-easternpart of the site.' About 35.7 per cent of these
bones were observed to bear knife marksof a kind which suggested that flesh had been cut from
them.2 A selection of the finds was presented with detailed photographs in preliminary reports
soon after their discovery.3The purpose of the present paper is to make available the full osteo-
logical record from the room in question, so that the facts on which interpretative discussions
have been based4can be evaluated and future discussionpromoted. We are concerned here with
the physical situation, the finds, their contexts and possibleways of understandingthe latter;we
are not concerned with the wider questions of meaning or interpretation, with what lay behind
the treatment of the bones (for which see n. 3). Section I describesin detail the stratigraphyand
distributionof the finds, II sets out the osteological record, III analyses in more detail the skulls
and mandibles and their evidence for age, IV summarizesreasonsfor the treatmentof the bodies
and bones, and considersthe condition of the human individuals at death, and V concludes with
some comparative evidence.
I. STRATIGRAPHY, DISTRIBUTION AND FIND CONTEXTS

The room in which the bones were found (the Room of the Children's Bones) lay on the
western side of the house and was entered through a doorway on the east, opening off a north-
south Corridor(FIG. I). The room itself (PLATE2 Ia) was small, 1.85 m EW, I. Io m NS; the door-
way was o.64 m wide. The room, like the Corridorand other rooms of the preservedremainsof
the North House, was really a basement or semi-basementin relation to the east-west road which
fronted the house on the south (FIG. I). The level of the road was 1.62 m above the basements'
original floor. Thus the roomsabove the basementsformed the ground floor of the house or, more
1 For a preliminary report on the house, P. M. Warren, 2 Table 2 (p. 374) shows that seventy-nine bones out of a
'Knossos:StratigraphicalMuseum Excavations, 1978-80. Part minimum number of 199 identified bones bear cut marks. If
I', AR 198o-I 79-92 (hereafter'Knossos Part I'). one subtractsfrom seventy-nine the eight limb bone fragments
Excavation in the Room of the Children's Bones was which could possibly belong to identified limb bones, and so
supervisedby Dr K. Boreland and Dr D. Evely (I979), Miss S. takesseventy-one as the minimum number ofidentified marked
Mossman (i98o) and Dr Boreland (1981), with Miss Wall bones, the marked percentage is 35-7. This is the maximum
collaborating in the planning and removal of the bones. The percentage. The best minimum is 2 I.7 per cent, calculated from
final plan tracing of the building (FIG. I) is by Mr D. Smyth. the catalogue total of fragments after joins were made (327)
The section at FIG.2 was drawn in its original version by Dr and the minimum number of marked bones (71). The per-
Evely. Drawings of bones (FIGS.5-II) are by Miss Wall. centage of all marked bones among all fragments, seventy-nine
Photographsof the skullsand mandibles are by Musgrave, with out of 37I, is 21.3.
one or two by Wall; microscope photographs of bones (PLATES 3 'Knossos: Part I', figs. 54-63. See also Warren, 'Minoan
32a, d, 33b, d, 35d, 37b-d) are by Dr Evely; the other Crete and Ecstatic Religion. Preliminary Observations on the
photographs are by Warren. They are printed by Mr G. 1979 Excavations at Knossos', in R. Higg and N. Marinatos
Kelsey, Head of the Faculty of Arts Photographic Unit, (eds.), Sanctuariesand Cults in the AegeanBronzeAge (Skrifter
University of Bristol. Utgivnaav SvenskaInstituteti Athen40 xxviii) (Ig81) figs. 1o,
Section I is by P. W., with bone identificationsby S. W., II is 12-19, including drawings by Wall; Knossos: 'New Excava-
by S. W., III by J. H. M., IV and V by P. W., though all tions and Discoveries', Archaeology37 (1984) col. figs. at
authors have read and commented on all sections. 4 See n. 3 above.
PP-49, 52.
334 S. M. WALL, J. H. MUSGRAVE AND P. M. WARREN
Frescoes
the Door
Facade
of ..
House
Room
Drain
SWell
Rom
Cult
House
SBasement
Wall
Gutter North
Road Back
:Well Road The
f Kiln I.
Court Corridor
FIG.
North 5m
a
Bones
Children's Ik
3 aSouth
i
HUMAN BONES FROM A LATE MINOAN IB HOUSE AT KNOSSOS 335
strictly, a raised ground floor when allowance is made for standing height in the basements.
These, including the Room of the Children'sBones, may have been reached from the southernor
road entrance to the house via the ground floor and a narrow stone stairway, whose badly dis-
turbed stone blocks were found descending northwardsin the Corridor.But access to the Room
of the Children'sBones was more certainly gained from the North Court through a wooden door
at the north end of the Corridor.
The west wall of the room had a maximum preservedheight of 1.95 m, the north wall I.6o m,
though it was badly disturbed in its central part by the southern edge of a vast pit or area of soil
disturbedin post-Minoan times, which extended over the whole westernhalf of the North Court;
the south wall, built of small stones, stood to 1.4I m and the east wall (north-eastcorner block of
room) to 1.53 m. No remains of plaster were found on the walls and objects found right against
the stones indicate that there was none originally.
The fill of the room was as follows (FIG.2). At the bottom there had once been a white plaster
floor, with a red-painted border, laid over orange-red natural soil. This floor was preservedin a
strip 0.20-0.25 m wide round the edges of the room, though pale, powdery material towards the
centre must have representedits decay there. The floor, site depth 9.98 m,5 appeared also in pre-
servedstripsround the edges of the room to the south and ran under that room'swest wall. It was
almost certainly Middle Minoan in date and had formed part of the MM (probably MM II)
house to the west, which was extensively plastered.6
Over the floor was a level about 0.20 m thick of greyish, clayey soil with red-brown lenses
(FIG.2, I). This level contained LM I sherds (diagnostic fragments can all be LM IB) and animal
bones. Some sherdsand bones had green stainsor coating, but this featuredid not show in the soil
itself. Above came similar soil, perhaps more greenish grey and with increasing charcoal flecks
and fragments. With the animal bone debris and sherds were now, at i o. 18, three more or less
complete conical cups on the west side of the room. They were the lowest of many on this western
side, twenty others being found in the deposit, which rose on this side to 10.48-10.56 (PLATE
2 Ib). With the conical cups were two of the same form but with handles, a beautiful LM IB
S-profilecup with dark, speckleddecoration on an orange-redground (PLATE 22a), a similarcup
with dark wash and a fragment with spirals, probably from a cup-rhyton. For further vases, at
the very top of the level, see below.
On the eastern side of the room, in the same grey clayey level with charcoal, were a frag-
mentary bowl with rim pinched up at four points, a red-brownwash bowl with incurving profile
and fragments of a Marine Style cup decorated with sprays and diagonally placed, inverted
tritons, with rockwork at the base (PLATE 22b). Fragments apparently of this same cup were
found at the same depth and in a similar deposit of conical cups in the next room to the south.
This implies either that at some point in time material from the floor above fell into the two
rooms, the cup breaking and parts falling into each room (a circumstance noticed with large
vessels in other rooms of the house), or that the deposit in each room included rubbish from a
single source other than a fall from above, and which may have got there before or at the same
time as the whole conical cups and other vasesgot into their survivingpositions. (If either of these
things happened before the final destruction, then the Marine Style was in existence anterior to
the final, still LM IB use of the room). It is not easy to decide between these hypotheses, though
the matter clearly has a bearing on the understanding of the physical circumstances of deposition
of the important material in the next level above. The apparent absence of other links between
6 The site datum (12.96 m) was the south-west corner of the figurethe lowerits absolutedepth.Thusa findat 10.50m is
pavement surround of the Stratigraphical Museum. For site 0.50 m belowone at i.oo
i m.
depth measurements(mostly lower than I2.96 m) the lower the 6 'Knossos:PartI' 74;H.W.Catling,ARI98I-2 53.
1200 -
TOPOFWESTWALL(PROJECTED)
LM//
III
WALL
WA- P 319
P324
P 351
11-00-
SOUTH
WALL
SOUTH NORTH
U FLOOR
10"00--0 \WHITE
PLASTER
0 50 100 cms
I I I
FIG.2. Section A-A (See FIG.4), Room of the Children'sBones. Level I. Soft, grey, clayey, with red-brownlens, increasingcharcoal
fleckstowards top of level. Level 2. Soft, black, carbonized earth and wood, with yellow-brown, unburnt lens. Human bone. Level 3.
Light brown, clayey, with carbonized timbers in lower part
the two rooms at this level and the fact that the vase in question is a small cup suggest that we are
not here dealing with upper floor fall. Furthermore,the 'conical cup level' which we have been
describing, 10.56-10.33 on the west, gave the impression of being in situ, an uneven floor or use
deposit, not fallen. If however the conical cups (and the Marine Style cup along with them) had
fallen at the time of destruction, then the material above them had fallen too. Alternatively, if
these vases had fallen at some point before the final destruction, and thus were already in situat
the time of destruction, the material above them could also have been in situat the final moment,
i.e. did not fall from above in that event. The matter is discussedfurtherbelow, in relation to the
upper levels of fill in the room.
Overlying the grey clay level (FIG. 2,I) with conical cups and other vases was a distinctly
differentone of soft, black, carbonized earth (the origin of which is pointed out below), including
within it a lens ofunburnt brown and yellow (mud brick) earth in the central and east part of the
room. The black level sloped down from the west, where its top was at 1I.o6/10.9I, to the east,
below 10.43. At the top of the underlying greenish-greyclayey level with charcoal (see above) in
the south-west corner of the room were three conical cups at 0o.54-10.51 and an exquisite reed
bowl at o10.50 (PLATE 22C),accompanied by human bones (56), three rib fragments, at 10.52
(FIG.3A; PLATE 22d, where one of the bones is seen lying on a conical cup, with the reed bowl,
inverted, to the right). little to the south-east, near the south wall, was a triangular bronze
A
fragment, perhaps from tweezers, at 1o.55. Further east, in the centre of this south side at the
same depth, the lowest black layer, sloping down eastwards,is still present and had an unburnt
lens directly above it. Within the unburnt soil was a conical cup, while at the transition of lens
and black below it were human bones (4ob)-(42) (FIG. 3A; PLATE 23a), part of a skull, radius,
femur, fibula, eleven rib fragments (one with knife cuts), the mandible of an eight-year-oldchild,
pelvis fragmentsand two limb bone fragments (one with knife cuts), together with a flat-rimmed
jug (P390) at o0.52 (PLATE 23b). Just west of this group was a sheep scapula and four conical
cups at about 10.55. North-east of the group (4ob)-(42), at 10.43, was a juglet (P326)7
(PLATE 23a lower right), while in the lowest black level itselfwere seven more conical cups. In the
doorway of the room was another conical cup, a human femur fragment, a rib fragment and
a metacarpal (cat. nos. 276, 140, 237), and animal bones, together with charcoal, at about
Io.50o.
The charcoal might have come from a burnt door sill;if not, since the black level lay below 10o.43
a little furtherwest in the room, it will have been the same material as the rest of the black level.
The human bones so far cited were the lowest of a large number spread throughout and con-
fined to the soft, black level (FIG. 3A-B). Their depths ranged from I0.52/10.50 (those already
cited) up to Io.85. Although this bone level was accompanied by vases (see below) and although
ribs (56) were at the top of the underlying level, this one instance should not obscure the clear
distinction between the two levels, soft, black, carbonized earth with human bones and some
pots above a grey clayey level with no human bones, except (56) at its top, and many more pots.
It would seem thereforethat the human bones and some of a sheep scatteredwith them were put
or got into the room after the conical cups and other vases below them. There is no way of
estimating any interval of time, though the directjuxtaposition at (56) strongly suggests that if
there was any interval it cannot have been long. The human bones and those of the sheep were
unburnt, which clearly indicates that the black, carbonized earth, in its original form at the
moment of destruction, subsided over them. This earth is simply the decayed form of burnt
timbers, some of which still preserved their form at the top of the black level (see below). In
addition to the sheep vertebrae there were other animal bones in the room, both burnt and
unburnt (see section II, below, and Table i).
It will be seen from the plans (FIG.3A-B) that with the exception of the group (4ob)-(42) the
bones were confined to little more than the western third of the room. They were scattered in a
completely mixedjumble through and across their 0.35 m thick layer within the black level (see
above). While the detailed distribution may conveniently be described in three concentrations,
these in fact formed a continuous mass acrossthe westernarea (FIG.3B); a fourth concentration is
(40b)-(42) just east of the centre of the room and already described, as they lay near the base of
the level.
Near the south-west corner, above and just east of ribs (56), was the group of bones (55) at
Io.68 (PLATE23C); these comprised part of the left mandible (age twelve years) belonging to
'Knossos: Part I' fig. 52; 'Minoan Crete and Ecstatic Religion... .', op. cit. (see n. 3 above) fig. Io.
pots
and
bones
underlies
side
DO RWAY west
C00ORWAY on
Material
P326 2.
FIG.
of
#42
41
2 orientation
for
cup P39o
P390 3B
stratum
FIG.
@
onical cup
burnt
in from
c
C.Cup
levels
shown
337 50cmcapusa low
P354 15 at (16)
24 285 29-P51
13
Skull
mostly
3B.
317u&
P 57 P572 pots,
P577
-36
P574c.cu P541
50cms
FIG.
andin
P316 563
Bones
PS44
Bones.
0
Children's
the
of
Room
N 3A.
FIG.
FIG.
in
2
S9DORWAY stratum
Burnt
3A.
FIG.
in
material
o the
vertebrae
Sheep
P325
P"n2 314 overlying
.40a OP
pots
P312
~P313
06 and
148 8* Bones
ss 10
Stone
84-:19
Bones.
n1720
3 23P,2522
4/ 50cms
21 46-S%%49
51 55~4
47 *P33
51 Children's
the
of
0
Room
3B.
FIG.
skull B (see below), a left maxilla (from skull B), two femora fragments, a limb bone fragment
with chop marks, a first phalanx, a metacarpal or metatarsal and two ribs. Directly over these
bones were <54>, a pelvis fragment, two femora fragments,tibia, fibula, rib, and skull fragment,
at 10.71, with <53>, a tibia and a rib, immediately south, at o.75.Just north-east of these groups
was bone <50), a burnt animal skull fragment, at 10.70. North-east of <54> and <55> were
humerus <38>, with chop and knife marks, and the group <39> at around io.6o; this group
comprisedtwo skullfragments,two rib fragments,a tooth, two femora, a fibula, metatarsal, limb
bone fragment, and a left ischium. Still in the south-west area were a vertebra and metacarpal
<44> against the west wall, at io.85 one of the two highest bone groups in the room, and <45>, a
metatarsal and a limb bone fragment, beside.the south wall at 10.78.
Moving just north-eastof<38>, <39>, and <50> we come (PLATE 24a) to the spread consisting
of <(4, an os ilium, beside <39> on the north-east, tibia <o)> and group <9>, which comprised
seventeen rib fragments, six vertebrae (one cervical with knife cut), pubis, fibula, and
metatarsal.Just to the east (PLATE 24a) were skull <3> (belonging to skull A), mandible <3a>,
with knife cuts, also belonging to skull A, and, also (3a>, three ribs and two thoracic and one
lumbar vertebrae, <6>, pelvis (os coxa) and ilium and <6a>, four rib fragments (one with knife
marks), a skull fragment and three vertebrae. All these bones lay at about 10.70- 10.6o. Under
<9> were skull A fragment <I )>,two phalanges (<12>,tooth <13), left femur <I4> (under and
west of <9>), and skullB fragment < 15), around Io.6o or slightly lower. East of this spread and in
the lowest part of the deposit, at about Io.55, were the sheep scapula and four conical cups
referredto above, just west of group <4ob>-<42> and the jug with this group (FIG.3A).
There remains the large concentration which occupied the north-western part of the room
(FIG.3B), its southern edge lyingjust north of the group <9>, described above. In the north-west
corner, lying very near the west wall, was group (48), the frontal bone of skull B (PLATE 23d), a
fibula, four vertebrae fragments, six rib fragments (one with knife cuts), a radius and an incisor
tooth, all at Io.84, with pelvis <47> and the other bones of group (47> (fragmentof right femur,
joining fragments in (24> and (36), two skull B fragments, eight rib fragments and two
vertebrae) on top of and behind skull (48), at io.85. Under group (48> was a conical cup (P 577)
against the west wall at 10.71, while to the east was another (P 543), at 10.67 (FIG.3A). North-
east of<48) were bones <17> to <21>, namely a radius and ribs, together with a tooth and two
thoracic vertebrae not certainly in this group, and humerus <30> at about 10.70. South of<48)
were rib <46> at Io.8I and rib fragmentsand skull B fragment <49> at 10.76; close to <46> were
two scapulae (35), both with knife marks.South of<49> were the bones of group (43), two ribs,
a limb bone fragment and part of skull A, at 10.77, group <51), comprising more fragments of
skullA, a fragmentof pelvis, three ribs, a fibula, and a metacarpal, against the west wall at 10.84,
and finally, to the south of<(5I> and <43), group <52>, comprisinga skullfragment (which could
belong to any of the skulls A, B, or C), two ribs, a metacarpal, an incisor, and a left femur, at
10.72. North of (<52) and lower in the level was rib <57>, at 10.59-
Returning to I7)> to <21> we note south-east of them and east of <46> a mass of skull
fragments and other bones and a few conical cups, at depths from about IO.7Oto Io.55. <16> and
<23), from skull A (PLATE 24b), and (<I, from skull B, east of (16) (PLATE24a), were the main
pieces. Under (23) was a conical cup (P 317) at IO.55, with another (P 316) a little to the west at
(16) was a red wash conical cup (P 315) at 10.70 and beside the
o10.60(FIG. 3A). South-east of<i
latter another (P 349), also in red wash (PLATE 25a right), at the same depth. Immediately north
of skull B fragment (I) was another conical cup (P 354) (PLATE 25a left), deeper at io.50. East of
the same skull fragment were three more conical cups (P 312-14), at Io.6o. Just north-east of
these were two articulated sheep vertebrae, unburnt, one of them with a knife cut, in the Io.5os
(FIG.3B). Immediately south of skull fragment (i) were mandible (7), right femur (2), with
knife cuts (this bone joins (37)), and group (8), a rib, skull fragment, four vertebrae and a
humerus (PLATE24a). Underneath skull fragment (I) were bones (26) and (27), nine rib
fragments, a skull A fragment, a small pelvis fragment, right and left femora and tibiae, a right
fibula, and a limb bone fragment. Under these two groups were (32), eight rib fragments (one
with knife cuts) and a radius, and (33), a right ilium fragment and a mandible fragment
belonging to skull B. Below fallen stones (10.7o), west of(26), were (FIG.3A) the bones of group
(24), two clavicles with knife marks, six rib fragments, a humerus, radius, os ilium, two tibiae,
a fibula, a limb bone fragment, and a fragment of right femur (joining two other fragments, in
groups (36) and (47)), group (3'), a skull A fragment and a skull B mandible fragment, a
lumbar vertebra, rib, clavicle, ulna, os ilium, and two tibiae fragments, group (28), a clavicle,
two vertebrae, and a fragmentofos ischium, and group (29), ribs?,in the Io.6os. Below andjust
north of(24) were right femur (36) (joiningfragmentsin (24) and (47)) and right femur (37)
(joining bone (2)), in the io.5os and south-west of the conical cup P 354. The bones of groups
(36) and (37) (and their joining fragments) were right femurs of two individuals; (27)
indicates a third individual and other right femur fragments a fourth (see p. 376 and cat. nos.
270-6). South of skull A fragment (23) and west of the red wash conical cup P 349 were bone
groups (25) (PLATE 24b) and (22). Bone group (25) comprised twenty-two rib fragments
(three with knife marks), one metatarsal with knife marks, a clavicle, a limb bone fragment,
phalanges, vertebrae, and pelvic fragments. (22) was an animal rib.
Against the north wall were skull B fragment and rib fragment (4oa), at 10.79, and,
immediately south and lower in the level, a conical cup with a dark band at the rim, P 325
(PLATE 25a second from right), at 10.6o-10.55. Two more conical cups (P 976-7) also came from
along the north wall.
Other bones from the black level are included in the catalogue. Among them is a skull
fragmentcarefullycut as part of a circle (PLATE 3 Ia). If a complete circle of bone was removed its
diameter was about 7 cm. The surviving piece may thus be a product of trephining.8The piece
does not belong to either of the two reconstituted skulls, A and B, and so is evidence for a third
individual, C. Of two loose teeth from the same level, one almost certainly cannot belong to skull
A or B and the other could have come froma skull other than A or B (see p. 382). There is no way
of knowing if they belong with skull fragment C.
From the black level there also came two typical small bowls with reed pattern, P 322 (PLATE
25a) and P 571, one of them having a fragment down in the underlying grey clay level. In
addition, an LM IB cup with spiral lilies, P 396 (PLATE 25b), was scattered through the black
level from top to bottom. A fragment of this vase also came from the top of the fill over the room
to the south.
It will be obvious from the detailed description given above that the human bones were
scattered through the level in no sort of skeletalorderwhatever. This point is easily confirmedby
the fact that many of the skull fragmentswere able to be joined by Wall and Musgrave into two
fairly complete skulls, with mandibles, which latter indicate children of eight and twelve years
(see section III). Skull A and its mandible comprisebones or membersof bone groups (3), (3a),
( II ), (16), (23),(27), (28), (31), (39), (41'), (43), (5I), (54), and skull B and its mandible
(<), (15), (31), (33), (39), (40a), (40b), (47), (48), (49), and (55). The mandible with
skull A comprises bones from (3a) and (41') and that from skull B bones from (31'), (33), and
8 For a
trephined skull from Mycenae, Circle B, tomb P, pl. 249. For wider evidence, D. R. Brothwell, DiggingupBones,
together with comparative Aegean evidence, seeJ. L. Angel in 3rd edn. (1981) 120-5.
G. E. Miyonas, 'O raq KUK Or 7T(dMVKI'qvV (1973) 380 and
OLKO
<55)> With regard to the total number of individuals represented by the bones the evidence
noted above of skullsA and B, together with the cut fragmentfrom another skull, C, indicates at
least three. But the evidence of a minimum of four right femora and of four left tibiae (pp. 376-7)
shows that at least four individuals, all children, were representedin the Room of the Children's
Bones.
A few groups of bones were still articulated, though the bones were for the most part separate
from each other. We are therefore not dealing with whole skeletons placed in the basement,
but with bones (unburnt) placed, quite possibly carelessly thrown into the western part of the
room. The few articulations indicate that one or two parts of bodies still held together. The
knife cuts indicate that this was debris resulting from flaying or flesh removal. This gruesome
operation is unlikely to have taken place within the eastern half of the room itself, with only
about I sq. m of space available, but rather outside, perhaps in the North Court or the Cult
Room Basement.
Above the soft, black level was one completely different again, namely firm, light-medium
brown, clayey soil, unburnt (FIG.2,3). Within this level were the powdery, black remains of a
burnt timber sloping down northwards from I 1.35 over the top of the south wall to 10.82 in the
middle of the room, fromwhere it ran on, risingvery slightly, to the face of the north wall (FIGS.
2,
4; PLATE24a). A second burnt timber lay east-west across the south part of the room at io.96, at
right angles to the first piece and to the west wall, and parallel to the south wall (FIG.4; PLATE
25c). These pieces were clearly the remains of a wooden superstructureburnt in the destruction,
in fact of the floor of the room above or ceiling of the basement itself (see below). The soft,
powdery, black earth of the level below can only have been the completely decayed mass of
similar timbersor, perhaps more likely, of brushwood used in ceiling construction. The original
position of the ceiling will have been at least as high as the preserved top of the west wall, at
I 1.93, some 0.57 m above the top of the north-south timber which had fallen on to the south wall
and on down into the room.9
From different depths in the unburnt level above the burnt timbers came a number of
decorated vases, very differentin characterfrom those associatedwith the bones and those in the
level below them (FIG.4). On the west side was a small, strap-handled amphora decorated with
reed pattern on the shoulder, wavy line and a rough reed pattern zone below, P 324 (PLATE
25d). The main concentration of sherds was at I 1.31, but some fragments were higher up. One
fragment had penetrated through to the lowest part of the underlying black level. A second vase
was the upper half of a black-washjug with horizontal rim, P 35 I; near the centre of the north
wall, though the wall was robbed out at this level, its main concentration lay at I 1.2 1, but again
some pieces were down in the black level, at 10.67 with the Marine Style fragment described
below. Third is a bridge-spoutedjug (though its neck, spout, and handle are lacking), with
rathercoarselypainted cross-hatchingand a band of vertical bars above, P 970 (PLATE 25e). This
vessel had clearly been situated in the room above originally, like the others here described, but
we know even less about its original position, since its fragments occurred in at least sixteen
separate pottery lots. Most of these were in the upper fill of the room to the south, but a few were
at the transition of the unburnt and black levels in our room. Next comes an interesting
alabastron, globular but with a rather wide base (P 323). It is carelessly painted with a racket or
o If the ceiling had been at the point where the north-south only about 0.74 m high, the conical cup level already having
timberlay on the south wall, at I I.30, the basementwould have filled the area up to a height (maximum) ofo.58 m. This seems
been only 1-32 m high (from the floor at 9.98). It could thus improbable. Even more so would have been the use of such a
only have been a cupboard. Now the bones could with difficulty low space for the conical cup level itself, the vases having the
have been thrown into such a cupboard, that is thrown up to appearance of an uneven floor/use deposit, as noted, and not of
1.85 m back from the entrance to the west wall and into a space any kind of store or still less rubbish area.
A+
P351
10-8 . 11.21
P324
1 -31
BURNT
TIMBERS
11-36
D OO-RWAY
N
0 50 100cms
FIG. 4. Room of the Children's Bones, upper level (3 in FIG. 2) with decorated vases and burnt timbers (from site depth I 1.36 m
down to io.88 m). A-A shows line of section, FIG. 2
hatched loop pattern, below which is a wavy line and a zone of carelesscrescents (PLATE 26a).
The hatched loop pattern, well enough known in LH IIA (FM 63), looks a clear Minoan
descendant of complex (and greatly superior) MM II racket or loop designs.10The alabastron
was burnt, perhaps by oleaginous contents at the time of the destruction fire. Although
fragmentswere catalogued as a pot on site at 10o.72,that is near the top of the black level, in the
centre of the room, further pieces were recovered in ceramic study from no less than nine other
pottery lots. Most of these were from the black level, but one sherd came from the top of the fill of
the room to the south and one other from several metres to the east. It would thereforeseem that
this vase too had fallen from above the burnt floor. This is in fact confirmed by several of its
fragments having been found with the next vase, a fragment of a Marine Style amphora,
decorated with starfish,shells, and double axes,11at 10.67, in the black level and near the north
wall (P 339). This amphora had certainly stood on an upper floor, since the remaining surviving
pieces of it came from the fill of the North Court and of the Corridor.
1o S. Marinatos and M. Hirmer, CreteandMycenae(5960) pl. xiii. 11 'Knossos:Part I' fig. 45-
Finally, there is another bridge-spoutedjug, P 319, decorated with somewhat careless,large,

