Physiology (1st shifting)
division - If the impulse is
Neural Control Movement
- Nervous System
o Maintain homeostasis in the body
o Main function: detect stimulus,
interpret, and respond to maintain
homeostasis
o Has anatomical (CNS & PNS) and
functional division
Organization of Nervous System
- CNS: brain and spinal cord
- PNS: composed of neurons that are outside
brain and spinal cord
- PNS is Classified in 3 ways:
o Depending on the attachment:
nerves that originates or attached
on the brain is called Cranial nerve
(12 pairs) & nerves that originates
or attached at the level of the
spinal cord is called Spinal nerve
(31 pairs)
▪ Spinal nerve that goes in
the periphery will form
plexuses (cervical,
brachial, lumbar, and
sacral plexus are major
plexuses)
o Based on the nerve propagation
▪ Afferent or sensory
going back to the CNS
(towards); originates at
the posterior horn of the
spinal cord
▪ Efferent or motor division
–signal is going away from
the CNS ; produces the
response
Stimuli response dependent on the individual
because of experiences /
- 3rd classification/division of Nervous
system/PNS; Efferent division (response)
can be classified into:
o Autonomic Nervous System
▪ Involuntary nervous
system, happens at
subconscious level
▪ Conduct impulse from
CNS to the organs, glands,
smooth and cardiac
muscles
▪ Division of ANS:
• Parasympathetic
– rest, digest,
procreate; ex.
after eating
• Sympathetic –
fight or flight
(increase activity
of body); ex.
exercise
o Somatic Nervous System
▪ Voluntary
▪ Composed of nerves and
skeletal muscle
Structure of Neuron
- Neuron is the smallest functional unit of
Nervous System; vital to transmit
information
- Main 3 parts:
o Cell body – interpret if it will
send/pass it to axon; decides if
ipapasa or hindi yung stimulus
 o 2 processes
▪ Dendrites – receives any
type of stimulus or
information
▪ Axon – transmit impulse
to the next organ, neuron
or back to CNS
Afferent division: dendrites is nearer to organ
Efferent division: dendrites is nearer to Central
Nervous System
Axon Modification:
- Presence of Schwann cells
o Produces lipoprotein called myelin
sheath (covers part of axon)
▪ Acts as an insulator
▪ Initiates saltatory
conduction of nerve
impulses
o Spaces in between in each myelin
sheath is called nodes of Ranvier
There is spaces so that the process will jump; impulse
is an electrical impulse and myelin sheath acts an
insulator. Impulse can’t pass through the myelin
sheath so it will jump and find conductor (another
space) – this jumping process is called saltatory
conduction
Saltatory conduction is faster than conventional
conduction
- Presence of collateral axon
o Branch out of axon from the main
axon
o Dependent on the size or number
of the organ that it will supply
o The bigger or if it’s many, the
bigger collateral axon
A neuron is connected to another neuron through a
synapse
Synapse
- Where two neurons connect
- Axon of presynaptic neuron connects with
dendrites of postsynaptic neuron
- There is a space between the two called
synaptic cleft
How neurons communicate?
