Outline

Characteristics of Low and Intermediate

1. Magmatic setting of Cenozoic epithermal deposits in the
Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits, with a Great Basin
Focus on Deposits in the Great Basin, 2. Characteristics of low and intermediate sulfidation
USA epithermal deposits in the Great Basin
3. Zoning in low and intermediate sulfidation systems--where
am I in the epithermal system?
4. Some geophysical and geochemical characteristics of low
sulfidation deposits and their potential application to
exploration
5. If there is time, a few examples of Great Basin low and
intermediate sulfidation deposits
6. Conclusions
David A. John
US Geological Survey
Menlo Park, CA

Cenozoic Epithermal Deposits in the Great Basin Cenozoic Magmatism in the Great Basin
•Cenozoic igneous rocks in the Great
Sleeper Midas Basin can be divided into three broad
Crofoot/Lewis
magmatic assemblages: (1) Interior
Andesite-Rhyolite (approx. 43-19 Ma),
Florida Canyon (2) Western Andesite (ca. 22-4 Ma),
and (3) Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite (17-0
Ma) (Christiansen and Yeats, 1993;
Ludington et al, 1996; John, 2001)
Comstock Lode Rawhide •Magmatic assemblages reflect
Paradise Pk Round Mtn variations in tectonic setting of
magma generation and emplacement
Bodie, Aurora •Compositions and style of magma
Tonopah
emplacement and eruption vary
Goldfield systematically with magmatic
assemblage
Bullfrog
•Types of mineral deposits vary
systematically with magmatic
assemblage (especially Miocene
epithermal deposits)

1

Early Cenozoic Magmatism in the Western USA
The shallow slab peeled away, descending or
foundering into the mantle again in the Eocene.
This caused hot aesthenospheric mantle to rise
to the base of the crust. Mantle-derived magmas
were added to the crust. (Surpless
(Surpless,, 1999; based
on Humphreys, 1995)
Cenozoic Magmatic Assemblages and Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Interior Andesite-Rhyolite Western Andesite
(43-19 Ma) (22-4 Ma)
•Numerous epithermal Au-Ag
deposits in Bimodal and Western
Andesite assemblages
•Only sparse epithermal deposits
in Interior Andesite assemblage
•Only low-sulfidation deposits in
Bimodal assemblage
•Focus on Bimodal assemblage
Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite
(17-0 Ma)
Movie of Cenozoic
magmatism in Great Basin
Chris Henry and Matt Richardson
The shallow slab peeled away in a complex fashion,
giving rise to the observed southward younging
belts of magmatism in the northern Basin and Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Range and northward younging belts from the
south. These belts join near Las Vegas at 21-17 Ma. Geology
Extensional faulting exposing core complexes
occurred locally (orange band) in concert with this
magmatic sweep. (Miller, 2003; map from
Christiansen and Yeats, 1992)
2
Eocene Magmatism in the Western USA
Interior Andesite-Rhyolite Assemblage
Stillwater Range
• Approximately 43 to 19 Ma; southern
Southward age
progression of limit of magmatism migrated south to
Eocene magmatic southwest through time
centers in the • High-K calc-alkaline series
northwestern US. • Mostly andesite-dacite to rhyolite
Modified from Henry
compositions; basalt is rare
and Ressel (2000)
• Lava flows, domes, small
stratovolcanoes, numerous ash-flow
calderas, and granitoid plutons
• Water-rich, moderately oxidized Wonder Mountain
magmas
• Mostly erupted onto topographic
surface of low relief lacking large basins
• There may have been a high(?) plateau
(Nevadaplano)
Nevadaplano) with local deep canyons
that drained east and west (no Basin-
Range topography)

40-19 Ma Calderas in the Great Basin

Interior Andesite-Rhyolite Assemblage

Ashdown
Tuscarora

Indian Peak

Marysvale

Central Nevada

Map from Chris Henry (2008)

3
 Generalized Distribution and Epithermal Deposits in the
Western Andesite Assemblage Western Andesite Assemblage

• Approximately 22 to 4 Ma (~30 Ma in Warner Range in NE CA)

• Subduction-related continental margin arc temporally equivalent to
Western Cascade arc in Oregon and Washington
• High-K calc-alkaline series
• Mostly andesite-dacite with lesser rhyolite compositions
• Formed long-lived (millions of years) eruptive centers consisting of
multiple stratovolcanoes and debris apron deposits (lahars), dome
fields, and subvolcanic plutons
• Water-rich, oxidized magmas
• Mostly erupted in transtensional zones related to transcurrent faults in
Walker Lane Belt

Miocene Magmatism in the Bodie Hills, California-Nevada Magmatic-Tectonic Setting of the

Western Andesite Assemblage

All age ranges based on unpublished

40 Ar/39Ar dates by R.J. Fleck

The Bodie Hills contains an ~800 km2 middle to late Miocene volcanic center in the western andesite
assemblage, consisting mostly of overlapping andesitic stratovolcanoes and dacite and rhyolite dome
fields. It contains the Bodie and Aurora low sulfidation vein systems, a hot spring mercury deposit at
Paramount, small high sulfidation ore bodies in the Masonic district, a stratiform sulfur deposit in
Cinnabar Canyon, and numerous areas of magmatic-hydrothermal quartz-alunite alteration.

4
 Generalized Distribution and Epithermal Deposits in the
Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite Assemblage Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite Assemblage (17-0 Ma)

• Erupted from approximately 17 Ma to the present,

although large outpouring between ~17 to 14 Ma
• Early eruptions form a high-K tholeiitic series
• Mostly basalt to andesite and rhyolite compositions
• Sheet flows, shield volcanoes, cinder cones and other
monogenetic volcanoes, rhyolite domes and ash-flow
calderas (including both subalkaline and peralkaline
compositions) erupted mostly from short-lived centers
• Commonly water-poor, reduced magmas
• Erupted in extensional tectonic regime
• Many ascribe origin to impingement of mantle plume
related to Yellowstone hotspot

Mule Canyon Stratigraphy Stratigraphic Column of the Seven Troughs

District Showing 40Ar/39Ar Dates

Adularia age of mineralized veins

(13.83 Ma) is consistent with ages
of altered host rocks and post-
mineral rhyolite flows (13.79 Ma)
Short-lived (≤600 ka) bimodal assemblage basalt-andesite eruptive
center along the northnern Nevada rift. Low sulfidation gold deposits at
Mule Canyon formed at ~15.6 Ma following cessation of local eruptions

