Expert Guidance on Cold-Climate Challenges

Buildings in arctic and subarctic climates face unique challenges, not only the cold,
but also remoteness, limited utilities, permafrost, and extreme temperature shifts.
Built structures must meet these challenges while maintaining occupant comfort and, if
possible, minimizing impact on the environment. Harmonizing human comfort with the
climatic realities of these environments can be a delicate balancing act. Strategic design
is key to building, commissioning, and operating efficient and long-lasting cold-climate
structures. This unified guide to cold-climate design provides expert knowledge on the
issues commonly faced in arctic and subarctic climates.

In addition to cold-climate considerations in HVAC calculations and system design, this book’s
chapters cover sustainability, controls, building design, and commissioning, all from this
distinctive climatic perspective. The book also includes an appendix with seven case
studies of buildings located in cold and extreme cold climates. These buildings are

Cold-Climate Buildings Design Guide

leaders in their field with regard to both efficiency and cold-climate design.

Aimed at each member of the building team, from the designer and architect to the
commissioning authority, Cold-Climate Buildings Design Guide will serve as a valuable
resource from the initial planning to completion of cold-climate buildings.

This publication funded in part with support from:

Cold-Climate Buildings
Design Guide
sustainability • controls • commissioning • case studies
ISBN 978-1-939200-00-6

1791 Tullie Circle

Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
9 781939 20000 6
Telephone: 404-636-8400 (worldwide)
www.ashrae.org Product code: 90136 9/15
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Cold-Climate
Buildings
Design Guide
Front.fm Page ii Wednesday, September 9, 2015 3:16 PM

CONTRIBUTORS
Supervising Technical Committee
Multidisciplinary Task Group, Cold-Climate Design Guide (MTG.CCDG)
Project Manager
Frank Mills, Life Member ASHRAE | Low Carbon Design Consultants—Liverpool, UK
Project Authors
Robert Bisson, PEng, Member ASHRAE | Manitoba Public Schools Finance Board—
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
K. William Dean, PEng, Member ASHRAE | National Research Council Canada—
Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Craig Fredeen, PE, Member ASHRAE | PDC Inc. Engineers—Anchorage, AK
Heather Hayne, PEng, Member ASHRAE | Government of the Northwest Territories—
Yellowknife, NT, Canada
Jennifer Holmes, PE, Associate Member ASHRAE | Design Alaska—Fairbanks, AK
John Karakash, Associate Member ASHRAE | Resource Professionals Group—
Durham, NC
David Lima, Member ASHRAE | Aqua Air Systems Ltd.—Calgary, AB, Canada
Cheryl McGinn, PEng, Associate Member ASHRAE | Convergint Technologies—
Calgary, AB, Canada
Justin Pockar | City of Calgary—Calgary, AB, Canada
Stan Yackel, Member ASHRAE | Senior Designer, Scott Springfield Mfg. Inc.—
Calgary, AB, Canada
Project Reviewers
Don Beaty, PE, Fellow Life Member ASHRAE | DLB Associates Consulting Engineers—
New York, NY
Robert Bean, Member ASHRAE | Indoor Climate Consultants Inc.—
Calgary, AB, Canada
Doug Cochrane, PEng, Member ASHRAE | Carrier Enterprise Canada L.P.—
Mississauga, ON, Canada
Bert Phillips, PEng, Life Member ASHRAE | UNIES Ltd.—Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Bjarne Olesen, PhD, Fellow Life Member ASHRAE |
Professor, Technical University of Denmark—Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Case Studies
David Lima, Member ASHRAE | Aqua Air Systems Ltd.—Calgary, AB, Canada
Rick Westover | Aqua Air Systems Ltd.—Calgary, AB, Canada
Illustrations, Graphs, and Schematics
Don Beaty, PE, Fellow Life Member ASHRAE | DLB Associates Consulting Engineers—
New York, NY
Michael Mangan | DLB Associates Consulting Engineers—New York
Project Coordinator
Erich Binder, Member ASHRAE | Erich Binder Consulting Limited—
Calgary, AB, Canada

Updates/errata for this publication

will be posted on the ASHRAE website at
www.ashrae.org/publicationupdates.
ColdClimateBuidlingsDesignGuide.book Page iii Friday, September 4, 2015 10:24 AM

Cold-Climate
Buildings
Design Guide

Atlanta
ColdClimateBuidlingsDesignGuide.book Page iv Friday, September 4, 2015 10:24 AM

ISBN 978-1-939200-00-6

© 2015 ASHRAE
1791 Tullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
www.ashrae.org
All rights reserved.