Electrical impulse or chemical impulse
- Electrical Impulse
o Neuron can create electrical
impulse because of its property of
irritability(ability of a neuron to
convert a stimulus to an electrical
impulse)
o Conductivity – ability to transmit
electrical signals it created; nerve
as a conductor
Transmission of impulse in a single neuron is through
an electrical impulse
- Chemical Impulse or neurotransmission
o Transmission of a certain
information from one neuron to
another neuron or an organ or a
gland
o Happens at the synapse
State of Neuron
- Electrical transmission of impulse within a
neuron
- A neuron can be only at resting, excited or
recover
1. Resting Membrane Potential
- To have a property of excitability or
irritability the cell should be polarized
(that’s why there’s resting potential of a
neuron – there’s a potential to be
stimulated)
An influx of positive ions in a negative space will
create electricity
- It’s the difference in the ionic charges in the
extracellular and intracellular matrix (
positive and negative pole)
o Within the poles, there’s an
insulator in between so that
positive and negative charges
won’t mix
o bilipid cellular membrane -
prevents substances leaving from
 intracellular matrix and prevents
substances from extracellular
enter the intracellular space)
- extracellular space is electropositive while
the intracellular space is electronegative
- -70Mv
imbalancement in the ratios of ions is
controlled/governed by concentration gradient &
electrical gradient
- concentration gradient
o Potassium and Sodium as primary
ions to maintain concentration
gradient
▪ There’s more potassium
inside
▪ There’s more sodium
outside
▪ Both carries positive
charge but there’s what
we called fixed anion or
negative ions (proteins,
phosphate, etc.) that can’t
go out the cellular
membrane
o At rest, entering and exiting of ions
are controlled by Ion channels (2
types)
o Passive channels
▪ Force within the cellular
membrane, doesn’t
require energy or another
substance to open
▪ At rest, passive potassium
ions are always open
(potassium can freely exit
) unlike passive sodium
channel (only few are
opened)
▪ In ratio, more potassium
exits than exiting sodium
(because there’s more
potassium ion channel
than “”)
o Active channels
▪ Maintains negativity
inside intracellular matrix
through Na-K pump
within the cellular
membrane
• Pumps 2
potassium ions
inside in
exchange of
pumping 3
sodium ions out
of the cell with
the use of energy
or ATP
▪ Second mechanism to
maintain resting potential
2 factors that affects the magnitude of the resting
membrane potential: the permeability of the ions
within the cell and the amount of the substances
inside and outside of the cell, controlled by the Na-K
pump
- Electrical gradient
o Anchored in Law of attraction
▪ Positive-positive = repels
▪ Negative–positive =
attracts
o Helps in establishing resting
membrane potential
▪ Intracellular
(electronegative) attracts
positive ions but can’t
enter directly because of
the presence of cellular
membrane
One of the mechanism to prevent too much efflux of
potassium and influx of sodium is through the level
of electricity inside the cell:
Potassium can’t go out anymore if the intracellular
reaches -94Mv (extracellular matrix is already filled
with positively charge ions) – can happen during the
recovery phase
Sodium can’t enter anymore if the intracellular
reaches +61Mv (can happen during an action
potential)
2. Action Potential
- Excited/Stimulated state of neuron
- From a dendrite (it will receive a stimulate
and it will become an electrical impulse)
o the electrical impulse will pass
through a cellular body
o if the level of stimulation doesn’t
reached a threshold, transmission
will stop at the cellular body (it
won’t reach the axon)
o the threshold is -55Mv inside the
cell
- if stimulus reached the threshold, it will be
directed to the axons (2 types active ion
channels)
o voltage regulated ion channels
extracellular matrix becomes electropositive,
voltage regulated ion channels along the axon will
open up due to so much positivity outside (sodium);
sodium will influx the intracellular matrix = outside
will become negative, inside will become positive up
to the point of +61Mv (this is the action potential of
one segment of axon)
There’s a need for recovery to maintain negative
intracellular matrix (Recovery Potential)
- Na-K pump will pump 3 sodium and 2
potassium in but it’s inadequate that’s why
there’s hyper polarization (negativity is
lower than resting potential, it can reach to
-94Mv)
- Chloride ions are going inside in the
intracellular matrix during recovery period
so that neurons can go back immediately to
resting potential
Refractory Period – the period where in the neuron
can’t be stimulated
2 types:
- Absolute - the whole depolarization phase
and 1/3 of repolarization, neuron can’t be
stimulated because you can’t open any
voltage ion channels for sodium anymore
(because all are opened already)
Relative Refractory period – 2/3 of repolarization, it
some instances, it can be stimulated as long as you
have suprathreshold (above -55Mv) to create
another action potential in a neuron
o Chemical/ligand gated channels
Chemical Transmission of Information
- Transferring action potential from Axon
terminal (presynaptic neuron) and
dendrites (of postsynaptic neuron)
o Synapse of the two has no direct
connection; there’s a space
between them (synaptic cleft)
Steps:
1. When action potential reaches the axon
terminal, voltage regulated calcium ion
channel will open
2. (influx of)Calcium ions will bind and tell the
vesicles (inside is the neurotransmitter) to
move closer to the cellular membrane
o Neurotransmitters are chemical
produced by the neuron
o When vesicles binds with the
cellular membrane, permeability of
neurotransmitter is better
3. Neurotransmitters will be released at the
synaptic cleft
4. Postsynaptic (cellular membrane) neuron
have ligand gated channels at the dendrites;
neurotransmitter will bind in the ligand
gated channels and there will be 2 different
effect
5. Action potential is passed to the next
neuron (excite) or prevent (inhibit) the next
neuron to have action potential
o Excitatory – opens the ligand gated
channel and let ions go inside the
dendrites
o Inhibit – it will open but pass
negatively charged ions or it will
not open ligand gated channels
All or none principle “if you stimulate a motor unit,
all muscles fibers innervated by the motor unit
contracts
In neuron…as long as the magnitude of the stimulus
reaches the threshold the motor neuron will have an
action potential; if the stimulation is below the
threshold there will be no response
Excitatory Mechanism of Neuron
- Depolarization of the postsynaptic
membrane
- From the dendrites, the chemical
transmissions will be converted back into an
electrical impulse (this is called the
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials or the
EPSPs)
o This is needed to stimulate the
whole neuron.