5
 WHAT IS THE NORTHERN NEVADA RIFT?
Middle Miocene • 5- to 30-km wide north-northwest-
trending zone
Continental •
•
Broadens to the north
Corresponds to:
“Flood”
Flood” Basalts – Aeromagnetic anomaly
– Miocene mafic dikes and high-
angle faults that parallel the
magnetic anomaly
– Middle Miocene volcanic units
that overlie the magnetic
anomaly
• Inferred to have formed during
17-14 Ma Tholeiitic middle Miocene “rifting” related to
impingement of mantle plume related
Bimodal Basalt- to the Yellowstone hotspot
• Only small amount of extension
Rhyolite Magmatism (≤10%) related to NNR “rifting” and
domains of large magnitude
extension (<100%) developed
concurrently with NNR are adjacent
to it locally
(John et al., 2000)

Northern Nevada Rift Magmatism

Magnetic
Signature
of the
Northern
Nevada Diabase dike intruding Cliff-forming trachydacite
Rift Paleozoic rocks and
overlain by NNR
lava flows underlain and
overlain by basalt flows,

(NNR)
basalt flows, northern Argenta Rim
Cortez Range

Basalt dike in the northern

Shoshone Range

6
 Magmatic-Tectonic Setting of the 17-<1 Ma Calderas in the Great Basin
Bimodal Assemblage
McDermitt

Long Valley

SW Nevada
Volcanic Field

John (2001) Map from Chris Henry (2/2008)

Interior Andesite-Rhyolite Assemblage (43-19 Ma)

Western Andesite and Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite Assemblages

7

Interior andesite-rhyolite and
Western andesite assemblages
are very similar and have calc-
alkaline trends; Bimodal
assemblage markedly different
and mostly has tholeiitic trend
Both Interior Andesite-Rhyolite and
Western Andesite magmas tend to be
more oxidized (commonly 2-4 log units)
than bimodal assemblage magmas
Mineralogic Features of Western Andesite and Bimodal Assemblage
Porphyritic dacite lava flow from the SW
Paradise Range (Western Andesite
assemblage) containing phenocrysts of
plagioclase, hornblende (hb), biotite (bt),
magnetite, and ilmenite in a glass matrix.
SiO2=64.8%, FeO*=3.9%, MgO=2.5%,
K2O=2.9%.
Implies Bimodal assemblage
magmas had lower water
contents and more reduced
Porphyritic trachydacite from the SW Sheep
Creek Range (Bimodal basalt-rhyolite
assemblage) containing phenocrysts of
plagioclase, clinopyroxene (cpx), olivine (ol),
and ilmenite in a glass matrix. Pyrrhotite
blebs are common in ilmenite and
clinopyroxene. SiO2=68.3%, FeO*=6.0%,
MgO=0.5%, K2O=4.7%.
Model for Bimodal
Assemblage Rhyolites
1. Mantle plume (athenosphere upwelling)
leads to decompression melting formation of
reduced, water poor tholeiitic Fe-rich olivine
basalts
2. Basalt magma rises to mid-crust, stalls due
to lack of buoyancy, and forms gabbro sill and
small amount of differentiated rhyolite that may
rise to surface and erupt
3. Further fluxing of hot basalt magma partially
melts gabbro sill, forming Fe-rich rhyolite
magma that rises into upper crust where it may
stall and accumulate forming shallow upper
crustal magma reservoir
4. Differentiation and crustal assimilation in
shallow magma chamber eventually leads to
large, caldera-forming eruptions
8

Model for Interior
Andesite-Rhyolite
Assemblage rhyolites
1. Subducting slab (oceanic
lithosphere) dehydrates producing
water-rich, oxidized mafic (calc-
alkline basalt) magma in the
overlying mantle wedge
2. Water-rich, buoyant basalt
magma rises to base of crust
3. Differentiation to more silicic,
oxidized Fe-poor, less dense
magma
4. Ascent to large shallow magma
chamber, differentiation, crustal
assimilation and mixing with mafic
magma that eventually leads to
large, silicic caldera-forming
eruptions
So Why Should I Care About All This
Magmatism Stuff?
Deposit types and their characteristics vary
between magmatic assemblages
Epithermal deposits are associated with different
volcanic landforms and different geologic settings
Alteration haloes vary in size and intensity
Metal ratios and contents vary which may reflect
their magmatic heritage
Summary of Cenozoic Great Basin Magmatism
Cenozoic magmatism in the northern Great Basin has varied through time and
space
Variations are primarily related to changes in magma source that reflect changes
in tectonic setting of magma generation
Two primary magmatic settings: subduction-related and plume-related
Early calc-alkaline magmatism (approx. 43-19 Ma) related to breakup of
subducted Farallon plate resulted in large volumes of generally water-rich and
oxidized magmas. Most erupted magmas have andesite to rhyolite compositions.
Numerous ash-flow calderas are the hallmark feature of this magmatism.
Yellowstone hotspot, mantle plume magmatism began about 17 Ma with
widespread bimodal tholeiitic volcanism mostly north of the Great Basin. Bimodal
volcanism peaked between 17 to 14 Ma but locally continues to the present day.
Early bimodal magmas were dominantly reduced and water-poor.
More areally restricted, subduction-related calc-alkaline magmatism continued
along the western edge of the Great Basin until northward migration of the
Mendocino triple junction. This magmatism is oxidized, water-rich and dominantly
formed andesite/dacite stratovolcanoes and dome fields.
The relationship between magmatism and extension appears variable through
time and space
Pb Isotopes of Rhyolite-hosted Deposits
Kamenov,
Kamenov, Saunders, and Hames
(2007) showed that Pb isotope
compositions of electrum at Gangue minerals indicate Pb derivation from local
Sleeper and several other
sedimentary and volcanic rocks
Gold samples are at less radiogenic end of volcanic
deposits are markedly less suggesting more mafic, mantle-like magmatic sources
radiogenic than:
—Rhyolite host rocks
—Sedimentary wall
rocks/basement
—Gangue minerals (adularia,
silica)
But they are similar to Pb isotope
compositions of Columbia River
Basalt/Steens Basalt
They suggest that gold (and Pb in
electrum) is derived from mantle
source, whereas gangue minerals
are leached from shallow crustal
rocks by meteoric water
9
 Major Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits in Great Basin
Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits in the Great Basin
Deposit Type Magmatic Production Au (oz) Ag (oz)
Assemblage Years
•Important source of precious metals since discovery
Aurora LS WA 1860-1995 1,817,000 20,605,000
of the Comstock Lode in 1859
Bodie MoreLS/IS
than 70 epithermal
WA deposits have
1859-1955 1,456,000 7,280,000
•Production through 2008 from >90 deposits totaled Bullfrog produced
LS ~48 Moz
BM gold1905-1999
and >570 Moz silver
2,313,643 3,026,451
>48 moz Au (>1490 tonnes) and >570 moz Ag (>17,725 Comstock Lode IS WA 1859-1990 8,400,000 193,000,000
13 deposits produced >1 Moz gold
tonnes) Florida Cyn. NMLS BM 1986-2008 2,110,534 1,241,492
Goldfield TheseHS13 deposits
WA account for 86% of
1903-1945 total
4,190,000 145,000
•Published reserves and resources total >900 mtons
gold and
Lewis-Crofoot NMLS83% of
BMtotal silver production
1988-2008 1,004,620 >2,944,095
containing >24 moz Au and >87 moz Ag
Midas (KS) LS BM 1998-2008 1,799,551 21,091,105
3 deposits (Round Mountain, Comstock Lode
•Major Au-Ag production continues today from the Paradise Peak HS WA 1986-1994 1,626,000 23,991,000
and Goldfield) account for 50% of total gold
Round Mountain, Ken Snyder (Midas), and Ivanhoe Rawhide
and 36% of total silver production 1,524,535
LS WA 1990-2008 12,174,026
mines Round Mtn. LS IAR 1906-2008 11,547,822 9,944,563
Sleeper LS BM 1986-1996 1,680,000 2,170,000
•There is extensive active exploration for epithermal
Tonopah IS WA 1900-1961 1,861,000 174,152,628
deposits in Great Basin
HS, high sulfidation; IS, intermediate sulfidation; LS, low sulfidation; NMLS, non-
magmatically heated low sulfidation
BM, bimodal; IAR, interior andesite-rhyolite; WA, western andesite

