College Entrance Exam Reviewer

( Day 4 )

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 CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the science that studies the properties, composition and structures of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Branches:
• Organic Chemistry – deals with the structure, properties, and reactions of compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
• Inorganic Chemistry – study of all elements and compounds that aren’t organic compounds
• Analytical Chemistry – study of qualitative and quantitative analysis of elements and compounds.
• Biochemistry – study of chemical reactions that happen within the biological processes

MATTER
Properties
• Physical Properties – those that a substance shows by itself, without changing or interacting with another substance,
e.g. color, melting point, and density
• Chemical Properties – those that a substance shows as it changes into or interacts with another substance, e.g.
flammability, corrosiveness
• Intrinsic/Intensive Properties – independent of the amount of material, e.g. solubility, boiling point, density
• Extrinsic/Extensive Properties – dependent on the amount of material, e.g. mass, weight, volume

Changes in Matter
• Physical change – occurs when a substance alters its physical form, NOT its composition (melting, sublimation,
evaporation, condensation, freezing, deposition)
• Chemical Change– occurs when a substance is converted into a different substance (chemical reactions such as burning
and oxidation)

States of Matter
• Solid – has a fixed shape with particles close together and organized
• Liquid – conforms to the container’s shape but fills the container only to the extent of the liquid’s volume with particles
which are close together but disorganized
• Gas – conforms to container shape but fills the entire container and with particles far apart and disorganized

I. Substances – pure matter; composition same throughout; single phase

A. Elements – substances made up of only one kind of atom
• Metals (electric conductors)
• Nonmetals (non-conductors)
• Metalloids (semi-conductors)

ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

The symbol of an element

Z – element's symbol
a – mass number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
b – atomic number = no. of protons

(Isotopes – elements w/ the same atomic number, different mass e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14)
• Noble Gases
- All of them have completely filled electron shells. Since they have similar electronic structures, their chemical
reactions are similar as well

Ex. He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

• Representative Elements
- Elements in the A groups on the periodic chart.
- These elements will have their “last” electron in an outer s or p orbital.
- These elements have fairly regular variations in their properties.

• d-Transition Elements
- Elements on periodic chart in B groups
- Sometimes called transition metals
- These elements make the transition from metals to non-metals.
- Exhibit smaller variations from row-to-row than the representative elements.
 • f-transition metals
- Sometimes called inner transition metals.
- Electrons are being added to f orbitals.
- Electrons are being added two shells below the valence shell

B.

Compounds – substances made up of two or more kinds of atoms; cannot be separated by physical means
• Acids (turn litmus paper from blue to red)
• Salts or Neutral compounds
• Bases (turn litmus paper from red to blue)

II. Mixtures - composed of two or more materials and can be separated by physical means
A. Heterogeneous – mixture of substances of different phases
B. Homogenous – composition is the same throughout
• Colloids – composed of two phases of matter (dispersed and continuous phase)
• Suspensions – mixture of liquid and relatively large particles of solids

Periodic Trends

Increasing atomic radius and metallic property

Increasing ionization potential, electron affinity, electronegativity, and non-metallic character

 FOCUS ON COMPOUNDS

Law of Definite Composition states that a compound is formed by combining elements in ratios of simple whole numbers.

Law of Definite Proportion states that every sample of a specific substance always contains the same proportion by mass of its
components.

Law of Multiple Proportions states that if two elements form multiple compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element
combining with a fixed mass of the first elements will be in ratios of small whole numbers.

I. Chemical formulas and stoichiometry

Chemical formula – formula that gives the number of atoms of each type in a molecule

A. Introduction to Ionic compounds

Some compounds consist of collections of ions. Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that carry an electric charge. Cations
carry positive charges while anions carry negative charges. (See list of common cations and anions.)
Charges are determined by the number of electrons relative to the number of protons in an atom or a group of atoms.
Electrically neutral – if the number of protons (or atomic number) is equal to its number of electrons (p + =e -)
Electrically positive – if the number of electrons is less than its number of protons (e- < p+)
Electrically negative – if the number of electrons is greater than its number of protons (e- > p + )

Reminder: An electrical charge depends on the loss/gain of electrons, not of protons.