ASHRAE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, owned by the Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

ASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated, and
ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty to investigate, any product, service, process, procedure,
design, or the like that may be described herein. The appearance of any technical data or editorial
material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty, or guaranty by ASHRAE of
any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like. ASHRAE does not warrant that the
information in the publication is free of errors, and ASHRAE does not necessarily agree with any
statement or opinion in this publication. The entire risk of the use of any information in this publi-
cation is assumed by the user.

No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission in writing from ASHRAE,
except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with
appropriate credit, nor may any part of this publication be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any way or by any means—electronic, photocopying, recording, or other—with-
out permission in writing from ASHRAE. Requests for permission should be submitted at
www.ashrae.org/permissions.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cold-climate buildings design guide.

pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "A guide to assist designers, contractors, and engineers in constructing and maintaining buildings in cold-
climate environments. Provides practical advice on the unique challenges faced when trying to maintain human comfort
and energy-efficiency in cold, subarctic, and arctic climates"-- Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-939200-00-6 (softcover)
1. Building--Cold weather conditions. 2. Buildings--Environmental engineering. 3. Buildings--Arctic regions. I.
ASHRAE (Firm)
TH153.C594 2015
690.0911--dc23
2015023232

ASHRAE Staff
Special Publications Mark S. Owen,
Editor/Group Manager of Handbook and Special Publications
Cindy Sheffield Michaels, Managing Editor
James Madison Walker, Managing Editor of Standards
Sarah Boyle, Assistant Editor
Lauren Ramsdell, Editorial Assistant
Michshell Phillips, Editorial Coordinator
Publishing Services David Soltis,
Group Manager of Publishing Services and Electronic Communications
Jayne Jackson, Publication Traffic Administrator
Tracy Becker, Graphics Specialist
Publisher W. Stephen Comstock
ColdClimateBuidlingsDesignGuide.book Page v Friday, September 4, 2015 10:24 AM

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

1—Cold Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What is a Cold Climate?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definition of a Cold Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cold-Climate Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2—Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Resilience, Carbon, Climate Change, Fuels, Water, and Livability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sustainability in the Context of Cold-Climate Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sustainable Design Methods and their Underlying Principles . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Timely Adoption of Technical Progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Owner's Risk Avoidance Value of Higher-Performance Design . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Sustainable Facilities and Community Connectedness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sustainable Energy Sources in Cold-Climate Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
District Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Renewable Heat or Renewable Power for Cold-Climate Buildings . . . . . . . 16
Renewable Heat Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Renewable Heat Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Comparing Renewable Source Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Source Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Heat Pump Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Electrical Energy in Cold-Climate Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Renewable Electricity Sources and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Power Generation with Waste Heat Recovery Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3—Human Comfort in the Indoor Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Health and Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Thermal Conditions for Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Physiological Acclimatization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
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Cold Discomfort/Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Acceptable Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Unacceptable Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Heating Surface Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Patient Reaction Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Health Impact of Underheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Humidity and Human Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Problems with High Humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Problems with Low Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4—Utilities in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Cold Climate Considerations for Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Piped Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5—Strategic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Energy Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Project Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Material Ordering and Delivery Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Site Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Exterior Envelope Construction Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Other Construction Logistics Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Maintenance and Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Equipment Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Equipment Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Predominant Wind Direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Roof Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6—Building HVAC Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Key Stakeholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Project Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Waste Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Future-Proofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

7—HVAC Design Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Psychrometric Charts and Perfect Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
How Air Behaves at Different Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Building HVAC Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Calculations for Heating Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

vi Cold-Climate Buildings Design Guide

ColdClimateBuidlingsDesignGuide.book Page vii Friday, September 4, 2015 10:24 AM

Outdoor Design Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Indoor Design Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Envelope Heat Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Infiltration and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Calculations for Ventilation Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Calculations for Cooling Systems Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Energy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

8—Building Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Envelope Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Passive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Getting it Right the First Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Building Envelope Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Building Envelope Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
How Buildings Lose Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Keeping Heat In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Keeping Air In or Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Keeping Moisture Out or In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Building a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Envelope Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Assembly Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148