Porphyry-Related Deposits in the Interior

Interior Andesite-Rhyolite Assemblage
Andesite-Rhyolite Assemblage

Nearly all deposits along western extension of Uinta-Cortez axis

10
 Miocene Igneous-Related Mineral Epithermal Deposits in the Western Andesite Assemblage
Deposits in the Northern Great Basin
Western Andesite Assemblage Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite
Assemblage
Intermediate- and low-sulfidation Low-sulfidation Au-Ag: Midas,
Au-Ag: Comstock Lode, Sleeper, Jarbidge,
Jarbidge, Delamar,
Delamar, Mule
Tonopah, Bodie, Aurora, Canyon
Rawhide
High-sulfidation Au-Ag: Hot-spring Hg and U: McDermitt,
McDermitt,
Goldfield, Paradise Peak, Ivanhoe, Goldbanks
Borealis
Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry: Li-rich zeolite and clay:
Washington Hill, numerous McDermitt
deposits farther north
Stratiform S: Leviathan Sn-bearing rhyolite: Izzenhood

Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite Assemblage Geologic Settings of Miocene Intermediate- and

Low-Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits

Western Andesite Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite

•Andesite/dacite domes and •Rhyolite domes; mafic dikes and

stratovolcanoes in subduction- mafic volcanic piles; and
related continental margin arc volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks

•Shallow, water-rich intrusions •Shallow, water-rich intrusions

common
uncommon

•Extensional faults and

extensional duplexes and •Extensional fault zones related to
stepovers in strike-slip fault continental rifting
zones
•Narrow propylitic alteration zones
•Regional (10s of km2 ) propylitic
alteration commonly predating
epithermal deposits

11
 Volcanic Landforms and Epithermal Mineralogy of Miocene Intermediate- and
Deposits in the Great Basin Low-Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Western Andesite Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite
Sillitoe and Bonham (1984, Economic Geology): Discussed ore •Pyrite •Marcasite/pyrite, local
deposits related to four volcanic landforms: stratovolcanos,
stratovolcanos, •Electrum, Ag sulfides and pyrrhotite,
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite
flow-dome complexes, calderas, and maars sulphosalts •Electrum, “native gold”
gold”, Ag
•Ag-bearing tetrahedrite selenides, Ag sulfides
•Local Fe-poor sphalerite •Stibnite
Magmatic Stratovolcano Dome Caldera Maar-
Assemblage Complex Diatreme •Locally abundant galena, •Minor Fe-rich sphalerite
Interior Present Common Very Common Absent chalcopyrite •Minor chalcopyrite, galena
Andesite-
Rhyolite
Western Common Common Rare Absent
Andesite (andesite-
dacite)
Bimodal Absent Common Common Rare
basalt- (shield (rhyolite)
rhyolite volcanoes)
Acanthite and electrum in quartz, Aurora, NV Pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite overgrown by
marcasite,, Rosebud, NV
marcasite

Geochemistry of Miocene Low- and Intermediate-

Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Log ƒO2-pH
Western Andesite Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite
• Enriched in Au, Ag, Ba, Mn ±Cu, Pb, Sb, • Enriched in Au, Ag, As, Sb, Se, Hg ±Tl, Mo, Einaudi et al. (2003) Diagram of Ore
Se, Te, Zn
• Ag:Au—
Ag:Au — high, generally 10:1 to 100:1 •
W
Ag:Au—
Ag:Au — moderate, generally 1:1 to 10:1
Fluids
• Low to high base metal contents (Cu, Pb, • Low base metal contents (Cu, Pb, Zn)
Zn) • Ore fluids—
fluids— neutral pH to weakly acidic; low
• Ore fluids—
fluids— neutral pH; low to mod. fO2 and fO2 and fS2; low salinity (≤
(≤2 wt. % NaCl
fS2; low to mod. salinity (1-6 wt. % NaCl equiv.)
Low-sulfidation deposits
equiv.) in the Bimodal
assemblage are inferred
to have formed at lower
ƒO 2 than intermediate-
sulfidation deposits in
the Western Andesite
assemblage. Modified
from John (2001)

Telluride minerals at Bodie, CA Silver selenide minerals at Buckhorn, NV

12
Log ƒS2-log ƒO2 Diagram of Ore Fluids

Low-sulfidation
deposits in the
Enargite
Bimodal
Einaudi et al. (2003)
assemblage are
inferred to have
High sulfidation
formed at lower ƒ O 2
than intermediate- Intermediate
sulfidation deposits sulfidation
in the Western
Low sulfidation
Andesite
assemblage.
Modified from John
(2001).
Pyrrhotite and
arsenopyrite

Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003), simplified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Hydrothermal Systems in the Western Andesite

Assemblage Deposit Types—
Types—Western Andesite Assemblage

Simplified geologic
map of the Monitor
district, California,
showing major mines
and close proximity
of several types of
epithermal deposits

Morningstar Mine, Monitor district,

CA--high-sulfidation Au-Ag
deposit in silicified Miocene
andesite breccias; approx. 9 Ma

13
Deposit Types--Western Andesite Assemblage
Leviathan Mine, Monitor district,
CA--stratiform sulfur deposit in
acid-leached Miocene andesite
lahars and volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks; approx 9 Ma
Zaca Mine, Colorado Hill, Monitor
district, CA--intermediate-
sulfidation Au-Ag deposit along
brecciated margin of late Miocene
rhyolite dome; also explored as a
porphyry Mo target; approx. 4.5
Ma
Types of Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits in
the Bimodal Assemblage
Magmatically heated:
– Rhyolite hosted: Midas, Sleeper
– Basalt hosted: Mule Canyon, Buckhorn
Non-magmatically heated:
– Mostly sedimentary rock hosted:
Crofoot/Lewis,
Crofoot/Lewis, Florida Canyon
Ken Snyder Mine, Midas North Buckhorn Florida Canyon
Geologic Setting of
Middle Miocene
Epithermal Au-Ag
Deposits in the
Bimodal
Assemblage
16-14 Ma epithermal Au-Ag
deposits associated with
bimodal basalt-rhyolite
magmatism formed in 2
distinct settings: rift-related
basalts and rhyolite dome
complexes
14
 Ore Styles at Mule Canyon

Basalt-Hosted
Mule Canyon Ore
Deposit

Basalt
flow
Electrum-bearing chalcedony-adularia vein

Dike-
margin
Middle Miocene basalt- breccia
andesite eruptive center. Ore Au concentrated
is interbedded in the volcanic in As-rich rims

sequence in a syn-mineral
graben in narrow zones along
Unbrecciated
faults and dike margins
dike interior

John et al. (2003) Dike-margin breccia Au- and As-rich overgrowths on marcasite

Geologic Setting of the Rhyolite-Hosted Sleeper Deposit Comparison of Basalt-Hosted to

Rhyolite-Hosted Epithermal Deposits
Feature Basalt-Hosted Rhyolite-Hosted
Deposits Deposits
Sulfide content High, commonly ≥20 Generally low, <5 vol. %
vol. %
Silicification Minor, mostly in Commonly widespread
narrow zones in rhyolitic wall rocks
Siliceous veins Narrow, discontinuous Wide, through-going
Bonanza veins (above right) and
stockworks at the Sleeper deposit Ore style Most ore in breccias Most ore in siliceous
are hosted by a middle Miocene
rhyolite flow dome. Bulk ore fluids veins
were dominantly meteoric water,
but δ18O values for Au bands (right)
Ag:Au Low, ≤2-3:1 Variable, 1 to >10:1
are distinctly different possibly
indicating injections of magmatic
As content High (100s to 1000s Moderate to high (10s to
fluid. Also Pb and Os isotopic data ppm) 100s ppm)
suggest that Au (and Ag, Sb, Se,
and Te) may have been derived Examples Mule Canyon, Sleeper, Midas, ,
from deep degassing basaltic Buckhorn Ivanhoe, National
magma (left–Saunders et al., 2008)
~0.5 cm

15
 Newberry Crater
Late Cenozoic Deposits Related to High Regional Heat Geothermal Big Southern Butte
Flow (Non-Magmatically
(Non-Magmatically Heated Deposits) Systems in
China Hat
6 Ma to present: Nevada & Borax Lake

•Anomalously high Great Basin, Medicine Lake

heat flow due to USA

underplating of crust
by mafic magmas
related to bimodal
assemblage
•Numerous high- Roosevelt/
angle faults (Basin Cove Fort
and Range extension Geothermal
and transtension)
transtension) systems on edge
•Active hot springs of Great Basin
and geothermal are related to Mammoth
systems young silicic
magmatism;
•Epithermal Au-Ag-Hg those in interior Modified from
systems related to are not related to Coso Coolbaugh et
hot springs magmatism
al. (2005)

Heat flow data from Lachenbruch and Sass, 1978 Boundary of Great Basin

Extension and
Geothermal Activity
In northwest part of Great
Basin, dextral shear in Walker
Lane ends to NW
Shear transferred to extension
resulting in broad diffuse zone
of WNW extension in the
interior of GB
Active Geothermal Systems and Extension
Red circles >160°C
Yellow circles 100-170°C
Trend Surface of Maximum Temperatures of Known Geothermal Systems
Strong correlation between
high temperature non-
magmatically heated
geothermal systems and
gold deposits/occurrences
not related to magmatism
Florida Canyon Mine

WNW extension accentuates

Basin-Range extension,
enhancing deep circulation of
fluids Sinter terraces and hot springs

NNE-striking normal faults NE Circle = “non-magmatic” Au deposit

of Walker Lane provide major Star = “magmatic heat” Au deposit
control on non-magmatically Red = production/reserves
heated geothermal systems Orange = calculated inventory
Green = Au prospect, ≥ 300 ppb Au
Modified from Coolbaugh et al. (2005)
Modified from Coolbaugh et al. (2005)

16
 Crofoot/Lewis:
Crofoot/Lewis: A Non-Magmatically Heated Deposit
Crofoot/Lewis Low-Sulfidation Deposit

Early opal-adularia-pyrite
alteration of fanglomerate
containing low Au contents (ca. 1
ppm)—
ppm)— protore

Hot spring-related acid-leaching

with bedded sulfur and fossil
mudpots superimposed on opal-
adularia-pyrite alteration.
Economic Au mineralization
occurs at base of acid leaching
Deep circulation of meteoric (lake) water along steep faults, heating due to high regional heat flow, and in cross cutting veins where
and upflow along master range-bounding fault. Boiling at the surface and in the shallow subsurface Au and Ag have been remobilized
leads to protore deposition (opal-K-feldspar-low grade Au-Ag) at about 4 Ma. Falling lake levels by descending steam-heated acid-
leads to oxidation, acid- leaching, and redeposition of Au and Ag in economic concentrations at ~2
to 1 Ma. sulfate fluids