*A very simplified way of coming up with chemical formulas given atoms with charges:
H+ O2- → H2O
Crisscross

B. The mole
mole – amount of substance that contains as many entities (atoms, molecules or other particles as 12 grams of pure
carbon- 12 atoms

1 mole= 6.0221415 x 1023 atoms ~ 6.022 x 1023 atoms (Avogadro's number)

*1 mole of atoms of a pure element in grams (g) = the atomic weight of the element in atomic mass units (amu’s)

Example: Titanium (Ti)'s atomic weight is 47.88 amu. If you measure 47.88 g of titanium, you will get one mole of titanium, or 6.022
x 1023 atoms of titanium.

C. Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry – determination or measurement of chemical quantities; often involves conversion processes (examples of
conversion processes: Celsius to Fahrenheit, peso to dollar)

Converted in stoichiometry:
1. Given mass of an element/compound in grams → # of moles it corresponds to → # of atoms
2. Given # of atoms → # of moles it corresponds to → mass of the element/compound in grams
3. (It may involve two sections sometimes instead of the complete three)

Examples:

1. How many moles of atoms does 136.9 g of iron (Fe) contain?

The mass is given, and from the given, we can see it is a mass to # of moles problem.

Solution:
136. 9 g Fe (given mass of an element in grams) X 1 mol Fe (conversion factor) = __ mol of Fe atoms
55.85 g Fe*
Answer: 2.451 moles of iron atoms

* This is the amount of iron that makes 1 mole. It is taken from the atomic weight of iron as it is listed in the periodic table. Recall
that a mole of atoms of a certain element is numerically equal to its atomic weight as listed in the periodic table. A mole of atoms is
also equal to 6.022 x 1023 atoms.

2. Determine the percent composition of C in C3H8.

Solution:
% 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶3𝐻8 = 3 𝑥
12.01 𝑔
𝑥 100% = 81.68%
44.11 𝑔
 3. What mass of ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4, would contain 15.0g of N?
Solution:
Molar mass of (NH4)3PO4 = 149.0 g/mol
1 mol N
? mol N = 15.0 g of N x = 1.07 mol N
14 𝑔 𝑜𝑜 𝑁

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚 (NH4)3PO4
1.07 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁 𝑥 = 0.357 𝑚𝑚𝑚 (NH4)3PO4
3 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁

149.0𝑔 (NH4)3PO4
0.357 𝑚𝑚𝑚 (NH4)3PO4 x = 53.2 g (NH4)3PO4
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚 (NH4)3PO4

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Electronic Configuration – allocations of electrons in various orbitals

Energy level – region in space where certain electrons are most likely found
Sublevel – contains a certain number of electrons

Types:
1) s (sharp) – max of 2 electrons (1 orbital)
2) p (principal) – max of 6 electrons (3 orbitals)
3) d (diffuse) – max of ten electrons (5 orbitals)
4) f (fundamental) – max of 14 electrons (7 orbitals)

Rules for electron configuration

1) Pauli exclusion principle – no two electrons can have the same four
quantum numbers
2) Hund's rule – electrons occupy orbitals singly before pairing up
3) Aufbau principle – electrons assigned relative to atomic number with lower
levels occupied first

Kinetic Molecular Theory

- Gases consist of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous, random motion
- The volume of all the molecules of the gas is negligible compared to the total volume in
which the gas is contained
- Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules is negligible
- The average kinetic energy of the molecules does not change with time (as long as the
temperature of the gas remains constant)
- Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions (but the collisions are
perfectly elastic)
- The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to absolute temperature.

Gases
n – no. of moles
P – pressure
V – volume
T – absolute temperature
R – 0.082 L atm / K mole

Ideal Gas Equation PV= nRT

General Equation
P₁ V₁ / T₁ = P₂ V₂ / T₂

Boyle’s Law (constant temperature)

P₁ V₁ = P₂ V₂

Example: At 25C a sample of He has a volume of 4.00 x 102 mL under a pressure of 7.60 x 102 torr. What volume would
it occupy under a pressure of 2.00 atm at the same T?