running spirals, from the tangent lines of which curl small spirals like lily petals (PLATE
26b).12
On the neck is a band of flower-head pattern with double spur,13which occurs several times,
with variations, on LM IB vases from the site, including the alabastron described above. This
large vase was found among fallen stones, but at one level, I I.50- I1.47, high in the fill and above
the other vases described (PLATE 26c). While its LM IB date seems clear (and for the shape and
size compare the bridge-spoutedjug with cross-hatchingdescribed above, the somewhat coarse
painting of which is also comparable to that of the present vase), it is just possible that it marks
a floor level later than the main LM IB destruction to which the rest of the deposit belongs.
However, the amphora with reed decoration (see above), while lying lower in the unburnt fill
than the present vase, had a few fragmentsat the same level as it. The spiraljar might therefore
have been on a shelf or otherwise located above floor level in the room above the basement. It
was in any case well below the preserved top of the west wall.
Having set out the evidence for the observed stratigraphical sequence (FIG. 2) within the
Room of the Children'sBoneswe may now considerhow this sequence formed, that is, where the
contents of the various levels were immediately prior to the destruction fire. Put another way,
how much fell from above into the basement in the destruction?Two facts appear to stand out.
The human bones were confined to the soft, black level (with just one group in the transition to
the grey clay level below); none was found in the unburnt level above the timbers. On the other
hand, four or five vases from above the timbersdid have fragmentsin the underlying black level.
From these two observationsit would seem very unlikely that the bones fell from above; given the
ceramic links between the two main levels some bone would almost certainly have been found in
the upper, unburnt level, if all the bones had been located there originally. Equally, the ceramic
links show that the bone level was not sealed off by the time of the destruction, but rather it was
the case that scrapsof material from above could collapse into it. It may be concluded therefore
that the upper (or ground) floor room above the basement held some decorated vases (as was the
case on a much richer scale above the Cult Room Basement to the east),14while the basement
had in it randomly scatteredhuman bones in a level up to 0.35 m thick. The wooden components
of the burning floor, timbers and very possibly brushwood, fell on to and covered the unburnt
bones and their associated pots. The decorated vases, smashed in the destruction, lost a few
fragmentsinto the burnt level below, as the floor collapsed at least I m down into the basement.
Furthermore,given that the bones were in the basement at the time of destruction,it follows that
so too was the grey clayey level with conical cups below the bones. The 'bone level' rested on the
'conical cup level', but it does not seem possible to show whether there was any interval of time
between the deposition of the bones and that of the pottery below them. It was argued above,
however, that since the burnt floor and vases above it came into direct contact with the bones or
pieces of body-that is, nothing had accumulated over the bones before the floor fell in-an
interval, if there was one at all, is unlikely to have been long.
Reconstruction of find places immediately before the destruction should not be concluded,
however, without examination of an alternative possibility. Is there any case for suggesting that
the whole deposit, conical cup level and bone level as well as unburnt vase level, fell from above?
For this view the Marine Style cup discussed above may be cited. Since fragments were found
both in the conical cup level in our basement and deep in the fill of the room to the south, perhaps
the whole deposit fell into both rooms. But, as we saw (pp. 335-6), an alternative explanation for
the position of the fragments can be offered, in that it is possible that material had fallen into or
12 13 Cf. the prominent
Ibid. fig. 48; 'Knossos, New Excavations and Discoveries', spur on orchis flower heads.
14 'Knossos: Part I' and
op. cit. (see n. 3 above) fig. at p. 48. 80-4 figs. 20-4I.
was already in situ in the basements before the final destruction, however short an interval
'before' represents.Furthermore,in addition to the arguments in support of the reconstruction
set out in the previous paragraph, an alternative reconstructionin which the whole deposit had
fallen in necessitatesconsequential positions which seem most unlikely. If the whole deposit, or
just the bone level and unburnt level above, had fallen in, then the bone deposit too would have
been located on an upper or ground floor above the basement. Since the timberswere above the
bones those timbers would thus have been not floor but roof timbers, that is, the unburnt level
with decorated vases would be 'post-roof and so post-destruction.But given all their links into
the black level with bones, including the Marine Style amphora fallen partly into the black level
and much more into the North Court, a post-destruction context for the decorated vases is
extremely unlikely.
We conclude, therefore, that the slight case for the whole deposit having fallen, is strongly
outweighed by a reconstruction in which the bone level was in situ and the burnt floor and
decorated vases above it fell in over it.
The human remains from the Room of the Children'sBones were not the only ones from the
North House, though numbers from other locations were very much smaller. From the black,
burnt level on the surfaceof the North Court at its east end came a right malar bone and a limb
bone fragment, both with knife cuts (cat. nos. 328, 329). From the destructionfill well above the
floor of the Cult Room Basement (FIG. I) came a phalanx, an incisor, rib, vertebra, and a skull
fragment (cat. nos. 330-4); this last bone was a little above the floor in the doorway from the Cult
Room Basement to the North Court. None of these bones has cut marks. From within a jug
decorated with spirals (P 406), also part of the fallen destruction deposit in the Cult Room
Basement, came six foot phalanges (cat. nos. 335-40). This jug was intermingled with sherdsof,
and very probably was originally inside, a large pithos (P 441),15 with which were also a
phalanx, a sternumfragment, a vertebrawith knife cut marks (cat. nos. 341-3), and a collection
of edible snails. Such snails (frfov1tfroiEpE3)
are still collected in Crete in the spring and are cooked
with rice or stiphadho stew.16It is therefore distinctly possible that ours too had been cooked
or were for cooking. The pithos, like the jug, had fallen from above and had fragments through
the destruction fill from I I.18 down to 10.52, the floor being at about 10.22. Hence the bones,
which are all children's, and snails from this room were on the upper floor at the moment
of destruction. Given the snails it is also distinctly possible that the accompanying bones,
describedabove (vertebrawith knife cuts, phalanges, and sternumfragment directly associated,
others in the room less directly associated), represent meat cooked along with them. It is
unlikely that any such cooking was done in the pithos, given its large size (ht. 93 cm, d. 47 cm),
though it is possible that inedible or otherwise unrequiredparts, i.e. bones and snail shells, were
put or discarded into it. The vessels on the upper floor did include several cooking pots, one
of them large.17
From the LM IB destruction fill in the Room of the Frescoes, in the north-east part of the
house (FIG.I), there were more children's bones, a left clavicle and a left ulna, both with knife
marks,a left radius, two femorafragments,a skullfragment, and a metatarsal (cat. nos. 344-50).
These bones very probably belong to the destruction,like the bones in the Cult Room Basement,
but the associated sherds in the fill of the Room of the Frescoes included MM III-LM I; these
will have been from wall construction.
16 Ibid. fig. 20. many snails of a species smaller in size than the It
16 Information tLrovpLroopoE.
given by Mr Georgios Tsimbragos of Mone, is not yet known whether these are edible. Both species are
Maleviziou. For a similar recipe, in this case gargantuan, see being studied for identification.
R. C. Bosanquet, LettersandLight Verse(1938) 82, in Seteia. 17 'Knossos:Part I' fig. 26.
I thank Miss Edith Clay for this reference. There were also
Outside the north wall of the Room of the Frescoes, that is outside the house itself, was a well
built drain (FIG.I). From it, together with many fragmentary,decorated LM IB cups and other
vases, came two skull fragments, a tooth (see p. 382), a vertebra, rib, radius, twelve phalanges,
a femur, two tibiae, four fibulae fragments, and two metacarpals (cat. nos. 351-77). Most
of these fragments can be identified as from children, and none cannot be so. The origin of
the LM IB deposit in the drain is not known. It may have been in situ rubbish at the time of
the destruction or it could have fallen from an upper floor over the Room of the Frescoes at
that time.
If the bones from the Room of the Frescoes are taken as part of the same assemblage
which produced the bones in the Room of the Children's Bones, the left clavicle would
probably represent a fifth individual. If the bones from the drain are also so taken, they need
not representany more individuals than the four in the room. The tooth with these drain bones,
however (see p. 382), cannot belong to skull A or B; there is no way of knowing whether it
belonged to skull C. If the drain bones are considered separately, they would represent two
further individuals.
The children's bones from the drain are indistinguishable from those of the Room of the
Children'sBones or from the few located originally above the Cult Room Basement or above the
Room of the Frescoes. We cannot say whether the bones reached their five find places from a
single killing or dismembermentarea, though such could have been the North Court or the Cult
Room (cult vessel store-room) over the Cult Room Basement or the latter room itself, or from
more than one such area. The Cult Room Basement remains a clear possibility, with its unique,
flat-surfaced, stone block against the east wall and the adjacent stone structure, probably a
bench (FIG. I).18 What the five locations do show, however, whether or not one of them was a
killing or dismemberment area, is that this activity and its products involved more than one
room of the house. Though storage of ritual vesselswas one function of the building, the killing of
children, flaying, and removal of flesh and organs may have been a central function. It has been
argued elsewhere that the two functions could well have been part of a single ritual activity (see
n. 3 above).
In addition to the bones from LM IB destruction contexts in the house a few other bones with
less pure contexts may be noted. From not far above the floor of the North Court, in the area
north of the north-west part of the Cult Room Basement (FIG.I), came a midshaft fragment of
an adult femur and two small fragmentsof skull (cat. nos. 378-80). The associated pottery was
LM I, but with a few Classical/Hellenisticfragments. This area was part of the soil disturbance
or pit in the North Court at that later date. In LM I tumble in the Corridor at the north
end (FIG. I) was a fragment of adult tibia (cat. no. 381) and in tumbled stones over the
North Court, with LM I-II sherds, was a left parietal fragment of an adult skull and another
adult femur fragment (cat. nos. 382-3). From LM I-II levels outside the house north of
the Room of the Frescoescame a child's clavicle, with cut marks, a fragment of an adult skull,
another skull fragment, and a humerus fragment (cat. nos. 384-7). Given these various con-
texts, it is not certain that their bones, which include adult ones (unlike all the LM IB
destruction contexts), were part of the LM IB destruction. None of the adult bones bears
cut marks.
18s Ibid.figs. I6-17.
CONCORDANCE
Excavation No. Catalogue No. Excavation No. Catalogue No.