Does the Amagmatic Model for Low Sulfidation Summary of the Relationship of Miocene Magmatism
Epithermal Deposits Hold Water? to Epithermal Au-Ag deposits in Great Basin
Ongoing studies of water and gas chemistry of active hot spring systems • Most Miocene epithermal Au-Ag deposits are related to 2 distinct
show that there are very low metal contents in both magmatic and amagmatic magmatic assemblages in the Great Basin
geothermal systems (Breit et al., this meeting). • Magmatic assemblages formed in distinct tectonic environments from
Noble gases in active geothermal systems vary (Hunt et al., this meeting): different sources
• Dominantly different types of epithermal and related deposits are
Amagmatically-heated systems contain crustal He, whereas present in each magmatic assemblage
Magmatically-heated systems contain mantle-derived He • “Low-sulfidation”
Low-sulfidation” or neutral pH epithermal Au-Ag deposits can be
subdivided into low- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits that have
Magmatically heated systems also have greater Au contents. distinct sets of characteristics in each assemblage
Mantle contributions to ore fluids are suggested by noble and bulk gas • Differences in types and characteristics of epithermal Au-Ag deposits
are related to differences in tectonic setting of magma generation and
contents of fluid inclusions at the Florida Canyon and Dixie Valley amagmatic emplacement and proportion of fluids, metals, and ligands (Cl (Cl,S)
,S)
low sulfidation deposits (Hunt et al.) derived from the magmas; however, no “smoking gun” gun” showing a
These studies conclude that ore-forming fluids in these “amagmatic” systems direct genetic relationship to magmatism has been recognized for most
were different than modern geothermal fluids but cannot rule out a genetic link low-sulfidation deposits, and several young (<6 Ma) low-sulfidation
deposits in the Great Basin do not have an obvious direct genetic
between the geothermal systems and gold deposits relationship to magmatism (ie(ie.,
., Crofoot/Lewis.
Crofoot/Lewis. Florida Canyon, Wind
Mountain)

17
Comparison of Low Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Where Am I (in the Epithermal System)? Vertical
Basalt-Hosted Rhyolite-Hosted Non-Magmatic and Lateral Zoning of Low Sulfidation Deposits
Deposits Deposits Deposits
There are significant variations in the characteristics of
Sulfide content High, commonly ≥20 Generally low, <5 vol. % Low, commonly <5 vol
vol.. low and intermediate sulfidation vein deposits related to
vol. % %
changes in temperature and depth.
Silicification Minor, mostly in Commonly widespread Widespread, largely
narrow zones in rhyolitic wall rocks stratiform,, local
stratiform They include:
adularia
Siliceous veins Narrow, Wide, through-going Poorly developed Hydrothermal mineralogy
discontinuous
Alteration types and assemblages
Ore style Most ore in breccias Most ore in siliceous Most ore disseminated
veins unless remobilized Ore mineralogy
Ag:Au Low, ≤2-3:1 Variable, 1 to >10:1 Low, <2:1
Vein texture
As content High (100s to 1000s Moderate to high (10s Moderate (10s to low
ppm) to 100s ppm) 100s ppm) These changes can be used to estimate position in the
Duration of Short, ≤100s kyr Short, ≤100s kyr Long, up to several myr
hydrothermal system and where to look for potential ore.
hydrothermal
activity
Examples Mule Canyon, Sleeper, Midas, Crofoot/Lewis, Wind
Crofoot/Lewis,
Buckhorn National, Ivanhoe Mtn,, Florida Canyon
Mtn

Where Am I (in the Epithermal System)? Vertical Where Am I (in the Epithermal System)? Vertical
Zoning of Low Sulfidation Deposits Zoning of Low Sulfidation Deposits (cont.)
Depth (m) Paleosurface 0-150 m 150-300 m 300-500 m 500->1000 m
or paleowater
Depth (m) Paleosurface or 0-150 m 150-300 m 300-500 m 500->1000 m table
paleowater table
Temp. Opal Chalcedony Mixed layer Illite, presence Biotite-
Temp. °C 100-120 100-200 200-250 250-260 260-300+ indicators clays of epidote amphibole at
>800-1000 m
Advanced Steam-heated Steam-heated Rare None None Associated Kaolinite, (Adularia) Adularia Adularia K-feldspar
Argillic (kaolinite-alunite) (kaolinite- overprint minerals alunite
Alteration blanket above alunite) overprint
WT; residual opal along fractures Carbonates None Bladed calcite, Bladed calcite, Calcite Calcite
Silicic Sinter around hot Colloform Quartz Quartz veins Minor quartz others late Mn rhodochrosite,
Alteration springs; chalcedony veins, fine with coarse veins; carbonate barite
chalcedony layer veins; wallrock banding, bands minimal Sulfides Pyrite- Pyrite Pyrite, Pyrite, Minor bms:
at WT silicification open space silicification (Bimodal marcasite at arsenopyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
filling BR) base pyrrhotite, Ag pyrrhotite, Ag galena,
Argillic Kaolinite-smectite Smectite, mixed Minor I/S to Illite Illite, I/S halo selenides selenides chalcopyrite
Alteration layer I/S illite on margins Sulfides Pyrite- Pyrite Tetrahedrite- Major base Base metal
(Calc- marcasite at tennantite metal sulfides sulfides
Sericitic None None None Illite ± 2M mica alkaline AR) base
Alteration chlorite (sericite)
Propylitic Chloritic Chloritic, trace Chlorite ± Epidote
epidote epidote

Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000) Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000)

18
Alteration Zoning in Estimating Depths
Low Sulfidation of Deposits from
Epithermal Deposits, Fluid Inclusion Data:
Hauraki Goldfield, Hauraki Goldfield,
New Zealand New Zealand
(Token fluid inclusion slide)
•Homogenization temperatures and
salinities measured for several levels in
Low sulfidation deposits deposits where there is evidence for
show systematic zoning boiling
patterns in alteration •Histograms of homogenization
temperatures plotted versus relative depth
mineralogy and of samples
assemblages and •Boiling curves for water with appropriate
intensity of alteration both salinity fitted through means or modes of
laterally and vertically and histograms to estimate top of water table
related to upflow of deep •Allows estimate of amount of erosion and
variation in hydrothermal features with
high temperature depth
hydrothermal fluids and •Hauraki Goldfield deposits interpreted to
near-surface downflow of represent depths between <50m below
cool steam-heated fluids. paleowater table to >1300 m
•Individual deposits have depth ranges up
to ~600-700 m (Waihi, Karangahake)
Christie et al. (2007)