P1V1 = P2V2
𝑃1𝑉1 (760 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)(400𝑚𝑚)
𝑉2 = = = 2.00 𝑥 102 𝑚𝑚
𝑃2 1520 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Charles’s Law (constant pressure)

V₁ / T₁ = V₂ / T ₂

Example: A sample of hydrogen, H2, occupies 1.00 x 102 mL at 25.0C and 1.00 atm. What volume would it occupy at 50.0C under
the same pressure?
𝑇1 = 25𝐶 + 273𝐶 = 298𝐾
 𝑇2 = 50 + 273𝐶 = 323 𝐾

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑉1𝑇2 1. 00 𝑥 102 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 323 𝐾

𝑉2 = = = 108 𝑚𝑚
𝑇1 298 𝐾

Gay-Lussac’s Law (constant volume)

P₁ / T₁ = P₂ / T₂

Example: A 20 L cylinder containing 6 atm of gas at 27 °C. What would the pressure of the gas be if the gas was heated
to 77 °C?

P1/T1 = P2/T2

First, convert the temperatures to absolute temperatures.

T1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 K = 300 K
T2= 77 °C = 77 + 273 K = 350 K

Use these values in Gay-Lussac's equation and solve for P2.

P2= P1T2/T1
P2 = (6 atm)x(350K)/(300 K)
P2 = 7 atm

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure The sum of the partial pressure of all components in a gas mixture is equal to the total pressure.
Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc + …. +

Concentration of Solutions

Molarity, M
M = moles of solute / Litres of solution
Examples:

1. Glycine (H2NCH2COOH) is the simplest amino acid. What is the molarity of an aqueous solution that contains 0.715 mol of glycine
in 495 mL?

0.715 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 1000 𝑚𝑚

𝑥 = 1.44 𝑀 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
495 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠′𝑛 1𝐿

2. The specific gravity of concentrated HCl is 1.185 and it is 36.31% w/w HCl. What is the molarity?

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1.185

𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1.185 𝑜𝑜 1185 𝑔/𝐿
𝑚𝑚
? 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻 1185 𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 36.31𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝐻 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻
= 𝑥 𝑥 = 11.80 𝑀 𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝐿 𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 100𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠′𝑛 36.46𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙

Molality, m
m = moles of solute / kilograms of solvent

Examples:
1. Calculate the molality of a solution that contains 7.25g of benzoic acid C6H5COOH, in 2.00 x 102 mL of benzene, C6H6.
The density of benzene is 0.879 g/mL. 1 mol C6H5COOH = 122g

? 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 7.25𝑔 𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 1 𝑚𝑚 𝐶6𝐻6 1000 𝑔 𝐶6𝐻6 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.338 𝑚 𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘 𝐶6𝐻6 200.0 𝑚𝑚 𝐶6𝐻6 0.879 𝑔 𝐶6𝐻6 1 𝑘𝑘 𝐶6𝐻6 122 𝑔 𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Mole fraction, x
x = moles of component/ total mole of solution

Dissolution Formula: M1V1 = M2V2

Factors affecting solubility:
 • Temperature
• Size of the solute
• Polarity of both solute and solvent (like dissolves like)

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Types of chemical reactions

• Combination/Formation reaction

A + B -> AB

• Decomposition

AB -> A + B

• Single Replacement

A + BX -> AX + B

• Double Replacement/Double Decomposition

AX + BY -> AY + BX

*a catalyst speeds up the reaction but does not affect the amount of the reactants and/or the products

Balancing chemical reactions

In a balanced equation, each kind of atom has the same number of atoms for both sides of the equation → The left (reactant) side
does not contain more than the right (the product side); the right does not contain more than the left.

WRONG: C2H6O + O2 ---> 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

There are four more oxygen atoms on the right than on the left.

CORRECT: C2H6O + 3O2 ---> 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

Adding a coefficient of “3” to the O2 on the left increases the number of oxygen atoms on that side by four. Now, the two sides
contain an equal number of oxygen atoms.

Balancing Equation Strategy:

1. Balance elements that occur in only one compound on each side first.
2. Balance free elements last.
3. Balance unchanged polyatomics (or other groups of atoms) as groups.
4. Fractional coefficients are acceptable and can be cleared at the end by multiplication.