(e.g. ()> in text) (e.g. (<> in text)
1 2 29
2 270 30 224
3 I 31 1, 5, 47, 217, 230, 258, 284
3a 4, 23, 46, 54, 66, 148 32 77, 93, I23, 164, 178, 199, 208, 236a
4 257 33 2, 5, 258
6 254 35 219, 220
6a 32, 51, 54, 64, 88, 176, 206, 254 36 271
8 21, 41, 48, 58, 141, 226 37 270
9 14, I8, 19, 21, 29, 30, 61, 65, 94, o00, o09, 38 223
110o,12, 137, I53, 159, 173, 174, 177, 39 1, 2, 124, 196, 268, 272, 294, 298, 320
179, 259, 295, 299 4oa 2, Io3
10 277 4ob 2, 75
II I 41 4
12 242, 243 42 91, O10,102, 131, I32, I65, 175, 181, 234,
14 264 260, 265, 288, 314, 318
15 2 43 1, 80, 96, 310
16 I 44 238, 28
17 235 45 300, 314
18 42 46 96
19 150 47 2, 3I, 37, 98, 105, 192, 197, 200, 202, 256,
21 43 262, 271
23 I 48 2, 38,45, 50, 57, 74, io8, 146, 147, 163, 17o,
24 73, 79, 150o,i66, 171, 172, 214, 216, 227, 236b, 290
232, 258, 277, 289, 319, 327 49 2, 83, 107
25 10, 15, 16, 24, 40, 44, 49, 55, 56, 59, 76, 82, 51 1, 87, 118, 120, 241, 253, 291
85, 86, 9o, io6, 134, 135, 152, i6o, 182, 52 3, 104, 143, 240, 268
i86, 187, 189, 191, 195, 205, 212, 244, 53 72, 283
254, 258, 308 54 I, 142, 267, 274, 292
26 33, 34, 35 55 5, 144, 188, 239, 246, 272, 274, 327
27 1,25, 60, 7o, 81, 95, 97, II , 145, 148, 207, 56 99, I13
218, 266, 273, 277, 283, 293, 317 57 169
28 1, 22, 52, 213
Notes.Where possibledistinct bones or groups of bones were given a number on site as the deposits were being excavated. See FIGS.
3A-B. These numbers are shown in angle brackets,e.g. (31> in the text and catalogue. Bones without an excavation number in the
catalogue were excavated as part of the contents of each level and as part of a specificlot (with zembil/basket number) within a level.
Excavation no. (5) turned out to be a stone, (7)>was a mandible fragment (possiblyincorporatedinto cat. no. 4 or 5), (13) was a
deciduous molar tooth, incorporated into cat. no 4 or 5, (20) had nothing catalogued. (22) and (50) were animal bones, (29> is
probably among the catalogued ribs without an assigned excavation number and (34> was part of (48> (= skull cat. no. 2).
II. THE OSTEOLOGICAL REMAINS
The post-excavation treatment of the bones was as follows. They were washed in water, dried
out of direct sunlight, and protected by immersion in a polyvinyl acetate solution. The bones
were then labelled with their excavation number or trench data and the assemblage examined
forjoining fragments, which were mended with glue and wax.19
All the human bones from the Room of the Children's bones come from the skeletons of
children, but some of the bones fromother locations in the house are adult (see pp. 346, 365). The
19 The two skulls, the main bones with knife cuts and the two Knossos. The bones in Herakleion are shown in the catalogue
sheep vertebrae are now stored in Herakleion Museum, the by the numbers in [ ].
remaining bones being storedin the StratigraphicalMuseum at
individual bones and fragmentsare described in the catalogue below,20including cut marksand
their positions. The catalogue is followed by a discussionof the osteological characteristicsof the
assemblage as a whole.
TABLE I. Animalbones
from theRoomof theChildren's
Bones
Anatomical Species
element
Cattle Sheep Goat Sheep/Goat Pig Dog
B U B U B U B U B U B U
Skull I 3 2 3
Teeth I I 4
Horn Core I
Mandible 2 I
Vertebrae I 2 15 7 3
Ribs 73 23
Scapula 2 2 I
Humerus 2 I I 4 2 I
Radius 4 2 2 I I
Ulna I I I I
Metacarpal I 3 2
Pelvis 5 2 I
Femur I I I 3 3 2 I
Tibia 2 2 I
Calcaneus I I I
Astragalus I I I
Metatarsal 6 2
Phalanx I 4 2 3
Phalanx II 8 I 2
Phalanx III 1 4 1
Metapodials 3 4
Total 6 I 19 4 123 53 24 3
18
B = Burnt bones. U = Unburnt bones.
None of the human bones had been burned, but a number of animal bones, burnt and
unburnt, were found in the Room of the Children'sBones. The mammalian speciespresent were
cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and dog. The numbers of burnt and unburnt bones for each species
and anatomical element are given in Table I. Cut marks were observed on nineteen of these
251 bones, including the dog humerus. There were also five unburnt bird bones and one burnt
and two unburnt fish bones.21
20 Identifications were made with reference to D. R. Broth- the Department of Anatomy, University of Bristol.
21 The animal bones will be more
well, Digging Up Bones, 3rd edn. (I98i), E. Schmid, Atlas fully presented, together
of AnimalBonesforPrehistorians, ArchaeologistsandQuaternary Geo- with the rest of the animal bones from the site, in a future
logists(1972), and to a modern child's skeleton kindly loaned by report.
CATALOGUE OF HUMAN BONES

Numbers 1-327 are from the Room of the Children's Bones, numbers 328-87 from other
locations (see pp. 345-6).
Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

No. Nos. Museum
[I] Skull of individual A. Fairly complete cranium (FIG. 6;

PLATES27C, 28a, c), but most of facial area not surviving
(PLATE27a). It has Wormian (sutural) bones along the
lambdoid suture (PLATE28a). The skull comprises bones
from the following bone numbers or groups:
(31) Right maxilla
(27), (23) Frontal
(3), (I>), (23), (27) Left parietal
(39) Left temporal (pars squamosa)
(3), (43), (54) Right parietal
(16) Occipital
(5') Right temporal
(28) Right occipital condyle
(54) Left occipital condyle
The skull had been cut across the right mastoid process, at
the base of the skull, and on the right malar bone, near the
eye orbit (FIG.6).
2 [3] Skull of individual B. Fairly complete cranium (FIG. 7;
PLATES27d, 28b, d), but most of facial area not surviving
(PLATE 27b). The skull comprisesbones from the following
bone numbers or groups:
(15) Leftmalar
(4ob) Frontal
(I), (47) Left parietal
(39) Left temporal
(48), (49) Right parietal
(47) Right petrous temporal
(4oa), (33) Occipital
The skull had been cut on the right (FIG.7; PLATE 3oc) and
left malar bones and on the right petrous temporal, inside
the skull.
3 [5] Skull of individual C. Small cranium fragment, with one
edge cut in a semicircle (PLATE3Ia).
(52), (39), (42), (I), (8) Unattributed skull fragments which could belong to A, B,
or C.
4 (3a), (41) [2] Mandible of individual A (PLATE 29c-d). Almost complete,
but left ascending ramus and head of mandible not sur-
viving. The right side of the mandible had been cut across
the outer surface (FIG.6; PLATE 29d).
5 (31), (33), (55) [4] Mandible of individual B (PLATE 3oa-b). Almost complete,
but parts of body of right side not surviving. The right side
of the mandible had been cut in two places, on the angle of
the mandible, and below the teeth (FIG.7).
6 Mandibular tooth, of individual C?
7 Atlas (firstcervical vertebra). Anterior arch.
8 [6] Axis (second cervical vertebra). Body, left and right
articularfacets, and part of left posteriorarch. Cut markon

No. Nos. Museum
upper surface, just above the left superior articular facet

(FIG.8a), and on lower surface,just above the left inferior
articular facet. Small fragment of posterior arch, not join-
ing, but possibly belonging to the above bone.
9 [7] Axis (second cervical vertebra). Small fragment of right
side of bone, with most of the articular facets preserved.
Five cut marks on the upper surface,just above the right
superior articular facet (FIG.8b). Left half of axis vertebra,
not joining but possibly belonging to the above bone.
Io (25) Third(?) cervical vertebra. Left side of arch with articular
processes.
II Third(9) cervical vertebra. Almost complete bone. Two
cut marks on upper surface, on right side, just above the
superior articular process.
12 Fourth(?) cervical vertebra. Right side of arch with
articular processes.
13 Fourth(?) cervical vertebra. Right side of arch with
14 (9) [9] Fifth(?) cervical vertebra. Right side of arch with articular
processes and part of centrum. Cut mark on side of bone
between the inferior and superior articular facets (FIG.8d;
PLATE32a).
15 (25) Fifth(?) cervical vertebra. Left side of bone with articular
processesand part of centrum.
16 (25) (25) Fifth(?) cervical vertebra. Most of vertebral arch with left
and right articular processes. (Two joining fragments.)
17 Sixth(?) cervical vertebra. Articular processes of right
side.
18 (9) Sixth(?) cervical vertebra. Centrum, and right articular
processes. Cut mark on side of bone, in angle between
articular processesand transverseprocess (FIG.8f).
19 (9) Sixth(?) cervical vertebra. Arch, and left and right
20 Seventh cervical vertebra. Right articular processes.
21 (8), (9) Seventh cervical vertebra. Centrum, right articular pro-
cesses and part of spine. Cut mark on left side of centrum
(FIG.8e).
22 (28) First thoracic vertebra. Almost complete bone.
23 (3a) First thoracic vertebra.Arch of bone complete but centrum
missing.
24 (25) Second(?) thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of
bone, but centrum missing.
25 (27) Second thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of bone,
but centrum missing.
26 Third or fourth thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of
27 Third or fourth thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of
28 (44) Third or fourth thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of
bone but centrum missing. Cut mark on right side of upper
surface,just below superior articular facet (FIG.8g).
29 (9) Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Almost complete arch of

No. Nos. Museum

bone, but centrum missing. Cut mark on left articulation
for rib (FIG.8h).
32 (6a> Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Almost complete upper
part of bone, but centrum missing.
35 (26) Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Part of centrum and left
36 Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Almost complete arch of
bone, but centrum missing. Cut mark on lower surface,
between transverse process and inferior articular process
(FIG. 8i).
37 (47) Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Small fragmentofvertebra
with left superior articular process.
with left superior and inferiorarticular processes.
39 Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Small fragment of
vertebra with right transverseprocessand inferiorarticular
processes.
with right inferior and superior articular processes.
41 (8) Tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch
of bone, but centrum missing.
42 (18) Tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch
of bone but centrum missing.
43 (21) Tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra.Almost complete arch
of bone, but centrum missing.
44 (25) Tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra. Fragment of left side
of vertebra, with superior and inferiorarticular processes.
45 (48) Tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra. Fragment of left side
of vertebra with superior articular process.
46 (3a) Twelfth thoracic vertebra. Almost complete arch of bone,
but centrum missing.
47 (31) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Almost complete bone,
but most of body of centrum missing.
48 (8) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Left articular processes
and spine. Two small cut marks in angle between superior
articular process and transverseprocess (FIG.8j).
49 (25), (25) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Superior articular pro-
cesses and spine. (Two joining fragments.)
50 (48) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Inferiorarticularprocesses
and spine.
51 (6a> Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Right inferior articular
processesand spine.
52 (28) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Left superior and inferior
articular processesand part of spine.
53 Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Right superior articular
process and small part of centrum.