Vein Textures in Low Sulfidation Deposits

Vertical Variations in Vein
Textures, Gangue and Ore
Mineralogy and Alteration
Minerals in Epithermal Gold
Deposits, Hauraki Goldfield,
New Zealand (Christie et
al., 2007)
“Collectively, the epithermal
deposits span a vertical depth
range of at least 1,300 m, and in
the case of the Thames field,
appear to overlap with porphyry
Cu mineralization at Ohio
Creek.”
There are a wide variety of textures in veins.
Textures reflect variations in temperature, degree of
saturation/supersaturation of dissolved components, presence or
absence of colloids, boiling, fluid velocity, morphology of fractures
that form veins, and other factors.
In recent years, there has been increased recognition of the
colloidal origin and transport of silica and precious metals in some
bonanza low sulfidation deposits (photo below), mostly by Jim
Saunders and co-workers, which has led to a model for magmatic
source of these components.
Photograph of banded high-grade ore sample
from the Sleeper deposit showing electrum-rich
bands (e). The lower one is composed of
“forests” of dendritic electrum apparently formed
by aggregation of electrum (and silica) colloids.
The upper(?) (younger) electrum-rich band is
composed of at least 3 electrum depositional
events where silica protrusions (bulbous and dark-
gray) impacted electrum-band layering suggesting
interference with physical transport and deposition
of electrum particles. From Saunders and Vikre
(this meeting).

19
 Vein Relationships and Textures at Vein Textures, Waihi Mine
Martha Mine, Waihi
Colloform Texture

• 214 samples collected over total • Continuous, parallel bands of fine-

vertical extent of 165 m
• Majority of samples from 960-
925RL
• Additional samples from 1090,
1050 and 1030RL (south and
west walls)
** RL is relative to sea level (m
above or below). 1000RL = sea
level
Courtesy Jeff Mauk
S.B. Martin & J.L. Mauk
grained material that conform to the
general morphology of the vein surface
• Au grade: <11.9 ppm, median value
3.04 ppm (n = 11)
• Silica gel or chalcedony is formed from
adiabatic steam loss and cooling/boiling
(fluids are saturated with amorphous
silica). The gel precipitates in open
spaces and mimics the morphology of
the vein surface
Courtesy Jeff Mauk
4.26 ppm Au

Vein Textures cont… Vein Textures cont…

Crustiform Texture
Cherty Texture
• Continuous, sub-parallel bands of
comb quartz that are distinguished
by textural, mineral or colour • Microcrystalline to
differences. Bands are typically
granular grey quartz that
symmetrical from both sides of a
oxidises to a brown
colour
fracture
• Au grade: <1.6 ppm,
• Au grade: 0.85 ppm (n = 1) median value 0.88 ppm
(n = 7)
• Incremental dilation of fractures
coupled with cooling, fluid mixing, • Formation conditions
rock-fluid interactions and/or boiling unknown
with slight quartz saturation
facilitate quartz precipitation
Courtesy Jeff Mauk
Courtesy Jeff Mauk 216 ppm Au 1.60 ppm Au

20
 Vein Textures cont… Vein Textures cont…
Platy Texture
Comb Texture
• Milky white-translucent platy or bladed
• Parallel to sub-parallel, uniformly forms constructed from aggregates of
sized quartz crystals (mm to cm) quartz or chalcedony after platy calcite.
grew perpendicular to the surface Plates vary in size but are generally
around one to several cm’s
• Au grade: • Au grade: generally <1 ppm but can be
No BMS assoc. <2.59 ppm (n = 3) up to 9.3 ppm, median 0.23 ppm (n = 10)
BMS assoc. 15.7 to 30.5 ppm (n =
2) • Calcite forms in voids due to boiling and
CO2 loss, and as cooling occurs the
• Formation similar to that of calcite is pseudomorphically replaced by
quartz or chalcedony (Simmons &
crustiform texture, only one layer Christenson, 1994)
forms
Courtesy Jeff Mauk Courtesy Jeff Mauk
1.57 ppm Au 2.75 ppm Au

Vein Textures cont… Vein Textures cont…

Amethyst ± Inesite

Massive Texture • Amethyst: Parallel to sub-parallel quartz

crystals grew perpendicular to the surface
on which they developed. Crystals can be
• Homogenous quartz masses mm’s to cm’s in size and have a distinctive
that can have various colours purple colour
(usually milky white)
• Inesite: Radiating fibrous crystals grew
perpendicular to the surface. Crystals can
• Au grade: be mm’s to cm’s in size and have a
No BMS assoc. <5 ppm, median distinctive pink colour
1.9 ppm (n = 23)
BMS assoc. between 5.89 ppm • Au grade:
and 51.7 ppm, median 11.4 ppm No BMS assoc. <2.59 ppm (n = 3)
BMS assoc. 15.7 to 30.5 ppm (n = 2)
(n = 20)
• Low T, last stage of deposition
• Unknown formation conditions
Courtesy Jeff Mauk Courtesy Jeff Mauk
0.14 ppm Au 106 ppm Au

21
 Vein Textures cont… Vein Textures cont…
Sedimentary Structures
Ginguro Bands
• Include ripple marks, slump and sag
structures, and layered bands of material • Bands contain electrum, sulphides,
(quartz or sulphides). Display features such selenides, quartz and adularia.
as thickening over topographic highs, and Electrum is visible in many samples
internal erosion surfaces
• Not to be confused with nitari bands
• Au grade: <0.23 ppm (n = 2) which look similar to ginguro, but
lack Au-Ag mineralisation
• Sedimentary structures result from:
• Au grades: 21.1 through 264 ppm,
1) Granular material settling out of median 55.5 ppm (n = 8)
suspension, related to changing fluid flow
conditions (sulphide structures); or
• No formation information
2) Hydraulic shaping of silica gels (quartz
structures)
Courtesy Jeff Mauk Courtesy Jeff Mauk
0.23 ppm Au 264 ppm Au

Paragenetic Sequence Vein Textures-McLaughlin Mine, California

1 cm

Colloform (bottom) and comb/crustiform textures.