Example:
C8H18 + O2  CO2 + H2O
C8H18 + 25/2 O2  8CO2 + 9 H2O
2C8H18 + 25O2  16CO2 + 18H2O

ACIDS AND BASES

Basic Characteristics of Acids:

- They have a sour taste and are highly corrosive; they have a pH (power of Hydrogen) of 1≤acid< 7.0
- Strong acids completely ionize while the weak acid ionization is not complete.
- turns blue litmus paper to red

Basic Characteristics of Bases:

- They have a bitter taste and feel slippery; they have a pH (power of Hydrogen) of 7.0<base≤14.0
- turns red litmus paper to blue

*neutral compounds have a pH value of 7.0

Arrhenius Concept – an Arrhenius acid is a substance that has H in its formula and produces H+ in water; the Arrhenius base has
OH- in its formula and produces OH- in water.
Brönsted Acid-Base Concept – the Brönsted acid is the substance that donates a proton (H+); the Brönsted base is the substance
that receives the proton.
 Acidic, Basic and Neutral Solutions
• Neutral: [H+] = [OH-]
• Acidic: [H+] > [OH-]
• Basic: [H+] < [OH-]

pH scale
- Logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydronium ion concentration

pH = - log [H3O+] = - log [H+]

pH of Strong Acids and Bases

• pH = - log [H+]
[H+] = 10-pH

• pOH = - log [OH-]

[OH-] = 10-pOH

• At 25C, pH + pOH = 14

Lewis Acid-Base Concept – Lewis base donates an electron pair in the covalent bonding; Lewis acid accepts the unshared
electron pair.
*Amphoteric compounds – substances that can act both as an acid and a base

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Intramolecular forces
• Within each molecule
• Influence of chemical properties of the substance
• Bonding

Intermolecular forces
• Between molecules
• Influence of physical properties of the substance
• Nonbonding

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

The most common organic compounds are hydrocarbons which mainly consist of hydrogen and carbon. These can be classified as
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

The names of Hydrocarbons are based from the longest carbon chain. These backbones are shown in the table below.

Number of Carbons Prefix

1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-

Alkanes consist of single bonds. These names of these organic compounds end in the suffix –ane. Their molecular formulas follow
the format CnH2n+2. Ex. hexane, C6H14

Alkenes have at least one double bond. Their names of these end in –ene. Their molecular formulas follow the format CnH2n. Ex.
propene, C3H6
Alkynes have at least one triple bond. Their names end in –yne. Their molecular formulas follow the format CnH2n-2.
Ex. decyne, C10H18.

*Note that for alkyl groups or the double/triple bond, a number indicating the position of the attachment is included in the name of
the organic compound. Ex. 1-propene, the double bond is attached to the first carbon.

THERMODYNAMICS

THREE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an
isolated system.

∆𝐸 =𝑞+𝑤

All energy transfers can be described as either heat flow or as work done on or by a system.

2. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases.

∆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 > 0

Entropy (S) is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.

3. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature is exactly equal
to zero.
 PHYSICS
Distance vs Displacement

Distance – total length traversed by a moving object

Displacement – the difference between the path of the initial and final position covered by a moving object

Force
 A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction
Ex: force, velocity, acceleration, momentum
 A scalar quantity has magnitude only
Ex: speed, energy, temperature, electric change

Resultant (Two Dimensions)

The resultant force, F, of n forces with components Fx , j
And Fy , j has the magnitude of

2 2
 n   n 
F =  ∑ Fx ,i  +  ∑ Fy ,i 
 i =1   i =1 
The resultant direction with respect to the x-axis using four-quadrant angle functions is

 n 
 ∑ F y ,i 
θ = tan −1  i =n1 
 
 ∑ Fx ,i 
 i =1 
The vector form of this source is
F = Fx i + Fy j
Resolution of a force
Fx
 Fx = F cos θ x cos θ x =
F
Fy
 Fy = F cos θ y cos θ y =
F
Separating a Force into Components
x y
Fx = F Fy = F
R R

where R= x2 + y2

Newton’s Laws of Motion

• Law of Inertia- An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion
continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
• Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object being accelerated)
the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).
F = ma
where F is the force applied to the object with mass m and acceleration a.