9—Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Piping Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Freeze Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Air Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Combustion Air and Flue Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Direct-Vent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Indirect Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Combustion Air Installation Caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Air-Volume Temperature Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Frost Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Defrost Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Humidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Cooling Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Condensing Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Natural Ventilation and Gravity Intake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Central Air Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Hydronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170

Contents vii
ColdClimateBuidlingsDesignGuide.book Page viii Friday, September 4, 2015 10:24 AM

Alternative/Renewable Energy Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

Radiant Floor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Gas-Fired Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Gas-Fired Radiant Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Geothermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Domestic Hot Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Indirect-Fired Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

10—Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
HVAC Control System Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (2013a) Chapter 7—
Fundamentals of Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (2011) Chapter 47—
Design and Application of Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
CIBSE Knowledge Series—Understanding Controls (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
HVAC Control System Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Do Not Let Things Freeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Valve Fail-Safe Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Damper Fail-Safe Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Cold Air Inrush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Freezestat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Steam Coil Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Temperature Sensor Alarm Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
Humidity Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
Device Temperature Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Direct Digital Controller Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Night Cycle and Night Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Outdoor Temperature Reset Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Valve Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Building Management System Alarm Notification and Remote Access. . . . .186
Dirty Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Simple Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Sensor Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Heat Recovery Systems Frost Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187

11—Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Building Envelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Mechanical and Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Fire and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Site Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Post-Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Extreme Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

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Remote Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

Appendix: Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Institutional Building, Edmonton, AB, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Unit Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Snow and Ice Melting Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
Commercial Building, Albany, NY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Energy Environment Experiential Learning (EEEL) Project,
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Bullitt Center, Seattle, WA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Walgreens, Evanston, IL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Multipurpose Industrial Facility, Bassano, AB, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

References and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Contents ix
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Preface

The inspiration from this guide was the result of a working session held at the end of
the 7th International Cold-Climate Design Conference held in Calgary in 2012, cospon-
sored by ASHRAE, SCANVAC, and REHVA.
Tom Watson and Bjarne Olesen were instrumental in the encouragement of ASHRAE
hosting the Cold-Climate Design conference and conference and in ASHRAE developing
this Guide.
A special thanks to the City of Calgary, Aqua Air, Convergint, Uponor, Scott Spring-
field Manufacturing, Erich Binder Consulting Limited, Government of the Northwest
Territories, Low Carbon Design, and DLB Associates for their support and effort in mak-
ing this design guide a reality.
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ASHRAE—Seattle Cold-Climate Design Guide meeting. Clockwise, from bottom left: Tom Watson,
Erich Binder, John Harrod, Marsha Harrod, Heather Hayne, Jennifer Holmes, Bert Phillips, Frank Mills,
Stan Yackel, David Lima (obscured), John Karakash, Mike Burgess, Lynda Binder, and Audrey Watson.

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Cold Climates

WHAT IS A COLD CLIMATE?

The answer to the question “what is a cold climate?” might be as simple as, “any-
where you feel cold.” Of course, this feeling is different for each person and is not
derived scientifically.
Historically, there have been many ways to quantify cold and define what a cold
climate is such as lack of heat or weather cold enough to cause freezing. The Climatic
Design Information chapter of the ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE
2013a) divides the world into climate zones based on temperature, duration of low
temperature periods, and whether the zone is humid or dry. Zones 5 to 8 are listed as
cool to subarctic but may not encompass all zones that have some cold-climate fea-
tures. Even the hottest climates having higher altitudes may need heat a few days of
the year to maintain occupant thermal comfort.
Degree days are frequently used to compare location-specific weather in terms of
severity. Heating degree days are useful for calculating energy savings, but do not
present a definition for cold climates. Some areas of the world have relatively few
heating degree days but can get very cold for just a short time of the year. Average
temperature or design temperature are also considered in designating hot or cold cli-
mates, but some climates can experience both very hot and very cold temperatures; as
such, average temperature is not always an accurate representation. Likewise, design
temperature does not always clearly define the line between cold and noncold cli-
mates.