Colloform layer composed of white chalcedony,
whereas comb layers are quartz and barite. Dark
bands near bottom probably rich in organic matter.
Courtesy Jeff Mauk

22
 Use of Airborne Geophysics in Exploration for Geophysical Expression of Low Sulfidation
Low Sulfidation Deposits Hydrothermal Systems, Hauraki Goldfield, New Zealand
Hydrothermal alteration in low sulfidation systems commonly Simplified geologic map showing
destroys magnetite resulting in magnetic lows over mapped areas of hydrothermal
alteration (stippled) and low-
hydrothermally altered rock sulfidation epithermal gold-silver
deposits, including Waihi (Martha
Potassium metasomatism (addition of potassium to form Hill), Golden Cross, and Favona
adularia, illite and/or sericite) commonly is present in low mines.
sulfidation ores but is more widespread than other pathfinder
elements
Airborne geophysical techniques can be used to outline
large areas of hydrothermal alteration and within these large
areas, smaller areas of intense potassium metasomatism
An example of the application of these techniques is the
Waihi-Waitekauri Region, New Zealand, where numerous
late Miocene-Pliocene hydrothermal systems and low
sulfidation deposits are exposed and well defined by
airborne geophysical techniques (Morrell et al., in press,
Morrell et al. (in press)
Economic Geology) Golden Cross mine following reclamation

Pseudocolor Total Magnetic Intensity and Analytic

Signal Image of Total Magnetic Intensity Maps Low-Pass Filtered (>5 km retained) Magnetic Analytic
Signal Pseudocolor Map

Low-pass filtering
removes short
wavelength features
thereby highlighting the
larger, long wavelength
magnetic features. White
lines outline extent of
subdued magnetic
signatures (“magnetic
quiet zones”. Note that
major low sulfidation
deposits all fall within
these magnetic quiet
Analytic signal processing smoothes and centers zones.
the magnetic anomalies over their sources.
White lines show boundaries of areas of subdued
Morrell et al. (in press) magnetic gradients. Note the large areas with
reduced magnetism Morrell et al. (in press)

23
 Potassium-Thorium Relations During Hydrothermal
Potassium Anomalies from Airborne Radiometric Surveys Alteration, Waitekauri Prospect, Hauraki Goldfield

Potassium distribution (relative counts) K/Th ratio distribution

Comparison of K/Th ratios altered and unaltered rocks shows
Potassium counts are dominated to the south by wedge of silicic ignimbrites. that K/Th is relatively constant from andesite to rhyolite
Note distinct areas of high K counts corresponding to most exposed epithermal compositions. Altered rocks with K/Th values >5000 have had
deposits. K/Th filters out the effects of variable K content in unaltered rocks and potassium added during hydrothemal alteration.
Booden et al. (in press)
Morrell et al. (in press) highlights areas where there has been significant introduction of potassium. Note
the intense high over the Waihi (Martha Hill) deposit.

Potassium Anomalies from Airborne Radiometric Surveys Summary of Geophysical Anomalies and Au-Ag Deposits

”The nested geophysical

anomalies delineate district- to
regional-scale hydrothermal
alteration, well-defined
magnetic quiet zones and
broad K/Th highs delineate
the extent of the former
geothermal systems, and K
anomalies highlight localized
zones of intense hydrothermal
alteration.” (Morrell et al.)
The unusual positive gravity
anomaly is interpreted as an
~11 km3 high density (2.9
g/cm3) body of unknown origin
underlying the Waihi area.

Potassium distribution (relative counts) K/Th ratio distribution

Potassium counts are dominated to the south by wedge of silicic ignimbrites.
Note distinct areas of high K counts corresponding to most epithermal deposits.
K/Th filters out the effects of variable K content in unaltered rocks and highlights
Morrell et al. (in press) Morrell et al. (in press)
areas where there has been significant introduction of potassium.

24
Geochemistry of Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits Some Aspects of the Geochemistry of
Low/Intermediate Sulfidation Vein Deposits
•Geochemistry is not a panacea
•Geochemistry commonly becomes a quagmire (itʼ (itʼs “ clear as mud”
mud” )
and an extreme time sink
•The real world is complicated and represents superposition of 1. What elements are enriched in
multiple events ores and alteration haloes?
•Models are just models that generally over-simplify the real world 2. How do different host rocks and
•Data sets generally are alteration types affect the
geochemistry?
incomplete and represent
3. What type of alteration is most
mixtures of sample types
closely related to mineralization?
and analytical procedures
4. How can alteration geochemistry
•Key data are often missing be used as a vectoring tool?

Consequently, thatʼ
thatʼs why I up
here and youʼ
youʼ re laughing at me

Dedritic gold (arrow) from McLaughlin low-

sulfidation deposit, California (Enderlin, 2002)

Summary of Geochemistry of Mule Geochemistry of Miocene Low- and Intermediate-

Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits
Canyon Ores Western Andesite Bimodal Basalt-Rhyolite
• Enriched in Au, Ag, Ba, Mn ±Cu, Pb, Sb, Se, Te, • Enriched in Au, Ag, As, Sb, Se, Hg ±Tl, Mo, W
Ores strongly enriched in Au, Ag, As, S, Sb, and •
Zn
Ag:Au—
Ag:Au — high, generally 10:1 to 100:1
• Ag:Au—
Ag:Au — moderate, generally 1:1 to 10:1
• Low base metal contents (Cu, Pb, Zn)
Se; local enrichment in Hg, Mo, Tl, and W • Low to high base metal contents (Cu, Pb, Zn) • Ore fluids—
fluids—neutral pH to weakly acidic; low fO2
• Ore fluids—
fluids—neutral pH; low to mod. fO 2 and fS2; and fS2 ; low salinity (≤
(≤2 wt. % NaCl equiv.)
low to mod. salinity (1-6 wt. % NaCl equiv.)
Most ore in potassically-altered rocks (addition of K
and formation adularia) These are generalities based on common
mineralogy and many analyses, however
Typical trace element contents of ores:
Au 3-134 (ppm) Se 2.8-99
Ag 0.1-408 Tl 0.2-26
As 57-3809 W <4-15
Hg 0-22 Cu 7-129
Mo 1.2-46 Pb 0.1-26
Sb 21-560 Zn 5-178
John et al. (2003) Telluride minerals at Bodie, CA Silver selenide minerals at Buckhorn, NV