No. Nos. Museum
54 Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Two fragments, probably

from the same vertebra, but not joining.
(3a> Left superior and inferior articular processes, and small
part of the centrum.
(6a> Right superior articular process and small part of the
centrum.
55 (25), (25) Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Two fragments, probably
from the same vertebra, but not joining. Left superior
articular process and fragment of spine. Part of centrum,
right superior and inferior articular processes, and part of
spine.
56 (25), (25) Fifth lumbar vertebra. Almost complete bone. (Two
joining fragments).
57 (48) Fifth lumbar vertebra. Right superiorand inferiorarticular
processes, transverseprocess and part of spine.
58 (8) Fourth sacral vertebra. Complete.
59 (25) [14] First rib. Left. Articulation missing, but otherwise entire
bone. Cut marks on inner edge of upper surface, towards
articular end (FIG.9a).
60 (27) First rib. Left. Almost complete bone, but articulation
missing. Small cut mark on outer lower surface at broken
edge where articulation begins (FIG.9i).
61 (9> Firstrib. Left. Middle fragment of bone. Small cut mark on
inner edge. Preserved length = 30 mm (FIG.9n).
62 Rib. Left. Proximal end with articulation. Preserved
length = 34 mm.
63 Rib. Left. Proximal end with articulation. Preserved
length = 30 mm. Cut markon inner surfaceat broken edge.
64 (6a) Rib. Left. Proximal end with articulation. Preserved
length = 24 mm.
65 (9) Rib. Left. Proximal end with articulation. Preserved
length = 28 mm.
66 (3a> Rib. Left. Proximal end with articulation. Preserved
length = 33 mm.
length = 25 mm.
length = 25 mm.
length = 25 mm.
length = 40 mm.
length = 45 mm.
length = 50 mm.
length = 50 mm.
length = 65 mm.
75 (4ob) Rib. Left. Twelfth(?). Proximal end with articulation, and
rest of bone except for missing sternal extremity. Preserved
length = 50 mm.

No. Nos. Museum
76 (25) Rib. Left. Second(?). Cut marks on outer surface towards

articular end (FIG.9d). (Two joining fragments.)
77 (32) [Io] Rib. Left. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preserved length = 60 mm. Cut marks on upper inner
surface (FIG.9b).
78 Rib. Left. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preservedlength = 40 mm.
79 (24) Rib. Left. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preservedlength = 40 mm. Two cut markson inner edge of
upper surface.
8o (43) Rib. Left. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preservedlength = 42 mm. Two small cut markson upper
edge.
84 Rib. Left. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preserved length = 40 mm. Two small cut marks on inner
surface at broken sternal edge.
86 (25) Rib. Left. Almost complete bone, extremities missing.
87 (50) [12] Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preserved length = 90 mm.
Cut marks on upper outer surface (FIG.9c).
88 (6a> [13] Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preserved length = 95 mm.
Two cut marks on lower inner surface near proximal end
(FIG.9g).
89 Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preservedlength = 80 mm.
90 (25) Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preservedlength = Ioo mm.
91 (42) Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preserved length = 115 mm.
Three small cut markson upper outer surface.
92 Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preservedlength = 45 mm.
93 (32) Rib. Left. (Two joining fragments.) Middle fragment.
Preservedlength = 6o mm.
94 (9) Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preservedlength = 70 mm.
96 (43), (46) Rib. Left. Middle fragment. Preserved length = 75 mm.
Two small cut markson upper edge, towards sternal end of
bone.
98 (47) Rib. Left. (Twojoining fragments.)Almost complete bone,
but proximal and sternal extremities missing. Preserved
length = 150 mm. Cut marks on under surface in area of
proximal articulation (FIG.9f).
99 (56) Rib. Left. Almost complete bone, but proximal articulation
missing, and sternal end missing. Preserved length =
125 mm.
Ioo (9), (9) Rib. Left. (Two joining fragments.) Middle fragment.

No. Nos. Museum
Io (42) Rib. Left. Complete bone save for missing proximal

articulation. Preservedlength = 120 mm.
102 (42) Rib. Left. Complete bone save for missing proximal
articulation. Preservedlength = 105 mm.
103 (40a) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 90 mm.
104 (52) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 95 mm.
105 (47) Rib. Left. (Two joining fragments.) Sternal end. Preserved
length = io8 mm.
Io6 (25> Rib. Left. (Twojoining fragments.) Sternal end. Preserved
length = 85 mm.
107 (49) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 55 mm.
108 (48) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preserved length = 55 mm. One
small cut mark on outer lower edge, io mm from sternal
end of bone (FIG.9e).
9og (9) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 48 mm.
I10 (9) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 35 mm.
III (27) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 34 mm.
112 (9) Rib. Left. Sternal end. Preserved length = 20 mm. Small
cut mark on upper outer surface, 6 mm from sternal end of
bone (FIG.9P).
113 (56) First rib. Right. Almost complete bone, but proximal
articulation missing. Cut marks on upper surface near
proximal end (FIG.9h).
(56) A fragment comprisingthe proximal articulation only may
belong to the above bone.
114 Rib. Right. Part of proximal articulation. Preserved
length = 20 mm.
115 Rib. Right. Part of proximal articulation. Preserved
length = 20 mm.
116 Rib. Right. Lateral part of proximal articulation. Pre-
served length = 15 mm.
117 Rib. Right. Proximal articulation. Preserved length =
25 mm.
118 (51) Rib. Right. Proximal articulation. Preserved length =
28 mm.
28 mm.
120 (5I) Rib. Right. Proximal articulation. Preserved length =
32 mm.
40 mm.
122 Rib. Right. Lateral part of proximal articulation. Pre-
32 mm.
38 mm.
42 mm.
I26 Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-
I27 Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-

No. Nos. Museum
128 Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-

served length = 44 mm. Two small cut marks on outer
lower surface, Io mm distally from lateral articulation.
131 (42) Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-
served length = 6o mm.
132 (42) Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-
133 [11] Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-
served length = 50 mm. Cut marks sternally, on lower
inner surface (FIG.9j; PLATE32C, d).
134 (25) Rib. Right. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preserved length = 40 mm. Cut marks on upper inner
surface (FIG.9k).
135 (25) Rib. Right. Fragment of bone from near proximal end. Cut
marks on outer surface (FIG.9m). Preserved length =
30 mm.
136 Rib. Right. Fragment of bone from near proximal end.
Preserved length = 30 mm. Cut marks proximally, on
inner surface.
Preserved length = 35 mm. Bone cut right through, and
broken(?) near proximal end.
Preservedlength = 8o mm.
142 (54) Rib. Right. Almost entire bone, but extremities missing.
143 (52) Rib. Right. Almost entire bone, but extremities missing.
Preservedlength = i Io mm.
144 (55) Rib. Right. Middle fragment. Preservedlength = 75 mm.
147 (48) Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 135 mm.
148 (27), (3a) Rib. Right. Sternal end (27) and middle fragment (3a).
Preserved length = I o10
mm. Excavation no. (27) has cut
marks on lower edge, 20 mm from sternal end (FIG.91).
149 (25) Rib. Right. (Two joining fragments.) Sternal end. Pre-
<24>, <(9), Rib. Right. (Three joining fragments.) Sternal end. Pre-
150
(19)
served length = 1Io mm.
Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 9o mm.
I5I
I53 (9), (9) Rib. Right. (Two joining fragments.) Sternal end. Pre-

No. Nos. Museum
154 Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = go mm.

155 Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 95 mm.
156 Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = Ioo mm.
159 (9) Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preserved length = 70 mm. Five
cut marks across lower edge, starting 25 mm from sternal
end (FIG. 90).
I6o (25) Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 75 mm.
I6I Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 6o mm.
I65 (42) Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 30 mm.
167 (3a) Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preserved length = 15 mm.
Oblique cut mark, about 5 mm long, on inner surface.
I68 Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
55 mm. Two small cut marks, proximally on outer
surface.
169 (57) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length=
84 mm.
170 (48) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
85 mm.
65 mm.
65 mm.
173 (9), (9) Rib. Unsided. (Two joining fragments.) Middle fragment.
I74 (9) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
50 mm.
48 mm.
176 (6a) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
40 mm.
177 (9) Rib. Unsided. Preservedlength = 45 mm.
45 mm.
40 mm.
I8o (31) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
35 mm.
35 mm.
75 mm.
183 Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
75 mm.
65 mm.
i85 Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length=
60 mm.

No. Nos. Museum

8o mm.
70 mm.
65 mm.
65 mm.
I90o Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =
55 mm.
40 mm.
50 mm.
40 mm.
40 mm.
35 mm.
40 mm.
30 mm.
35 mm.
30 mm.
30 mm.
30 mm.
30 mm.
25 mm.
25 mm.
25 mm.
206 (6a> Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 45 mm.
207 (27) Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 40 mm.
208 (32) Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 20 mm.
209 Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 35 mm.
210o Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = 20 mm.
211 Rib. Unsided. Sternal end. Preservedlength = Io mm.
212 (25) Clavicle. Left. Almost entire bone but extremities missing.
Preserved length = 75 mm. Estimated length = 85 mm.
Group of three small cut marks Io mm sternally from
end of muscle attachment at acromial end on front of
bone.
213 (28) Clavicle. Left. Sternal end of shaft, extremity of bone not
preserved. Preservedlength = 34 mm.

No. Nos. Museum
214 (24) [16] Clavicle. Left. Fragment of shaft towards acromial end of
bone. Preservedlength = 60 mm. Cut marks in two places
on lower surface:in centre of shaft, and towards acromial
end. (FIG. Ioh; PLATE 33a-b.)
215 [15] Clavicle. Right. Fragment of shaft towards acromial end of
bone. Preservedlength = 44 mm. Cut marksin two places:
along centre of upper surface,and on upper surfacetowards
acromial end (FIG.Iog).
216 (24) Clavicle. Right. Fragment of shaft towards sternal end of
bone. Preservedlength = 26 mm. Cut marksin two places:
on upper surface towards sternal end, and on lower surface
towards middle of bone, close to broken edge. Could be
from same bone as 215.
217 (3') Clavicle. Right. Fragment of shaft towards acromial end of
bone. Preservedlength = 65 mm. Two cut marks on lower
surface towards sternal end of bone.
218 (27) Clavicle. Right. Almost entire bone. Estimatedlength = 90
mm. Two fairly deep cut marks on lower surface towards
sternal end of bone.
219 (35) [19] Scapula. Left. Almost entire bone. Cut marks on back of
bone at three locations: in suprascapularnotch, on lateral
border near neck, and on blade just above inferior angle
(FIG. IOf; PLATE 33c-d).
220 (35) [18] Scapula. Right. Fairly complete bone comprising part of
acromion, neck, and blade. Cut mark on back of bone near
neck, on lateral border (FIG.I oe).
221 [ 7] Scapula. Right. Almost complete upper part of bone, but
large part of blade missing distally. Cut mark on back of
bone a little way below the neck, on the lateral border (FIG.
I oa), and two small cut marks on front of bone, above
inferior angle on the lateral border (FIG. iob).
222 Scapula. Right. Fragment of bone comprisingsmall part of
the glenoid cavity and lateral border. Preserved size of
fragment = 60ox Io mm. Small cut mark on back of bone,
on lateral border, 28 mm below glenoid cavity.
223 (38) [20] Humerus. Right. Fairly complete shaft, but extremities
missing. Preservedlength = 168 mm. Cut marksdistally on
front and back of shaft, and six chop marks along the back
of the shaft (FIG.Ioc-d; PLATE 34a).
224 (30) Humerus. Left. Distal end of shaft, epiphysis not fused.
225 Humerus. Right. Estimated half of shaft distally, epiphysis
not surviving. Preservedlength = 79 mm.
226 (8) Humerus. Left. Proximal part of shaft. Preserved
length = 92 mm. Shaft fragment from back of bone,
distally, around fossa, not joining, but may belong to above
bone. Preservedlength = 75 mm.
227 Humerus. Right. Fragment of shaft from back of bone just
above distal epiphysis. Preservedlength = 48 mm.
(24) Fragment of shaft from proximal end, epiphysis not
surviving.Preservedlength = 35 mm. Cut markproximally
on back of bone. Not joining, but could belong to the above
bone.

No. Nos. Museum
228 Humerus. Left. Almost entire shaft of bone. Preserved

length = 114 mm.
229 [21] Ulna. Left. Distal shaftfragment. Small cut mark at broken
edge, proximally, on lateral surface across ridge of bone
IIf).
(FIG.
230 (31) [22] Ulna. Left. Almost entire shaft of bone. Preserved
length = 128 mm. Cut marks on outer side of bone (FIG.
I Ig).
231 Ulna. Right. Fragment of shaft from just below proximal
articulation. Preserved length = 58 mm. Two small cut
marks on outer side of bone.
232 (24) Radius. Left. Shaft fragment. Preservedlength = 54 mm.
233 Radius. Left. Shaft fragment from near distal end. Pre-
served length = 52 mm. Cut mark proximally, close to
broken edge, on front of bone.
234 (42) Radius. Right. Fragment of shaft from near distal end of
235 ('7) Radius. Right. Almost entire shaft. Preserved length =
I Io mm. Cut marks on front (FIG. I id) and back (FIG. I Ie)
of bone.
236a (32) Radius. Unsided. Small midshaft fragment. Preserved
length = 35 mm.
236b (48) Radius. Right. Distal shaft fragment. Cut marks proxi-
mally on front of bone. Preservedlength = 5 I mm.
237 Metacarpal. Almost entire body. Preserved length =
32 mm.
238 (44) Metacarpal. Almost entire body. Preserved length =
32 mm.
239 (55) Metacarpal. Almost entire bone, proximal end missing,
distal epiphysis not fused. Preservedlength = 26 mm.
240 (52) Metacarpal. Almost entire bone, some of proximal end
missing, distal epiphysis not fused. Preserved length =
27 mm.
241 (51) Metacarpal. Almost entire bone, proximal end incomplete,
distal epiphysis not fused. Preservedlength = 33 mm.
242 (12) Proximalphalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysispresent
but unfused. Length (including epiphysis) = 24 mm.
243 (12) Proximal phalanx. Entire bone. Proximalepiphysispresent
but not fused. Length (including epiphysis) = 19 mm.
244 (25) Proximal phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
unfused. Length = 27 mm.
245 Proximal phalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not
fused. Length = 24 mm.
246 (55) Proximal phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
not fused. Length = 24 mm.
247 Proximal phalanx. Proximal end missing. Preserved
length = 23 mm.
248 Proximal phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal end
incomplete but not fused. Length = 15 mm.
249 Proximal phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal end
incomplete but not fused. Preservedlength = 15 mm.
250 Middle phalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not

No. Nos. Museum
251 Middle phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal extremity

missing. Preservedlength = 12 mm.
252 Distal phalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not fused.
Length = I I mm.
253 (51) Os ilium. Left. Large part of bone preserved, but parts of
the iliac crest and the posterior iliac spine are missing
(PLATE 35a).
254 (6), (6a), (25) Os ilium. Left. Threejoining fragmentsof bone comprising
the anterior iliac spine and part of the iliac crest (PLATE
34d).
255 Os ilium. Left. Small fragment of bone from the region
around the greater sciatic notch. Two cut marks on the
front of the bone (PLATE 34b-c).
256 (47) [23] Os ilium. Right. Almost entire bone, but iliac spine missing.
Two cut marks on front of bone between anterior superior
and anterior inferioriliac spines (FIG. I la).
257 (4) Os ilium. Right. Almost entire bone preserved, but part of
iliac crest and posterior iliac spine missing. Cut marks on
back of bone on anterior inferioriliac spine (PLATE 35a).
258 (24>, (3I), (33>, (25> Os ilium. Right. Almost entire bone preserved. Fragments
missing in central area in region of iliac fossa (PLATE34C).
259 (9), (39> Os ischium. Left. Almost entire bone, and small fragment of
pubis (fused).
260 (42), (42) Os ischium. Left. Small fragment of bone including part of
pubic symphysis.
261 (54) Os ischium. Right. Almost entire bone.
262 (28) Os ischium. Right. Almost entire bone.
(47) Os pubis. Right. Fused to above bone.
263 (27>, (42> Small pelvic fragments. Five small fragments, not joining
above bones, but not necessarilyrepresenting new bones.
264 (14) Femur. Left. Head of bone, and an estimated three-
quartersof the shaft, proximally. Cut marks,proximally on
front of bone. Preservedlength = 200 mm (PLATE 35b).
265 (42) Femur. Left. Distal medial shaft fragment. Preserved
length = 74 mm.
266 (27) Femur. Left. An estimated half of shaft proximally. Head
missing. Cut marks on front of bone. Preserved length =
140 mm.
267 (54) Femur. Left. An estimated quarter of shaft, proximally.
Head missing. Preservedlength = 78 mm.
268 (39), (52) Femur. Left. An estimated half of shaft, distally. Preserved
length = 123 mm.
269 Femur. Left. Almost entire distal epiphysis. Not fused.
270 (2), (37) [24] Femur. Right. Almost entire bone, in two fragments (not
joining). Cut marks around head of bone, on back of bone
in midshaft region and distally, on medial side of shaft (FIG.
I Ic, and PLATE 35c-d). Preservedlengths: (2) = Iog9mm.
(37) = 102 mm.
271 (47), (24), (36) Femur. Right. Proximal end and estimated three-quarters
of the shaft. Proximal epiphyses not fused. Preserved
length = 166 mm.
272 (27), (39), (55) Femur. Right. An estimated quarter of the shaft distally.