DEFINITION OF A COLD CLIMATE

A cold climate is defined by a combination of factors that together create a
unique set of building design challenges. This guide touches on each of these factors
and identifies strategies on how to meet the design challenges created by them. Most
of these must be considered for any building, but additional consideration is needed
to provide a successful building in a cold climate.
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Cold-Climate Factors
Temperature. Many areas of the world sometimes experience temperatures below
the freezing point of water. Water located throughout construction materials, support sys-
tems, and equipment is susceptible to freezing if not protected. To function reliably at low
temperatures, equipment must be robust and well maintained.
Frozen Precipitation. Snow, ice, vapor, and freezing rain can wreak havoc on any
building, especially when it is not designed for those conditions. Roofs need extra support
to accommodate snow loads. Pitched roofs can cause miniature avalanches next to build-
ings. Snow can also provide additional insulation to improve the building envelope.
Wind. Pressure differentials caused by wind cause infiltration, create snow drifts,
drive snow into louvers, and rip roofs and siding off buildings. Cold-climate designers
must take into account air velocities and pressures in and around buildings.
Humidity. Humidity is necessary for some building occupancies in all climates, but
in cold climates, higher humidities cause extra complications. Cold envelope tempera-
tures make materials susceptible to rising relative surface humidities and surface conden-
sation.
Thermal Comfort. Cold interior surfaces, temperature stratification, and drafts can
make space conditions difficult for occupant thermal comfort. The stack effect from
aggressive temperature differences across the envelope can cause infiltration, resulting in
undesirable air velocities throughout the building. A combination of envelope design,
compartmental strategies, and heating systems arrangement is required to establish condi-
tions suitable for occupant thermal comfort in a cold-climate building.
Thermal Envelope (Thermal Enclosure). Thermal envelopes for cold climates are spe-
cialized and have distinct needs. Being a largely passive element, the design and thermal per-
formance of the envelope must be integrated with the design and installation of the heating

Figure 1.1 ASHRAE world climate zone map.

Reproduced from ASHRAE Standard 169-2013

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systems. Refer to Chapter 8 of this guide for more information on envelope design and perfor-
mance considerations.
Maintainability. Building systems must be maintained to keep the building operational.
In cold climates, this can be especially difficult when encountering freezing temperatures,
wind, and frozen precipitation. Various strategies are explored to enable equipment mainte-
nance in cold climates.
Permafrost and Frozen Ground. Frozen ground can limit the construction season,
choice in construction materials and methods, impact foundations, and cause utility damage.
In some areas, permafrost (permanently frozen ground) can be especially difficult to build
foundations on. Refer to Chapter 8 of this guide for more information on this topic.
Remote Building Locations. Remote locations are areas where, during certain events or
at certain times of the year, transportation to the building is limited or restricted. There may be
limited or reduced maintenance, a higher chance of power interruption, or the building may
not be regularly occupied or monitored.
Remote buildings are typically built to be more robust and stand alone. Often, equipment
repairs must wait for staff and/or parts to be flown in. Remote building considerations are cov-
ered throughout this guide.
If the considered building is exposed to any of the listed cold-climate factors, this book
provides insight on how to deal with problems that can be encountered in the planning, design,
construction, and commissioning phases of the project.

Figure 1.2 ASHRAE climate zones for states and counties in the United States.
Reproduced from ASHRAE Standard 169-2013

1 · Cold Climates 3
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Figure 1.3 Polar bear, Manitoba, Canada.

Figure 1.4 Winter operation and maintenance challenges.

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Figure 1.5 Ice road, Northwest Territories, Canada.

Figure 1.6 Remote, arctic industrial facility.

HOW COLD IS IT?

It is so cold … my hot cup of cappuccino turned into a cappufreezo!

1 · Cold Climates 5
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Sustainability

RESILIENCE, CARBON, CLIMATE CHANGE, FUELS, WATER, AND LIVABILITY

Sustainability in the Context of Cold-Climate Design

Human industry causes changes that affect the earth and its natural systems, fre-
quently for the worse. However, products and processes thought to have a more benign or
even beneficial effect on the natural world over their total life cycle are called sustainable.
The phrase environmentally appropriate is sometimes interchangeably applied. Buildings
and other engineered facilities are a form of product—one with large and long-lasting
effects on environmental quality, utility supply networks, and stakeholder-neighbors’
quality of life. These effects may be favorable or unfavorable.

Figure 2.1 Frozen source, low-temperature geothermal energy.

Courtesy Resource Professionals Group