25
 Geochemistry of Gold-rich Low and Intermediate
Sulfidation Deposits—What is in High Grade Ore? Potassium Metasomatism as a Guide to Low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Mineralization
Au (ppm) 16.3 146.5 >100 16.14 20 13.3 11.8 • Warren et al. (2007) and Booden et al. (in press) describe methods for
Ag 509 1885 >100 14.72 41.6 56 502
quantifying potassium metasomatism and mass fluxes using whole rock
chemical analyses in low sulfidation (LS) epithermal systems that may allow
Hg 1.91 0.65 3.25 2.45 0.10 0.77 0.81
vectoring toward possible mineralization
As 5 <5 598 16884 12.6 185 30 • Volcanic rocks hosting mineralization in LS deposits record a progressive
Sb 14.4 2.2 58.8 292 1.02 3910 196 change from K through K-H to H metasomatism upward and outward from the
Se 164 568 30 157 <1 7.9 100 site of mineralization
Te 0.6 0.82 <0.02 <0.02 <0.5 86.9 1.5 • Metasomatism is reflected in zonation of hydrothermal minerals that become
Cu 5.5 167 46 69 9.9 8930 63
progressively more K-rich toward mineralization
Pb 5 24 0.8 6.5 2.9 2170 1670
Zn 130 123 21 99.7 23 1380 2200
Mo 17 5 6.7 7.0 2.5 6.9 6.6
W 0.4 0.6 7.9 3.1 <4 1 0.2
1, MI5-7.2, quartz-adularia vein, Ken Snyder Mine, Midas (Leavitt, 2004)
2, MI13-3.2, quartz-carbonate-adularia vein, Ken Snyder Mine, Midas (Leavitt, 2004)
3, 00-MC-54, banded quartz-opal-pyrite vein, Northwest pit, Mule Canyon Mine
4, 00-MC-23, adularia-altered brecciated basalt dike margin, Northwest pit, Mule Canyon Mine
5, 99-BA-71A, banded quartz-adularia vein, Bulwar mine, Bodie
6, 07-BA-5B, tetrahedrite-sphalerite-galena-pyrite rich quartz vein, Standard Hill, Bodie
7, 07-T-6, quartz-sulfide vein, King Tonopah Mine, Tonopah

Potassic Alteration at Mule Canyon Deposit Using K, Na, and Ca Contents to Discern Alteration Processes

Examples of potassic alteration at Mule

Canyon. (Top left) adularia replacing
groundmass and earlier formed clay that
replaced plagioclase phenocryst. (Left)
Electrum-bearing chalcedony-adularia
vein. (Above) Electrum-bearing Plot of molar (2Ca+Na+K)/Al versus molar K/Al for typical fresh volcanic rocks
hydrothemral breccia in adularia-altered
basalt. From John et al. (2003).
from Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand, and compositions of hydrothermal
minerals, and vectors showing possible metasomatic reaction paths (from
Warren et al., 2007).

26
 Evaluation of K metasomatism at El Peñon, Chile Mule Canyon, Nevada

Mule Canyon low sulfidation

deposit is hosted by tholeiitic
basalts and andesites.
Multiple types of ore are
present including:
(1) Au-As rich overgrowths on
early pyrite-marcasite mostly in
argillized rocks, and
(2) Electrum in potassically
altered breccias and silica-
adularia veins and stockworks.
(3) Potassically altered rocks
are a good indicator for Au
Plot of molar (2Ca+Na+K)/Al vs. K/Al for altered rocks surrounding the El mineralization at Mule Canyon
Penon deposit showing strong K-enrichment for most samples (Warren et but not the only type of
Data from John et al. (2003) and unpublished
al., 2007). Most samples plot along line with slope of 1 indicating nearly alteration that is mineralized.
complete loss of Na and Ca. All rocks contain ≤550 ppb gold.

Alteration and K and Si Mass Fluxes Around Mass Changes of Precious Metals and
Low Sulfidation Veins at El Peñon, Chile Pathfinder Elements at El Peñon
Cross sections showing changes
in Au, Ag, As, and Sb contents in
potassically altered rocks around
El Peñon veins. In general the
greatest increases in these
elements are in rocks showing the
strongest potassium
metasomatsim, which usually are
closest to the veins. These
sections also show that the effects
of K metasomatism are much
more widespread than the
traditional pathfinder elements.
From Warren et al. (2007)

Cross sections showing K and Si changes around veins. Circles show samples along drill holes. There
is widespread K and Si addition surrounding veins as shown by cross hatch patterns and local K loss in
smectite alteration distant from ore zones. Samples with the largest K gains contain adularia. From
Warren et al. (2007)

27
 Mass Changes of Precious Metals and
Pathfinder Elements at El Peñon
Plots of molar K/(2Ca+Na+K) versus Au, Ag and “pathfinder” elements in rocks
surrounding veins at El Peñon. In general greatest enrichment in these elements occurs in
rocks with strongest K metasomatism. From Warren et al. (2007)
Summary
Intense K metasomatism resulting in nearly complete loss of Na and
Ca (and Mg) often accompanies gold-silver mineralization in low
sulfidation vein deposits (Warren et al., 2007, present data for the El
Peñon, Mt. Mura, and Sleeper deposits)
K metasomatism generally is most intense proximal to mineralized
veins (within 1-10s of meters)
Pathfinder element concentrations (As, Hg, Sb, Tl) also often
increase proximal to vein orebodies
The effects of K metasomatism may form a much wider halo on
veins (10s to 100s of meters) than other pathfinder elements
thereby help in vectoring toward low sulfidation veins
However, other types of alteration may be related to mineralization
in some systems as in the basalt-hosted Mule Canyon deposits that
lack significant quartz veins

Sinter-Vein Correlations(?) at Buckskin Mountain, NV Some Closing Thoughts

Vikre (2007) suggests that metal contents of
sinter deposits can be used to predict the
(words of wisdom from someone who has never had to
presence or absence of metals in deep explore for epithermal deposits)
underlying low sulfidation veins. Although
metal contents are low in bulk samples of
sinter at Buckskin Mountain, narrow dark
Epithermal vein deposits typically are complex, particularly where multiple
bands are enriched in the same metal suite as hydrothermal events are superimposed. Therefore, exploration for
veins (below). Vikre suggests that the metal- epithermal vein deposits requires answering a number of fundamental
rich parts of the veins were formed by colloidal questions and integration of many types of data, especially field data.
aggregation of a super-saturated sinter-vein
fluid that rose to the surface depositing the Some of these questions are:
metal-rich bands (bottom right).
Awareness of the tectonic and magmatic environments you are exploring
and understanding what might occur in these environments--stratovolcano
in an continental margin arc, diatreme in an island arc, rhyolite dome
related to continental rifting?
Knowing the type of epithermal system you are seeking or actually
exploring and the characteristics of this type of system(s): high sulfidation
(magmatic hydrothermal) or low sulfidation (geothermal)?
Determining where you are in the epithermal system, both laterally and
Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses of sinter and the Bell vertically--are you in the center or the periphery of the system? Are you
vein at Buckskin Mountain (Vikre, 2007).
near the paleosurface or at depths greater than typical ore deposition?

28