No. Nos. Museum
273 (27) Femur. Right. Proximal shaft fragment. Proximal epi-

physes not fused. Preservedlength = 99 mm.
274 (54), (55), (55) Femur. Right. (Three joining fragments.) Distal lateral
shaft fragment. Preservedlength = Io mm.
275 Femur. Right. Fragment of distal epiphysis. Not
fused.
276 Femur. Right. Almost entire shaft. Preserved length =
125 mm. Midshaft breadth = 11 mm. Midshaft depth =
13 mm.
277 (Io0>, (24>, (27> Tibia. Left. Almost entire shaft. Preserved length =
157 mm.
278 (3') Tibia. Left. An estimated half of shaft distally. Preserved
length = Io6 mm.
279 Tibia. Left. Small fragment of back of proximal shaft. Chop
marks on distal end of fragment. Preserved length =
54 mm.
280 Tibia. Left. Small fragment of front of proximal shaft.
Knife mark on distal end of fragment. Preservedlength =
66 mm.
281 (54) Tibia. Left. Small fragment of shaft, distally. Preserved
length = 42 mm.
282 Tibia. Left. Almost entire shaft. Preserved length =
IIO mm.
283 (27), (53) [25] Tibia. Right. Proximal half of shaft. Chop markson lateral
side of bone in midshaft region (FIG. I Ib, and PLATE36a).
284 (3') Tibia. Right. Fragment from distal end of bone. Preserved
length = 109 mm.
285 Tibia. Right. Midshaft fragment. Preserved length=
21 mm.
286 Tibia. Right. Fragment of shaft from back of bone,
proximally. Preservedlength = 57 mm.
287 Tibia. Right. Fragment from distal end of shaft. Cut marks
on medial surface. Preservedlength = 54 mm.
288 (42) Fibula. Left. An estimated half of the shaft, distally.
289 (24) Fibula. Left. An estimated half of the shaft, distally.
Preserved length = 88 mm. Three small cut marks on
lateral edge, near broken surface (PLATE36b).
290 (48) Fibula. Left. An estimated half of the shaft proximally.
291 (51) Fibula. Right. Proximal extremity and an estimated half of
shaft. Preservedlength = 77 mm.
292 (54) Fibula. Right. Middle fragment of shaft. Preserved
length = 124 mm.
293 (27) Fibula. Right. Fragment of shaftfrom distal end. Preserved
length = 53 mm.
294 (39) Fibula. Right. Fragment of bone from middle of shaft.
295 (9) Fibula. Unsided. Fragment of bone from middle of shaft.
296 Metatarsal. Entire bone. Cut mark proximally. Distal
epiphysis unfused. Length = 38 mm (PLATE 36c).

No. Nos. Museum
297 Metatarsal. Almost entire bone. Distal epiphysis not fused.

298 (39) Metatarsal. Almost entire bone, but proximal end incom-
pletely preserved. Preservedlength = 34 mm.
pletely preserved. Distal end not fused. Preserved
length = 34 mm.
pletely preserved. Preservedlength = 30 mm.
301 Metatarsal. Most of body of bone. Preserved length =
30 mm.
302 Metatarsal. Most of body of bone. Preserved length =
28 mm.
303 Metatarsal. Proximal part of bone. Preserved length =
24 mm.
304 Proximal phalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not
305 Middle phalanx. Almost entire bone, but proximal end
incompletely preserved. Preservedlength = 17 mm.
306 Middle phalanx. Almost entire bone, but proximal end
307 Distal phalanx. Almost entire bone, but proximal end
308 (25) Distal phalanx. Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not fused.
Length = 14 mm. Cut mark proximally on back of bone
(PLATE 36d).
309 (25) Limb bone fragment. Distal fragment of femur(?). Pre-
(43) Limb bone fragment. Distal fragment of tibia(?). Pre-
3Io served length = 65 mm.
311 Limb bone fragment. Distal fragment of tibia(?). Preserved
length = 54 mm. Cut mark.
312 Limb bone fragment. Preserved length = 76 mm.
3I3 Limb bone fragment. Fragment of distal tibia(?) with
small portion of unfused epiphysis. Preserved length =
38 mm.
314 (42), (45) Limb bone fragment. Distal fragment of tibia(?). Preserved
length = 37 mm.
315 Limb bone fragment. Midshaft fragment of femur(?).
Preserved length = 42 mm.
316 Limb bone fragment. Midshaft fragment of femur(?).
Preserved length = 8o mm.
317 (27) Limb bone fragment. Preserved length = 42 mm.
318 (42) Limb bone fragment. Cut marks. Preserved length =
59 mm.
42 mm.
43 mm.
32I Limb bone fragment. Shaft fragment of humerus(?). Pre-
322 Limb bone fragment. Cut marks. Preserved length =
47 mm.

No. Nos. Museum
323 Limb bone fragment. Cut mark. Preserved length =

37 mm.
36 mm.
24 mm.
326 Limb bone fragment. Cut mark. Preserved length =
17 mm.
327 (24), (55) [25] Limb bone fragment. Fragment of midshaft of femur(?).
Preservedlength = 50 mm. Eight chop marksat one end of
fragment.
328 Right zygomatic bone with knife cuts. (PLATE 3od).
329 Limb bone fragment with knife cuts. Preserved length =
37 mm.
330 Cranium fragment. Preservedsize = 38 x 33 mm.
331 Incisor.
332 Cervical vertebra. Sixth(?). Left articular processes and
part of spine.
27 mm.
334 Phalanx. Proximal phalanx from the foot. Entire bone,
proximal epiphysis not fused. Length = 16 mm.
335 Proximal phalanx (foot). Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
present, unfused. Length without epiphysis = 12mm.
336 Proximal phalanx (foot). Proximal epiphysis only.
337 Middle phalanx (foot). Proximal epiphysis not fused.
Length = 5 mm.
338 Middle phalanx (foot). Proximal epiphysis not fused.
Length = 4 mm.
339 Middle phalanx (foot). Proximal epiphysis fusing.
Length = 5 mm.
340 Distal phalanx (foot). Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis not
fused(?). Length = 4 mm.
341 [8] Cervical vertebra. (Fifth?) Fragment of bone from the
left side, with superior and inferior articular processes
and part of spine. Knife cuts on side of bone between
superior and inferior articular facets (FIG. 8c and PLATE
32b).
342 Sternum. Small fragment.
343 First phalanx (hand). Proximal end incomplete. Preserved
length = 20 mm.
344 Cranium fragment. Temporal arch region of a parietal
bone. Preserved size = 46 x 41 mm. Greatest thickness=
5 mm. Could be from an adult or a child.
345 Clavicle. Left. Acromial end and about three-quartersof
the shaft. Preserved length = 59 mm. Cut mark on lower
surface of bone, at front of bone, approximately in the
centre of the shaft.
346 Ulna. Left. Midshaft portion of a child's ulna. Preserved
length = 72 mm. Cut markson medial side of shaft, in two
places.
347 Radius. Left. Distal midshaft fragment of a child's bone.

No. Nos. Museum
348 Femur. Unsided. Small fragment from the proximal shaft

of a child's bone. Preservedlength = 69 mm.
349 Femur. Right. Distal fragment of shaft from the back of a
child's bone. Preservedlength = 82 mm.
350 Metatarsal. Almost entire body of a child's bone but
extremities not preserved.
351 Cranium fragment. Fragment of a child's cranium,
approximately 59 x 35 mm. Thickness 2-4 mm.
352 Cranium fragment. Part of the right parietal of a child's
skull. Thickness = 2-4 mm. Approximately 6o x 62 mm in
size. Two marks on the outer surface of the bone suggest
that it had been hit with a sharp implement (PLATE 3 Ib-d).
353 Tooth T6?See pp. 346, 382.
354 Thoracic vertebra. The left articular facets and part of
spine, of a child's bone.
355 Rib. Left. Proximal end with articular facets, of a child's
356 Radius. Unsided. Fragment from midshaft of a child's
357 Metacarpal. Almost entire bone, but proximal end incom-
plete. Distal epiphysis not fused. Preserved length =
31 mm.
358 Metacarpal. Almost entire body, extremities not surviving.
359 Proximal phalanx (hand?). Almost entire bone, but
proximal end not surviving. Preservedlength = 21 mm.
360 Proximal phalanx (hand?). Almost entire bone, but
proximal end incomplete. Preservedlength = 19 mm.
361 Proximal phalanx (hand?). Entire bone. Proximal epi-
physis unfused. Length = 23 mm.
362 Proximal phalanx (hand?). Almost entire body of bone,
extremities not surviving. Preservedlength = 13 mm.
363 Middle phalanx (hand?). Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
unfused but present. Length (without epiphysis) = io mm.
364 Distal phalanx (hand?). Almost entire bone, but proximal
extremity missing. Preservedlength = 8 mm.
365 Femur. Unsided. Fragment from the midshaft of a child's
366 Tibia. Unsided. Fragment from the midshaft region of a
child's bone. Preservedlength = 73 mm.
367 Tibia. Left. Almost entire shaft. Preserved length =
III mm.
368 Fibula. Left. Fragment from the midshaft of a child's bone.
369 Fibula. Left. Fragment from the proximal shaft of a child's
370 Fibula. Unsided. Fragment from the midshaft of a child's
37 Fibula. Left. Fragment from the proximal shaft of a child's
bone. Preserved length = 39 mm. Cut marks on outer
surface, proximally.
372 Proximal phalanx (foot?). Almost entire bone, but
proximal end missing. Preservedlength = 12 mm.

No. Nos. Museum
373 Proximal phalanx (foot?). Almost entire bone, but

proximal end missing. Preservedlength = 9 mm.
374 Middle phalanx (foot?). Body of bone. Preservedlength =
7 mm.
375 Middle phalanx (foot?). Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
unfused, but surviving. Length (without epiphysis)=
7 mm.
376 Middle phalanx (foot?). Entire bone. Proximal epiphysis
unfused, but surviving. Length (without epiphysis)=
5 mm.
377 Distal phalanx (foot?). Almost entire bone but proximal
end missing. Preservedlength = 12 mm.
378 Calvarium. Cranium fragment (frontal?).Could be from a
child or an adult. Preservedsize of fragment = 37 x 35 mm.
Thickness = 2-3 mm.
379 Calvarium. Cranium fragment (occipital?). Could be from
a child or an adult. Preserved size of fragment=
20 X 35 mm. Thickness = 4-6 mm.
380 Femur. Left. Two fragmentsfrom the midshaftof an adult's
bone. Preservedlengths = 107 and 146 mm.
381 Tibia. Right. Distal fragment from the shaft of an adult
382 Calvarium. A large fragment of the left parietal of an adult
skull. Coronal suture beginning to fuse. Thickness =
6-7 mm.
383 Femur. Left. Distal fragment from the back of the shaft of
an adult bone. Preservedlength = 87 mm.
384 Calvarium. A small fragment of the cranium of either a
child's or an adult skull. Preserved size of fragment =
47 X 49 mm. Thickness = 2-3 mm.
385 Calvarium. An almost entire left parietal from an adult
skull. Thickness = 3-4 mm.
386 Clavicle. Right. Some of the shaft and the acromial end of a
child's bone. Preservedlength = 40 mm. Cut mark on the
upper surface.
387 Humerus. Left. The almost entire shaftfrom an adult bone.
Although the bones are fragmentary, their state of preservationis generally good and the cut
marks which are present cannot be confused with any other kind of modification, such as
gnawing, root marks,or excavation damage. To investigate how they were made microscope as
well as close up photographs were taken (PLATES 32a, d, 33b, d, 35d, 37b-d). These show clearly
that the marks are of two types: fine marks, the great majority, probably made by repeated
cutting actions, and deeper marks, which probably resulted from a chopping action with a
heavier implement. Even these heavier marks did not penetrate far into the bone. The marks
thereforesuggest the use of two kinds of tool, a sharp knife of stone, such as obsidian, or metal,22
22 It hasbeen
suggestedthatsmallgroupsofcut marks,such stoneas opposedto metalknives(L. R. Binford,Bones.Ancient
as arefoundon thesebones,areprobablyproducedby useof Men andModernMyths(1981) o05-6 and figs. 4.14, 4.15).
FIG.5. Composite diagram to show the locations of the main cut marks on the skeleton. (a) Front of body; (b) back of body
0 5cm
FIG.6. Skull (cat. no. I) and mandible (cat. no. 4) of individual A. Right aspect to show the locations of the cut marks
5cm
0 I I
FIG.7. Skull (cat. no. 2) and mandible (cat. not. 5) of individual B. Right aspect to show the locations of the cut marks
0 5cm
FIG. 8. Vertebrae with cut marks. (a) Axis (cat. no. 8) upper surface; (b) axis (cat. no. 9) upper surface; (c) cervical (cat. no. 341)
lower surface; (d) cervical (cat. no. 14) lower surface; (e) cervical (cat. no. 21) back surface; (f) cervical (cat. no. 18) right side; (g)
thoracic (cat. no. 28) upper surface; (h) thoracic (cat. no. 31) left side; (i) thoracic (cat. no. 36) lower surface; (j) lumbar (cat.
no. 48) left side
0 5cm
FIG. 9. Ribs with cut marks. (a) Left (cat. no. 59) upper surface;(b) left (cat. no. 77) upper surface;(c) left (cat. no. 87) upper surface;
(d) left (cat. no. 76) upper surface; (e) left (cat. no. Io8) upper surface; (f) left (cat. no. 98) lower surface; (g) left (cat. no. 88) lower
surface;(h) right (cat. no. I x3) upper surface; (i) left (cat. no. 60) lower surface; (j) right (cat. no. 133) lower surface; (k) right (cat.
no. 134) upper surface;(1)right (cat. no. 148) lower surface;(m) right (cat. no. 135) upper surface; (n) left (cat. no. 61) lower surface;
(o) right (cat. no. 159) lower surface; (p) left (cat. no. 112) upper surface
0 5c
FIG.10. Bones of shoulder girdle and upper arm with cut marks. (a) Right scapula (cat. no. 221) back of bone; (b) right scapula (cat.
no. 221) front of bone; (c) right humerus (cat. no. 223) back of bone; (d) right humerus (cat. no. 223) front of bone; (e) right scapula
(cat. no. 220) back of bone; (f) left scapula (cat. no. 219) back of bone; (g) right clavicle (cat. no. 215) upper surface;(h) left clavicle
(cat. no. 214) lower surface
C
a
0 5cm
FIG. I I. Bones of lower arm, pelvic girdle, and leg, with cut marks. (a) Right ilium (cat. no. 256) front of bone; (b) right tibia (cat. no.
283) back of bone; (c) right femur (cat. no. 270) back of bone; (d) right radius (cat. no. 235) front of bone; (e) right radius (cat. no.
235) back of bone; (f) left ulna (cat. no. 229) lateral surface; (g) left ulna (cat. no. 230) lateral surface
and a chopper, probably of metal. The fine cut marksare similar to those found on the animal
bones from the site, as, for example, on a sheep axis vertebrafound in the Room of the Children's
Bones (PLATE37a-b). Similar marks were also produced by us, using an Early Minoan II
obsidian blade and a modern steel knife on a modern sheep bone (PLATE 37c-d).23
Cut marksdo not occur on all the bones, and where they occur on more than one example of
the same anatomical element they are not always exactly repeated. Some distinct similaritiesdo
occur, however, such as the cut markson scapulae (FIG.Ioa, e,f). It is possible that cuts did not
penetrate as far as the bone in all cases, and also that treatment of the bodies was not precisely
repetitive, between left and right sides or between individuals. Most of the marksobservedwere
knife cuts. Chop markswere confined to a humerus (cat. no. 223), two tibiae (cat. nos. 279, 283),
and a limb bone fragment (cat. no. 327), possibly from a femur.
The locations of cut marks on the bodies are shown in composite diagrams of two views of
the skeleton (FIG. 5A-B). The number of bones and the number with cut marks are shown in
Table 2, for the Room of the Children's Bones, and in Table 3, for other locations in the
North House.
The skeletal remains from the Room of the Children's Bones are discussed below by
anatomical element, with reference to the locations of the cut marks on, and the numbers of,
individuals represented by them; the evidence for the different individuals is reviewed, and
finally, the human remains from other locations in the house are examined.
Skull
Two fairly complete skulls, A and B, could be reconstructedfrom the fragments recovered,
and a few fragments of a third skull, C, were also present. The cut mark on the right petrous
temporal bone of skull B, located right inside the skull, suggeststhat the brain was removed. The
cranium must have been cut or broken for a knife to have been inserted in this position. This is
supported by the presenceof the cut edge of the skull C fragment. Other cut markson the skulls,
around the eyes, ears, and on the mandibles, suggest flaying, or flesh removal, and the cut marks
on the occipital condyle could have been made in removing the head from the body.
Vertebrae
Most of the vertebrae recoveredwerefragmentsfrom the arch of the bone. The body was more
rarely recovered, probably because the cancellous bone of this region in children's skeletons is
more liable to erosion.
One atlas, two axis, and twelve other cervical vertebraewere recovered.The human body has
seven cervical vertebrae; therefore these vertebrae represent a minimum of three individuals.
Both axis vertebrae, and four other cervical vertebrae had cut marks. The marks on the axis
vertebrae (cat. nos. 8, 9) could have been made in an attempt to sever the head from the
body, or in separating the atlas from the axis. It is possible that the cut mark on a third(?)
cervical vertebra (cat. no. I I) could have served the same purpose. Two cervical vertebrae had
cut marks on the side of the bone (cat. nos. 14, 18), and a seventh cervical vertebra was cut at
the back.
Twenty-five thoracic vertebrae were recovered. The human body has twelve thoracic
vertebrae; therefore these again represent a minimum of three individuals. Two thoracic
vertebrae (cat. nos. 28, 36) had cut marks. The cut marks on cat. no. 28 were on the upper
23 The nature of the marks on the children's bones, mostly throughout the LM IB house in any case show to be a most
sawing cuts, rules out weapon blows (and thus enemy attack). improbable hypothesis (paceK. Branigan, Nature299 (1982)
The absence of longitudinal scraping marksis against prepara- 201-2).
tion of the bones for secondary burial, which the find contexts
TABLE2. Human bonesfrom the Room of the Children'sBones
Anatomical Number of Min. number of Number with