• For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Average Velocity
 Vave= d/t
where d = total displacement
t = elapsed time

Average Acceleration
aave = ∆v / ∆t
where Δv= change in velocity
Δt = change in time

Straight Line Motion

x= x ₀ + v₀t + ½ at²
v f = v ₀ + at
v f ² = v ₀² + 2a ∆x

Free-Falling Body
y= y ₀ + v₀t - ½ gt²
v f = v ₀ + gt
v f ² = v ₀ ² - 2g ∆y

Projectile Motion
ax = 0 ay = −g
v x = v xo = vo cos θ
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑜 − 𝑔𝑔
x = v xo t = v0 t = v0 t cos θ (range)
1 2 (maximum height)
y = v y0 t − gt 2 = v 0 t sin θ − gt
2

Concept of Weight
W = mg
where W= weight (in N)
m= mass (in kg)
g = 9.8 m/ s 2

Friction

𝐹𝑓 = frictional force
µ = coefficient of static friction
N = normal force

One-Dimensional Motion of Particle

When referring to motion in the x –direction

Fx
ax =
m
where Fx = resultant of the applied forces along the x-axis

If the force is constant (independent of time, displacement, or velocity.)

Fx
ax =
m
F 
v x = v x0 +  x t = v x0 + a x t
m
Fx t 2 1
x = x 0 + v x0 t + = x 0 + v x0 t + a x t 2
2m 2

Circular Motion
Centripetal acceleration
v2
ac =
r
where v= velocity (in m/s)
r = radius (in m)

NOTE: Centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the center of the circular path.

Work and Energy

W= F∆x

Average Power

where ∆W = change in work (J)

∆t = change in time (s)

Potential Energy
PE= mgh
where m= mass
g= acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
h= height above the reference point (m)

Kinetic Energy
1
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
where m= mass (in kg)
v= velocity (in m/s))

Elastic Potential Ener gy

1
𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
where k= spring constant (N/m)
x= compression/elevation of the spring (m)

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation

-states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other.
Gm1m2
F=
r2
where m1 & m2 = masses of the two objects (in kg)
F= magnitude of the gravitational force (in N)
G= universal gravitational constant 6.67 x 10- 11 Nm 2 /kg 2
r= distance apart between the two objects (m)

Principle of Work and Energy

If KE i and PEi are kinetic energy and potential energy at the initial state, respectively, and are subjected to
conservative forces only(no energy dissipation), the Law of Conservation of Energy applies:
PEi + KE i = PE 2 + KE 2
If non-conservative forces are present the work done by these forces must be accounted for

where ∆U is the change in work caused by an external force

Escape Velocity
It is the speed needed to “break free” from the gravitational attraction of a massive body without further propulsion.

2𝐺𝐺
𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �
𝑟
where M = mass of the massive body (kg)
G = universal gravitational constant 6.67 x 10- 11 Nm 2 /kg 2
r = distance from the massive body’s gravitational center

Collision
Perfectly Elastic  no loss of kinetic energy
Elastic  part of the kinetic energy is converted into another form of energy like heat or sound
Perfectly Inelastic/Plastic  greatest loss of kinetic energy, colliding objects stick together and effectively become one
object

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Momentum is conserved while energy may or may not be conserved. For direct central impact with no external forces,
m1v1 + m2 v2 = m1v1' + m2 v2'
where m1 & m2 = masses of two bodies
v1 & v2 = velocities before impact
v1' & v2' = velocities after impact

Impulse-Momentum Theorem
Any impulse acting on a system changes the system’s momentum.
Impulse describes the effect of a net force acting on an object
Momentumdescribes an object’s resistance to stopping

where J = impulse (in Newton-meter)

∆p = change in the system’s momentum (in kg m/s)
or equivalently…

where Fave = average external force applied (in Newtons)

t = time interval the force is applied (in seconds)
m = mass of the object (in kg)
v = change in velocity of the object (in m/s)

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Planets move around the Sun in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line connecting the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the mean distance from the Sun (in
other words--of the"semi-major axis" of the ellipse, half the sum of smallest and greatest distance from the Sun)

Ohm’s Law
𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼
where V = voltage (in Volts V)
I = current (in Amperes A)
R = resistance (in Ohms Ω)

Circuits Connections
- Series: constant I across resistors, 𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +…
1 1 1
- Parallel: constant V across resistors, = + +…
𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2

Series Parallel

Doppler Effect
-the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its source

where f = observed frequency (in Hertz Hz)

fo = emitted frequency (in Hertz Hz)
c = velocity of the waves in the medium (in m/s)
vr = velocity of receiver (in m/s) *negative if moving away from source
vs = velocity of the source (in m/s) *negative if moving towards receiver
*Genius Tip!: To remember the signs, just think logically what sign each velocity would take on. If the receiver and source
are moving towards each other, f > fo. If they are moving away, f < fo.