element fragments bones cut-marks
L R U L R U L R U
Skull - 31 - - 3 - - 3
Mandible - 5 - - 2 - 2
Atlas vertebrae - - - - I - o
Axis vertebra - - I - - 2 - - 2
4
Cervical vertebrae - 13 - 12 - - 4
Thoracic vertebrae - 25 - - 2
25
Lumbar vertebrae - - - - II - - I
15
Sacral vertebra - - - - - o
I I
Ribs 53 55 44
--
28 31 - 16 10 I
Clavicle 3 4 - 3 3 - 2 4 -
Scapula I 3 - I 3 - I 3 -
Humerus 4 4 - 3 3 - I I -
Ulna I 2 - I 2 - I 2 -
Radius 2 3 1 2 3 - I 2 -
Metacarpals - - 5 - - 5 - - o
Proximal phalanx - - 8 - - 8 - - o
Middle phalanx - - 2 - 2 - -
o
Distal - - I - - - - o
phalanx I
Os ilium 3 3 - 3 3 - I 2 -
Os ischium 2 2 - 2 2 -
o o -
Os pubis 2 I
- 2 I
- 0 0 -
Pelvic fragments - - 5 - - o - - o
Femur 6 7 - 3 4 - 2 I -
Tibia 6 5 - 4 3 - 2 I -
Fibula 2 - I
3 4 I 3 o o
Metatarsals - - 8 - - 8 - - I
Proximal phalanx
- -
I
- - 1 - - o
Middle phalanx - - 2 - - 2 - - o
Distal - - - - - - I
phalanx
Limb bone fragments - - 18 - - o - 8
Total 86 93 192 54 6o 85 28 26 25
Grand Total 371 199 79
L = left side, R = right side, U = unsided.
surface, and might have been made in an attempt to separate this vertebra from the next one in
the body, by inserting a knife from the front of the body. The cut mark on cat. no. 36 could have
been made in an attempt to remove the rib from its articulation with this vertebrae, again
working from the front of the body.
Eleven lumbar vertebrae were recovered. The human body has five lumbar vertebrae, there-
fore these representa minimum of three individuals. One lumbar vertebrahad been cut from the
side (cat. no. 48).
One sacral vertebra was recovered.
Ribs
One hundred and fifty-two rib fragments were found, but these probably represent many
fewer bones. Long slender bones such as ribs would be especially prone to breakage, and though
somejoins between rib fragmentshave been made, it is possible that others exist which have not
been recognized.
TABLE fromotherlocationsin
3. Humanbonesof children
theLM IB house
Anatomical element Number of fragments Number with cut marks
Skull 7 2
Vertebrae 3 I
Ribs 2 o
Sternum 1 o
Clavicle 2 2
Ulna I I
Radius 2 0
Metacarpals 2 o
Phalanges (hand) 7 o
Femur 3 o
Tibia 2 o
Fibula 4 I
Metatarsals I o
Phalanges 13 o
Limb bone fragment I I
Total 51 8
Per cent with cut marks = i6.
Fifty-three fragments of ribs from the left side of the body were recovered. Twenty-eight of
these came from the end of the bone which articulates with the thoracic vertebra at the back of
the body. Fourteen fragments came from the middle part of the rib, and eleven fragmentsfrom
the sternal end of the rib, at the front of the body. Thus these fragments representa minimum
number of twenty-eight ribs. The human body has twelve pairs of ribs, and so our pieces come
from a minimum of three individuals. Fifty-fivefragmentsof ribs from the right side of the body
were recovered. Thirty-one of these come from the articulation end, three from the middle, and
twenty-one from the sternal end of the rib. Thus these also represent a minimum of three
individuals. A furtherforty-fourrib fragmentswere too fragmentaryto be assignedto the correct
side of the body (cat. nos. 168-211).
There were cut markson sixteen left rib fragments (cat. nos. 59, 6o, 61, 63, 76, 77, 79, 83, 85,
87, 88, 9g, 96, 98, io8, 1 I2), on ten right rib fragments (cat. nos. I113, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136,
137, 148, 159, 167) and on one unsided rib fragment (cat. no. 168). The cut marks on the ribs are
not confined to one particular location--they occur at both ends and in the middle of the bone,
and also on both the inner and outer surfaces. Some of the marks may have been made in
disarticulating the ribs from the thoracic vertebrae. Cut marks on the inner surface of the rib
suggest that they were cut from the front of the body, which implies that the thoracic cavity had
been opened and the lungs and heart removed before these cut marks were made.
Shouldergirdle
Three left fragments (cat. nos. 212-14) and four right fragments (cat. nos. 215-18) of clavicle
were recovered. Numbers 215 and 216 could possibly come from the same bone, and so these
fragmentsrepresenta minimum of three individuals. All of these bone fragments,except a small
fragment of left clavicle (cat. no. 213), had cut marks. Cuts occur on both the upper and lower
surfaces,and on the front of bone.
One left (cat. no. 219) and three right (cat. nos. 220-2) scapulae were recovered, thus
representinga minimum of three individuals. All four scapulae had cut markson the back of the
376 M. WALL, J. H. MUSGRAVE AND P. M. WARREN
s.
bone, and one (cat. no. 221) had cut markson the front of the bone also. These cut markssuggest
that the muscleswere removed from the back of the shoulder blade, and that in one case at least,
that the shoulder blade was removed from the rib cage.
Armbones
Three left (cat. nos. 224, 226, 228) and three right (cat. nos. 223, 225, 227) humeri were
recovered. A right humerus (cat. no. 223) had cut markson the front and back of the bone, as
well as six chop marks on the back of the shaft. The cut marks could have been made in an
attempt to remove flesh from the bone, or possibly in disarticulating the upper from the lower
arm, although they are placed a little high on the bone for this. Another right humerus (cat. no.
227) had a cut mark on the back of the bone, at the proximal end of the shaft, which could have
been made in removing the humerus from the scapula and clavicle.
Of the bones of the lower arm, two left ulnae and one right (cat. nos. 229-31), two left and
three right radii, and one unsided fragment (cat. nos. 232-6) were recovered.All three ulnae had
cut markson the outer side in the middle of the shaft, and one left and two right radii also had cut
markson the shaft. These could have been made in flaying or flesh removal.
Handbones
Five metacarpals (cat. nos. 237-41) and eleven phalanges (cat. nos. 242-52) were recovered.
None of these small bones had cut marksand they are under-representedin comparisonwith the
arm bones, as all could have come from a single individual. It is possible that their small size
affected their survival and recovery chances, although all earth from the relevant excavated
levels was dry sieved and most of it was wet sieved.
Pelvicgirdle
The bones of the pelvic girdle recovered represent a minimum of three individuals (cat. nos.
253-63). One left os ilium (cat. no. 255) and two right ossa ilia (cat. nos. 256-7) had been cut on
the front of the bone. These cuts could have been made in removing the flesh from the upper leg,
or possibly in disarticulating the femur from the hip.
Leg bones
Of the six left femora fragments found (cat. nos. 264-9) nos. 264 and 265 could have come
from the same bone, as could nos. 267 and 268 (though not from the same bone as 264 or 265),
and 269 could have belonged to either of these. Number 266 is from a different femur again. Of
the seven right femora fragments (cat. nos. 270-6) nos. 271 and 272 could have come from the
same bone, as could nos. 273 and 274 (though not from the same bone as 271 or 272), and 275
could have belonged to either of these. Numbers 270 and 276 represent other femora. Thus a
minimum of three left and four right femora are represented.Two left femora had cut markson
the front of the bone, near the head (cat. nos. 264, 266), and a right femur (cat. no. 270) had cut
markson the back of the bone in the neck region, below the head, and in the middle of the shaft.
The marksat the proximal end of the bones could have resulted from disarticulating the femur
from the pelvis, or by removal of flesh from the bones, and the marks in the middle of the shaft
probably resulted from flesh removal.
Of the six left tibia fragments recovered (cat. nos. 277-82), nos. 279 and 280 could have come
from the same bone, and no. 281Icould have belonged to this bone or to nos. 277 or 278. Of the
five right tibia fragments recovered (cat. nos. 284-7), nos. 285 and 286 could have belonged to
no. 284. Thus a minimum of four left and three right tibiae are represented.Two bones had been
chopped in the middle of the shaft (cat. nos. 279, 283), and there were cut marks, again in the
middle of the shaft, on two bones (cat. nos. 280, 287). The knife markscould have resultedfrom
flesh removal.
Eight fragmentsoffibulae were recovered (cat. nos. 288-95). Three of these (cat. nos. 288-9o)
are left bones, and four are right bones (cat. nos. 291-4). Of the latter, nos. 293 and 294 could
have come from the same bone, and the unsided fragment (cat. nos. 295) could have belonged to
any of the above. One left fibula (cat. no. 289) had been cut on the outer surfaceof the bone, near
the centre of the shaft, in a similar position to the cut marks on the tibia.
Footbones
Eight metatarsals (cat. nos. 296-303) were recovered, of which one had been cut (cat. no.
296). Five phalanges (cat. nos. 304-8) were recovered,of which one distal phalanx (cat. no. 308)
had been cut. These cut markson the feet could have resultedfrom flaying. Foot bones seem also
to be under-represented, probably for the same reasons as suggested for the hand bones (see
above).
Most skeletal elements are representedin this bone assemblage. The low numbers of certain
bones and bone parts (for example, hand and foot bones, the extremitiesof the shaftsof the limb
bones, and their epiphyses, the bodies of the vertebrae), and the absence of certain other bones
(for example, the wrist and ankle bones), might be due to their having disintegrated or eroded
beyond recognition, because of the friable nature of these bones and bone parts in children's
skeletons. However, the absence of certain other bones, such as the greater part of skull C, and
the missing limb bone shafts, is more likely attributable to their absence from the bone
assemblage at the time of deposition.
The skeletal remains recovered represent a minimum of four individuals. Two individuals
could be aged on the basis of their dentition (skullsA and B, see section III). The ageing of post-
cranial remains of pre-adolescent children, in the absence of their dentition, is not easy,24
especially when the remains of several individuals are mixed.
It was not possible to assign unequivocally the bones of the post-cranial skeletal material to
their respective individuals, as they were not dissimilar in size, and were in a fragmentary
condition, with few epiphyses preserved.However, some attempt was made, on the basis of the
main limb bones only, with the following tentative results.
The larger bones probably belong to the older individual represented by skull B. The post-
cranial skeleton is representedby the following bones:right and left clavicles (cat. nos. 215, 212),
right and left humeri (cat. nos. 228, 223), right and left radii (cat. nos. 235, 232), right and left ilia
(cat. nos. 258, 255, PLATE34b-c), right and left femora (cat. nos. 270o,266), and right and left
tibiae (cat. nos. 283, 278, 279, 28o).
There is less size difference between two of the remaining individuals which have fairly well-
represented post-cranial remains. Of these two groups of bones, the slightly larger individual
(belonging to skull A?) is representedby the following bones and bone fragments:right and left
clavicles (cat. nos. 218, 214), right and left humeri (cat. nos. 225b, 225a), right and left radii (cat.
nos. 234, 233), right and left ilia (cat. nos. 256, 254, PLATE34d), right and left femora (cat. nos.
273, 264), and right and left tibiae (cat. nos. 284, 277).
The slightly smaller of these two individuals (belonging to skull C?), is represented by the
following bones and bone fragments: right clavicle (cat. no. 2 I17),right and left humeri (cat. nos.
227, 226), right radius (cat. no. 236b), right and left ilia (cat. nos. 257, 253, PLATE35a), right and
left femora (cat. nos. 267, 271), and right tibia (cat. no. 287). Two rather smaller bones must
represent a fourth individual. These are femur (cat. no. 276) and tibia (cat. no. 282).
24 Brothwell, op. cit. (see n. 8 above) 67.
378 S. M. WALL,J. H. MUSGRAVE AND P. M. WARREN
Hence, of the four individuals representedby the skeletal remainsof this bone assemblage, all
come from pre-adolescent children, two of which could be aged accurately to twelve and eight
years respectively (see section III), a third individual was probably about eight years, or slightly
younger, and the fourth was probably slightly younger again. The sex of these children is not
known (see p. 381).
III. THE SKULLS AND MANDIBLES
INTRODUCTION
The heavy task of cleaning, conserving, and cataloguing the bulk of the bones having been
carried out by Wall, the aim of this section is to describe briefly the crania of the two children,
labelled A and B, and to discussin greater detail theirjaws and teeth. The latter are important
as they offer the most reliable indication of the ages at death: about eight and twelve years
respectively. Dental evidence for the presence of more than two children will also be reviewed.
SKULLS A AND B (FIGS. 6-7; PLATES 27-31)
Much of the cranial vault of each individual was reconstitutedfrom a large number of small
fragments. As can be seen from PLATES 27-29 it was not possible to restore either of them to
anything approaching a complete state. That the skulls and mandibles, like the other, body
bones, were cut with knives is proved by the presence of multiple cut marks on the outer surface
of the angle on the right side of mandible A, and of one on the postero-lateral border of the
jugular foramen on the right side of the base of skull A. This region is very deep and not easily
reached casually with a knife. It would be interesting to know if these two sets of cut markswere
inflicted at the same time, perhaps during attempts (successful?)to cut the child's throat and
even remove its head.
A few measurements are given at the end of this section under the heading 'Miscellaneous
measurements'. We decided against attempting to take many measurements because we were
dealing with bones that had already been scarred by other hands, and we demurred from
obscuring the evidence by inflicting further damage with sharp caliper blades.
THE JAWS AND TEETH OF SKULL A
Maxilla
This is very poorly preserved and comprises only a small portion containing 6 el. The only
other maxillary teeth preserved are loose. No trace of the left half of the maxilla was observed.
Themaxillarydentition
Right
8 No trace, not surprisingly. However it is possible that this tooth was destined never to
develop. No sign of even the smallest tooth germ was seen nor did there seem to be any
space for one in the surrounding bone. In an eight-year-old child calcification should at
least have commenced.
7 Developing tooth visible in its socket.
6 Present and erupted. Very little wear. Roots far from fully developed. Cusp of Carabelli
present mesio-palatally.
e Present. Quite worn especially mesio-palatally. It was found loose but fitted the socket
f,
snugly. It is also a replica (worn) of the 6 as it should be.
4 Loose tooth. Crown fully developed. Root scarcely so. Not erupted.
2 Loose tooth. Crown fully developed. Root more developed than that of 4j. Enamel
hypoplasia?Small enamel pearl disto-palatally. Probably erupting.
Left
c Loose tooth. Crown very well worn. Dentine widely exposed.
Mandible
Almost complete.
Left
8 No trace, not surprisingly.
7 Developing crown visible in its socket.
6 Present. Very good condition. Some wear buccally.
e Present. Worn. Dentine exposed beneath cusps.
d Present. Less worn than e. Calculus mesio-lingually.
c Present. Well worn. Dentine exposed over apex of crown, extending down lingual
surface.
b Absent. Tooth lost post mortem?
2 Present beneath [-. Probably erupting.
I Absent. Tooth lost post mortem.
Right
8 See left.
7 See left.
6 See left.
e See left.
d See left. Chipped disto-bucally.
c See left.
b Present. Very well worn. Dentine widely exposed. About to be shed?
2 See left.
i Present. Very good condition. No wear. Calculus lingually. Enamel hypoplasia?
THE JAWS AND TEETH OF SKULL B
Maxilla
The left half is preservedintact. Only one loose tooth from the right was observed.
Left
8 Developing crown absent. Developing socket present but damaged.
7 Erupting? Crown clearly visible in its socket.
6 Present. Good condition. Little wear. Very small cusp of Carabelli. Enamel hypoplasia?
5 Unerupted crown visible in its socket. About to erupt?
e Present and overlying the erupting 15. Well worn. About to be shed?
4 Absent. Socket large enough to accommodate this tooth. Probably erupted at death but
lost post-mortem.
3 Developing crown visible in socket. Enamel hypoplasia.
c Absent. Space for it in socket. Lost post-mortem?
2 Present. Good condition.
I Absent. Tooth lost post-mortem.
Right
3 Loose tooth. Crown with partially developed root. Probably the counterpart of the L3
described above.
Notesonmaxilla
The first draft of this report was written soon after my final examination of these remains in
July 1984. In September 1985 Sheilagh Wall drew my attention to two loose teeth which I had
not seen previously as they only came to light during her own final examination of all the
material earlierthis year. They are probably the upper left c and upper left 4 of skull B. However,
as I have not been able to check whether either fits its socket, I have not emended the dental
chart of skull B. The Lcis,as might be expected, well worn and looks as if it was about to be shed.
The [4 has roots that are far from fully formed and a completely unworn crown, features that
would indeed associate it with skull B. The excavation number of each is given below. [c : SEX
8o F+F/G+G \ 3047 Sample [12]. L4: SEX 80 F+F/G+G 3043 Sample [II].
Mandible
Not complete. Comprisestwo fragmentsthatjoin between [2 and 3 . The left side is therefore
complete. The right is deficient distal to 4]. Plus fragment of right ramus including condyle.
Left
8 No trace, not surprisingly.
7 Crown fully developed. Root poorly so. Erupting?
6 Present. Very poor condition. Disto-lingual half almost completely destroyed by caries.
Vast cavity extends deep into pulp cavity. Traces of associated abscess. Extensive
damage caused by abscessbucally to body of mandible. Much resorptionand reduction
of body height at this point.
5 Present. Crown unworn. Root quite well developed but banded: hypoplastic? Erupted
crown at same level as that of 6 .
4 Tooth absent. Socket present and empty. Tooth lost post-mortem. Tooth had erupted
but socket not achieved full depth, i.e. roots not fully developed.
3 Present. No wear. Trace of enamel hypoplasia labially.
2 Present. Very good condition. Enamel hypoplasia?
Right
7 Loose tooth. See left.
6 Loose tooth. Crown and roots very well developed. Enamel wrinkled. Some occlusal
caries developing? Small pit visible in occlusal enamel. Widespread caries almost
inevitable.
4 Present. Crown well developed. Root only approximately one third developed.
Apparently much less far erupted than V4-.Enamel hypoplasia.
3 Present. No wear. Root one half to three quarters complete. Enamel hypoplasia.
2 Present. No wear. Root almost complete. Enamel hypoplasia.
Notes on mandible
The abscess that developed beneath and around 6 would almost certainly have caused great
pain. The damage it did to the mandibular body locally was marked and it is possible that the
lack of wear observed on the right maxillary teeth may have resulted from an unwillingness to
chew on this painful side. A score of 17.2 mm for the height of the mandible at ectomolare (the
centre of the socket for [7) is perhaps pathologically low. See also below for a discussionof the
low scores for the heights of the condyle coronoid process and incisura.
Dental chartsof each skull are given in Appendices I and II. A key to the dental chart notation
used throughout is given in Appendix III. The jaw fragments are illustrated in PLATES29-30.
of SkullsA andB
Mandibularmeasurements
A B
Bimental breadth (zz) 39.2 *damaged
Condyle length (cyi) 13-7 (R) *I2.3 (L) '4.9 (R)
Minimum rameal breadth (rb') 28.7 (R) 27.5 (L)
Molar-premolarchord (m2p1) 29.8 (L)
Symphyseal height (h,) (L)
Ectomolare height (m2h) 26.5
17.2 (L) (pathological?)
Coronoid process height (crh) 49.o0 (R) 44.0 (L)
Condylar height (cyh) 42.0 (R) 35.0 (L)
Incisura height (ih) 36.0 (R) 30.0 (L)
Note
Even though B is older than A by severalyears, his mandible was apparentlysmallerin several
dimensions than that of A (rb'; crh; ih). We know that the left half was pathological (see above
and below).
Pathology
I. Traces of cribra orbitalia in roofs of both orbits of skull A.
2. Oral pathology of mandible of skull B. Resorption of body of mandible in region of abscess
beneath and buccal to [-6. Did this cause a general slowing down of growth on this side of the
jaw? The left ramus is smaller in four dimensionsthan the right of A (minimum rameal breadth;
coronoid process height; condylar height; and incisura height). Moreover, the position of the
mental foramen on the left side appears abnormal. On the left side of A it lies approximately
midway between the alveolar margin and the inferiorborder of the body, as it should. But on the
equivalent side of B it lies closer to the alveolar margin, which again suggests a growth defect.
Age
See dental charts.
Subject A = about eight years.
Subject B = about twelve years.
Sex
To the best of my knowledge, none of the techniques available for sexing ancient children's
skeletal and dental remains yields estimates accurate enough for our needs. A distinction should
perhaps be drawn between age and sex. The former is a continuous trait and a margin of error is
inevitable in its determination. Sex on the other hand, is discontinuous and nothing short of total
accuracy is acceptable in the case of these highly important and archaeologically sensitive
youngsters.
Affinities
The cusp patterns on the molar teeth of subjectsA and B are moderately similar. However, it
would be unwise to postulate close consanguinity. Moreover, there is evidence--albeit slender--
that A was destined never to be blessed or cursed with upper wisdom teeth (818), whereas it
appears that B's were developing normally, at least on the left side.
Miscellaneousmeasurements
Maximum length of skull A = 155 mm.
Horizontal circumference of skull A = c.470 mm.
Maximum length of skull B = 175 mm.
Maximum diameter of capital epiphysis of right femur (2) = 27.6 mm. (Skeleton B?)
Maximum length of neck (including epiphysis) of femur (2) = 6 .o mm. (Skeleton B?)
Evidence for individuals other than A and B:
(I) A loose tooth -e, originally attributed to B, could easily have belonged to another
individual. B was probably too old to have an e with such stout roots still in position.
Moreover, A already has e e.
(2) A loose dj, riginally attributed to B, could perhaps have belonged to another individual.
It is very heavily worn and has much dentine exposed. It is as likely to have belonged to
another individual as to B for the reasonsgiven in (I) above.
(3) Among bones not from the Room of the Children's Bones there is a loose 6? from the
drain deposit (p. 346), cat. no. 353. It is in very good condition, with a fully developed
crown, but roots only about one-third developed. In other words, this is a child's [6 and
both A and B already have 6 16. It must have belonged to someone other than A and B (cf.
p. 346 on the drain deposit body bones), but there is no way of knowing whether it was
part of the skull represented by cranial fragment C from the Room of the Children's
Bones.
REFERENCES
The literature on the forensic and anthropological study of human bones is extensive.
The examination of this collection, however, was relatively straightforward and only two
standard reference books were consulted for this report. They were: D. R. Brothwell,
Digging Up Bones, 3rd edn. (London: British Museum (Natural History) and Oxford
University Press, 1981); G. C. Downer, Dental Morphology:An IllustratedGuide (Bristol:
John Wright, 1975).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
J. H. M. would like to thank ProfessorP. M. Warren for the invitation to study these unique
bones and Miss Sheilagh Wall for her help in doing so. The work involved was carried out by
J. H. M. while in Greece on other assignmentsfunded by the British Academy and the Royal
Society.
APPENDIX I
Dental chartof subjectA. See AppendixIIIfor an explanationof symbolsand notationused
DENTAL CHART OF SUBJECT A
R L
6 e
6 e d c b 1 c d e 6
ERUPTION TIMES
2 = 8-9
2 = 7-8
AGE
c. 8 years
APPENDIX II
Dentalchartof subjectB. SeeAppendixIllfor an explanation
of symbolsandnotationused
DENTAL CHART OF SUBJECT B
R L
2 e 6
*-& 4 3 2 2 3 5 6 7
caries caries
abscess
ERUPTION TIMES
3 = 11-12 5 = 10-12
3 = 9-10 5 = 11-12
4 = 10-11 7 = 12-13
4 = 10-12 7 = 12-13
AGE
c. 12 years
APPENDIX III
Symbolsandnotationusedonthedentalcharts
JI = Upper right quadrant
L = Upper left quadrant
fl = Lower right quadrant
f = Lower left quadrant
1 = Permanent central incisor
2 = " lateral incisor
3 = " canine
4 = " first premolar
5 = " second premolar
6 = " first molar
7 = " second molar
8 = " third molar
a = Deciduous central incisor
b = " lateral incisor
c = " canine
d = " first molar
e = " second molar
SYMBOLS
\ = tooth missing but socket present
= tooth
---- present but socket missing (used for loose teeth)
1 -= tooth not yet erupted
Q = tooth probably erupting
S-....... . . - all teeth above or below this line unerupted
= break in the bone at this point
IV. CONDITION OF INDIVIDUALS AT DEATH AND EXPLANATION OF

CUT MARKS ON BONES
Now that the archaeologicaland osteological evidence has been set out in detail, some attempt
towards explanation of the cut markson the bones may be made. But first, can anything be said
of the health or condition of the children at the time of their deaths?To try to throw some light on
this question radiographsof the skulls and a selection of the bones25were very generously made
by DrJ. Tsoudheros at the Venezeleion Hospital, near Knossos, on 24 July I980. Tsoudheros,
chief radiologistat the hospital, and Musgrave observed that none of the bones X-rayed showed
any trace of pathological abnormality. There was no evidence, for example, of Harris'slines of
arrestedgrowth, nor of intercurrentdisease, nor of endemic Mediterranean anaemia. We were
fortunate in having these observationsfully confirmed from examination of the X-ray plates by
the late Sir Howard Middlemiss, Professorof Radiodiagnosis at the University of Bristol (in a
letter of 14 November I980). The children, as far as can be observed from bone and cell
structure, would seem to have been in normal health at the time of death.
What, then, was the purpose of the actions which produced the marks, mostly fine knife cuts,
on unburnt bones?Cutting away of fleshseems the strongestexplanation. Section II discussesthe
evidence in some detail. This explanation is supported by the occurrence of similar, butchery
marks on animal bones from all periods representedin the excavations (under study by Wall).
But while removal of flesh seems an appropriate explanation for marks on, say, femora, this is
much less so for markson, say, clavicles. Flaying or skinning would seem probable in these cases.
In addition, L. R. Binford observed, from photographs of the bones, that the marks are not
infrequently away from their ends (cf. FIG. 5A, B). This suggests that, while disarticulation is
the probable explanation for some marks, the primary aim was probably the removal of flesh.
Evidence for the deliberate removal of the brain, heart, and lungs is also adduced in Section II
(PP. 373, 375)-
One purpose consistent with all the above observationsis preparationof meat and removal of
flesh for cooking. Support for such an intention is found in the occurrence of bones with edible
snails in the fill of the Cult Room Basement (cf. p. 345). We may also note in this context the
description of meat preparation for a sacrificeof animals to Apollo in Iliad i. 459-66, including
cutting of throats,flaying, and cutting out of slicesfrom the thighs. The cut markson a sheep axis
vertebrafrom the Room of the Children'sBones indicated the killing of this animal, presumably
for meat. Equally pertinent, though far removed in time and space, is the description by Binford
and Bertram of sheep butchering and cooking among the Navajo Indians today: 'The normal
method of preparationfor cooking is to cut the meat from the bones. Chunksare cut off for use in
stew. ... Vertebral parts are always boiled together with other ingredients for a soup.'26
V. CONCLUSION
It is beyond our scope to survey non-funeraryhuman osteological material from other Aegean
sites, widely scattered as it is in time and space. In any case there does not appear to be any body
25 In addition to those of the skulls A and B (cat. nos. I-2) 26 L. R. Binford and J. B. Bertram, 'Bone Frequencies and
radiographswere made of mandibles cat. nos. 4, 5, clavicle cat. Attritional Processes', in Binford (ed.), For TheoryBuildingin
no. 212, scapulae cat. nos. 2 9, 221, humeri cat. nos. 223, 224, Archaeology(1977) 90-4, esp. 94. For the physical details of
ilium cat. no. 257, femur cat. no. 270, fibula cat. no. 288, ulna carrying out a sacrifice in Classical Greece, see J.-L. Durand,
cat. no. 230, radius cat. no. 235, five hand phalanges cat. nos. 'Betes grecques. Propositions pour une topologie des corps a
242-3 and three others within cat. nos. 245, 247-52, and five manger', in M. Detienne and J.-P. Vernant (eds.), La cuisinedu
metatarsalscat. no. 298 and four others within cat. nos. 296-7, enpaysgrec(1979) 133-65. We thank Dr R. G. A. Buxton
sacrifice
301-3. for the reference.
of material comparable to the present assemblage from Knossos. We simply note from Crete
the adult human skull from an area otherwise associated with cult at EM II Myrtos;27the
spectacular discovery of four skeletons in a shrine building at Arkhanes Anemospelia, where
the context appearsto be MM III and possiblylate in that period;28a human skull togetherwith
animal bones in an MM III context in room B/Ba at the rural villa or farm at Tourtouloi,
Seteia.29Then there is the tantalizingly brief referenceby Seager to numbers of badly charred
human bones in the LM IB destruction of House D and other houses at Mochlos,30interpreted
by Seager as the product of enemy attack. Interestingly, however, these bones are not described
as skeletons, such as an attack might have been expected to leave. It is possible that the
disposition of the bones, and so the deaths of the persons concerned, were the result of some
different action. From the LM I villa at Epano Zakroscame a bone thought to be human, found
behind a pithos in magazine 8.31 Finally, within Crete, and more intriguingly, there was a
child's skull in the palace of Zakros, high in the fill in the north-west corner of room XII in the
west wing.32The excavator considered that the skull could not have been from a victim of the
destruction, and was unexplained.
Outside Crete there are two equally intriguing LM IB finds, the laconic report of a human
cranium immediately above the final LM IB floor of room 2 at Kythera, Kastri, and secondly the
human bones in room 2 of House I at Triandha (stratum IIA).33 At the latter site Monaco
reported a skull on its side, with hand and arm bones, on the east side of the room. He took this
to be the remains of a person sleeping with head on hands, probably caught by earthquake. In
the north-west area of the room, near a pithos but at a higher level, were the remainsof another
skull, with teeth and mandible, 'probabile terremotato'. Apart from pottery vases the finds
included three (Minoan) stone lamps. S. Heuck has usefully drawn attention to these bones
as a possible comparison for the Knossian material.34A clear view from the evidence seems
impossible. The excavator considered the remains to represent earthquake victims. But, while
the bones appear to have been more skeletallydisposedand not as scatteredas Heuck suggests,it
is surprising,for the earthquake view, that so little of the bodies appears to have survived. The
excavator did note, however, that other bones might have been found, not recorded,at an earlier
stage of the excavation.35
A feature common to the cases cited (except Arkhanes and perhaps Triandha) and the
Knossos material is that whole skeletons or even partial skeletons, such as might have been
trapped by falling masonry as in room 37 of House A at Keos,36are not involved. A different
explanation of the disjectamembra is thereforerequired, though of course it need not be the same
for all cases. For the remains from the LM IB Knossian house the additional factor of cutting
marks on the bones has to be taken into account. We have shown that at least four children, in
27 Warren, Myrtos. An Early BronzeAge Settlement in Crete 31 Platon, 'AvaUKabO,ZdKpov', PAE (I965) 222.
32
(1972) 83 and fig. 28; E. Sunderland and R. A. Cartwright, Id., Zakros(197i) 120; 'AvaaKaO7cZiKpov', PAE (1962)
'Fragments of a Human Cranium', in Warren, Myrtos342. 162 (room A = XII), 163 (skull).
s8 J. and E. Sakellarakis,'AoVaaKaoo o4ApXav6v',PAE
(I979)
33 R. Hope Simpson and J. F. Lazenby, inJ. N. Coldstream
331-92, at 347-92, and pl. I83 (pottery nearly all paralleled in and G. L. Huxley, Kythera(1972) 62. G. Monaco, 'Scavi nella
large MM IIIB/LM IA deposit at lower level than and just to zona micenea di Jaliso (1935-1936)', ClaraRhodosto (1941)
north of the LM IB house (P. W.)). Id. 'Drama of Death in a 41-183, at 82-3.
Minoan Temple', NationalGeographic 159 no. 2 (1981) 204-22, 34 S. Heuck, in R. Hagg and N. Marinatos (eds.), Sanctuaries
esp. vases at p. 212. andCultsin theAegeanBronzeAge (Stockholm 1981) 212.
29 N. Platon, 'AvaaKa0-~ PAE (1960)
TrrEpLoXfrH9pataoo', 3s Monaco, op. cit. (see n. 33 above) 82 n. I.
36 W. Willson
296. Cummer and E. Scholfield, Keos III. Ayia
30 R. B. Seager, 'Excavations on the Island of Mochlos, Irini: HouseA (Mainz 1984) 9-10.
Crete, in 1908', AJA 13 (I909) 273-303, at 301.
normal health in respect of their bone and cell structure,were involved. It has been argued here
and elsewhere (see n. 3 above):
(a) that, given their probable good health, the children are not likely to have died naturally;
(b) that they are in consequence of (a) likely to have been killed;
(c) that such killings may well have been sacrificial;37
(d) that the cut markson their bones indicate removal of flesh and flaying (cf. above, sections
II and IV), the marks being indistinguishable from butchery marks not infrequently
observed on animal bones from all periods in our excavations, and also indicate the
removal of brain, heart, and lungs;
(e) that the treatment of the bodies and the occurrence of bones with edible snails may
further suggest cooking of the flesh cut from the bones, as does at least one killed sheep
with the bones, with the possibility that such cooking would have been for consumption;
(f) that the accompanying ceramic evidence from above the Cult Room Basement indicates
a ritual context for such actions.
S. M. WALL
J. H. MUSGRAVE
P. M. WARREN
37 Though the wider interpretation of the bones is not the 'Die historischeTradition bei Babyloniern und Hethitern', ZA
purpose of this paper (see n. 3 above) some comparative data 44 NF Io (1938) 105-13 (text KBo III 60).) We are grateful to
for contemporary sacrifice of human victims to divinities in DrJ. Crouwel for these references.For the sacrificeof numbers
adjacent regions of the Near East may be noted. For a general of children up to twelve to fourteen years of age in the Amman
treatment, A. R. W. Green, The Role of HumanSacrificein the temple, J. B. Hennessy, 'Excavation of a Late Bronze Age
AncientNear East (American School of Oriental Research, Temple at Amman', PEQ. Io8 (1966) 155-62; 'A Temple of
University of Montana, Missoula, 1975). For human sacrifice Human Sacrifice at Amman', TheGazette.Universityof Sydney2
by the Hittites and, in one case, cooking of human flesh for the no. 20 (Nov. 1970) 307-9; M. Ottosson, Templesand Cultsin
gods, H. M. Kiimmel, Ersatzrituale far den hethitischenKInig Palestine(Boreas12, 1980) 103-4. We are indebted to Professor
(Wiesbaden 1967) 150-68, esp. 156-7 (text KBo XV 4). (For G. Korres and Dr R. Hiigg for these references. For alleged
argumentsagainst the presenceof real historicalinformationon human sacrifice in Crete in Iron Age times, G. L. Huxley,
eating of human flesh in otherHittite texts, H. G. Giiterbock, 'Fulgentius on the Cretan Hecatomphonia', CP 68 (1973) 124-7.
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 21
HUMAN BONES FROM A LATE MINOAN IB HOUSE AT KNOSSOS

(a) Part of the North House, seen from north. A, Room of the Children'sBones;B,Corridor;c, Cult Room Basement;D,North Court.
After conservation. (b) Room of the Children's Bones, conical cup level, from E. Scale o. Io m
PLATE 22 B.S.A. 81
reed
with
Children's
the
Bowl
of
(c)
C
Room
level.
cup
right.
to
conical
KNOSSOS
(P540)
left
AT on
bowl
(P395),
wall
reed
HOUSE
IB withwest
fragments
cup,
cup above,
MINOAN
Style from
conical
on
LATE 56
Marinecorner,
A
(b) rib
FROM
level.
south-west
Human
cup
(d)
BONES Bones,
level.
conical
cup
HUMAN
b (P64o),
conical
cup
of
top
speckled
IB (P540),
ama LM
(a) pattern
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 23
.....
..o:
........
a 4m N
dQ

(a) Mandible, skull, and other bones 4ob - 42 , withjuglet (P326) at lower right. From E. Scale 0.50 m. (b)Jug
- (P39o) with bones
4ob 42 . (c) Bone group 55 , from north-east. Scale o. Io m. (d) Skull B, main fragment, group 48 , and group 49 , below
left, in north-west corner of room. From E. North wall on right. Scale o. o0m
PLATE 24 B.S.A. 81
Maa
P 313
-31
5s
5mi
.23
(a) Bone groups from E. Numbers are directly below their bones (except 4 , above bone). Scale 0.50 m, with conical cup (P313)
above its right end. Burnt timber in section, upper left. South wall to left. (b) Bone groups, including skull fragments 16 and 23 ,
from E. Numbers directly below their bones. Scale 0.50 m. Burnt timber in section, on left. South wall on left
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 25
dl e
(a) Conical cups and reed bowl (P354, P322, P325, P349). (b) LM IB cup (P396). (c) Burnt timber (in front of and parallel to 0.50 m
scale) lying east-west in Room of the Children's Bones. (d) Small amphora (P324). (e) Bridge-spouted jug (P970)
PLATE 26 B.S.A. 81
P319
(a) Alabastron with hatched loop pattern (P323). (b) Bridge-spouted jug (P3 9). (c) P319 as found among fallen stones. From
north-east. Scale 0.50 m
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 27
b
a
c d
Skullsof individualsA (cat. no. i) and B (cat. no. 2). A, skull A, facial aspect;B, skull B, facial aspect;c, skull A, dorsal aspect;D, skull
B, dorsal aspect
PLATE 28 B.S.A. 81
b
a
3C
d
Skulls of individuals A (cat. no. i) and B (cat. no. 2). A, skull A, posterior aspect; B, skull B, posterior aspect; c, skull A, right lateral
aspect; D, skull B, left lateral aspect
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 29
2),
no.
(cat.aspect
b lateral
maxilla
B
right
skull
d B,
4),
no.
aspect;
(cat.
KNOSSOS
AT
occlusal
mandible
i),
A
HOUSE
no.
IB
skull
(cat.D,
MINOAN
aspect;
maxilla
A
LATE
skull
A occlusal
A,
4),
2).
no.
FROMno.
(cat.
(cat.
B
BONES
and
i) mandible
no.A
HUMAN
skull
(cat.
a A c,
aspect;
c
individuals
of
occlusal
Skulls
PLATE 30 B.S.A. 81
show
to
surface,
marks
b outer
d cut
of
bone,
malar
location
KNOSSOS
right
show
AT 2)
to
no.
(cat.
HOUSE surface,
B
IB
outer
skull
c,
328),
MINOAN
no.
aspect;
LATE (cat.
A lateral
leftbone
B,
FROM
malar
aspect;
BONESright
D,
occlusal
A,
mark;
HUMAN
5);
cut
no.of
a
c (cat.
location
mandible
B
Skull
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 31
to
(b).
in
surface,
outer
fractures
of
352),
b d no.one
of (c)
(cat.
upin
KNOSSOS
parietal
close
fracture
AT of
Right
(b)surface,
HOUSE surface
IB edge.
outer
inner
cut of
352),
up
show
MINOAN
to no.
close
LATE (cat.
352),
A surface,
no.
outer
parietal
FROM
3), (cat.
no.
Right-
BONES
(c)parietal
(cat.
C
Right
skull
HUMAN (d)
fractures.
from
C two
a of
fragment
position
Cranium
(a)show
PLATE 32 B.S.A. 81
a
b
d
(a) Cervical vertebra (cat. no. 14), showing close up of cut mark on right side of bone. (b) Cervical vertebra (cat. no. 341), left side
of bone, with cut marks. (c) Right rib (cat. no. 133), showing location of cut marks. (d) Right rib (cat. no. 133), close up of cut
marks in (c)
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 33
b d
(a) Left clavicle (cat. no. 214), lower surface, showing location of cut marks. (b) Left clavicle (cat. no. 214), lower surface, close up of
group of cut marks nearest acromial end of bone, shown in (a). (c) Left scapula (cat no. 219), back of bone, showing cut marks on
lateral border, near neck of bone. (d) Left scapula (cat. no. 219), back of bone, showing close up of cut marks on blade, just above
inferior angle
PLATE 34 B.S.A. 81
(a) Right humerus (cat. no. 223), back of bone, showing location of chopping markson shaft. (b) Left ilium (cat. no. 255), front of
bone, showing cut marks near greater sciatic notch. (c) Right ilium (cat. no. 258) and left ilium (cat. no. 255), front of bones,
probably from the same individual. (d) Left ilium (cat. no. 254), front of bone
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 35
no.
(cat.
trochanter,
(c)
femurin
b
Leftgreater
marks
(b)
cut
below
of
justup
individual.
bone,
close
KNOSSOS
of
same
AT the with
back
from bone,
HOUSE270),
of
IB no.
back
d probably
(cat.
270),
bones,
MINOAN no.
of femur
(cat.
c front
LATE Right
A
(c)
253), femur
no.
FROM marks.
Right
(cat.
cut(d)
of
BONES
ilium
a left marks.
andlocation
cut
HUMAN of
257)
no.showing
location
(cat.
bone,
of
ilium showing
front
Right
(a) 264),
PLATE 36 B.S.A. 81
d
C
(a) Right tibia (cat. no. 283), lateral side of bone, to show chopping marks. (b) Left fibula (cat. no. 289), lateral side of bone, showing
cut marks. (c) Metatarsal (cat. no. 296), upper surface,showing cut marksnear base of bone. (d) Distal phalanx (cat. no. 30o8),lower
surface, showing location of cut mark, near base of bone
B.S.A. 81 PLATE 37
made
blade
marks.
cut knife
of marks
cutsteel
d location
modern
with
experimental
showing
with
made
KNOSSOS
surface,
AT femur,
marks
ventralcut
sheep
of
HOUSE
IB side
Modern
(c) experimental
right
(a).
b MINOAN
in
with
Bones,
femur,
LATE marks
A of
Children's
sheep
the some
FROM of
of
upModern
(d)
a Room
BONES close
the
with
blade.
(a),
from
HUMAN in
sheep obsidian
a sheep
II
c of of
Minoan
vertebra
vertebra
Early
Axis
Axis
(a) (b) with

Human Bones From A Late Minoan IB House at Knossos

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Human Bones From A Late Minoan IB House at Knossos

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Human Bones from a Late Minoan IB House at Knossos

Author(s): S. M. Wall, J. H. Musgrave and P. M. Warren

I. STRATIGRAPHY, DISTRIBUTION AND FIND CONTEXTS

Finally, there is another bridge-spoutedjug, P 319, decorated with somewhat careless,large,

18s Ibid.figs. I6-17.

Excavation No. Catalogue No. Excavation No. Catalogue No.

II. THE OSTEOLOGICAL REMAINS

CATALOGUE OF HUMAN BONES

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

[I] Skull of individual A. Fairly complete cranium (FIG. 6;

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

upper surface, just above the left superior articular facet

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

30 (9) Thoracic vertebra (fifth-ninth). Almost complete arch of

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

54 Lumbar vertebra (first-fourth). Two fragments, probably

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

76 (25) Rib. Left. Second(?). Cut marks on outer surface towards

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

Io (42) Rib. Left. Complete bone save for missing proximal

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

128 Rib. Right. Proximal part of rib with articulation. Pre-

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

154 Rib. Right. Sternal end. Preservedlength = go mm.

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

I86 (25) Rib. Unsided. Middle fragment. Preserved length =

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

228 Humerus. Left. Almost entire shaft of bone. Preserved

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

251 Middle phalanx. Almost entire bone. Proximal extremity

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

273 (27) Femur. Right. Proximal shaft fragment. Proximal epi-

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

297 Metatarsal. Almost entire bone. Distal epiphysis not fused.

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

323 Limb bone fragment. Cut mark. Preserved length =

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

348 Femur. Unsided. Small fragment from the proximal shaft

Catalogue Excavation Herakleion

373 Proximal phalanx (foot?). Almost entire bone, but

TABLE2. Human bonesfrom the Room of the Children'sBones

Anatomical Number of Min. number of Number with

Grand Total 371 199 79

L = left side, R = right side, U = unsided.

Per cent with cut marks = i6.

III. THE SKULLS AND MANDIBLES

DENTAL CHART OF SUBJECT A

DENTAL CHART OF SUBJECT B

JI = Upper right quadrant

L = Upper left quadrant

fl = Lower right quadrant

f = Lower left quadrant

1 = Permanent central incisor

2 = " lateral incisor

4 = " first premolar

5 = " second premolar

6 = " first molar

7 = " second molar

8 = " third molar

a = Deciduous central incisor

b = " lateral incisor