o Depending on its magnitude if
there will be action potential in
theneuron
- 2 types:
o Temporal – frequency of
stimulation over time (of one
presynaptic neuron) and it will add
up in the cellular body of
postsynaptic neuron
▪ for fine motor
o Spatial – simultaneous stimulation
by several presynaptic neurons
(they add up)
▪ For gross motor
Inhibitory Mechanism
- Will cause Hyperpolarization of
postsynaptic membrane
- Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (IPSP)
- Increase resistance to depolarization
- The more negative of the intracellular
matrix, the more stimulation needed to
reach threshold
o What will happen next is neuron
will detect the ratio between EPSPs
and the IPSPs
Neurotransmitter
- Can be divided based on their chemical
structures:
o Amino acids – has 2 major
neurotransmitter: Glutamate
o Monoamines: serotonin,
dopamine, epinephrine,
norepinephrine, histamine
o Cholinergic neurotransmitter
Amino acids
- Glutamate(gas pedal)
o Excitatory neurotransmitter
o Most common neurotransmitter in
the brain
o Once released in the brain, it will
increase neuronal excitation
throughout the nervous system
(neurons in the body are easy to
excite, faster action potential)
- GABA
o Inhibitory neurotransmitter
o Decrease/inhibit excitation all
throughout nervous system
o Also common in the brain
Monoamines
- Controls attention, mood, and sleep
- Dopamine acts as an inhibitory neuron or
excitatory neuron based where it is
released
o If it’s released in muscular system,
inhibits any unnecessary
movement
o If it’s released in the bloodstream,
it stimulates the releases of growth
hormones
o Happy hormone
- Primary excitatory neurotransmitter during
exercise:
o Epinephrine (adrenaline)
▪ if it’s released, increases
heart rate and bp
o Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
- Histamine
o For inflammatory response and
wakefulness
Acetylcholine
- Function can be excitatory or inhibitory NT
depending on what effector organ it will go:
o Excitatory if it will go to skeletal
muscle; without the release of
 acetylcholine, there will be no
muscle contraction
o Inhibitory if it is released in the
heart; inhibits cardiac muscle
contraction
❖ Inhibitory Neurotransmitter (-)
o Negative ion channels will enter
post synaptic channel or ion
channels for positive ions will be
closed –> action potential will not
happen next neuron/prevents the
propagation of AP
o GABA, Serotonin, Dopamine
❖ Excitatory Neurotransmitter (+)
o Positive ions will enter post
synaptic neuron to continue
propagation of action potential
o Acetylcholine, Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, Histamine,
Glutamate, Dopamine
Proprioceptors in Joint, Muscles, and
Tendons
- Body proprioception: body awareness; you
know the position of your body
- Proprioceptors /Sensory organs
o Tells your brain about limb position
and rate of limb movement
o Found throughout the body
- 2 types of proprioceptors:
o Joint proprioceptors
▪ Free nerve endings –
found within joint capsule
surrounding the joint
itself; most abundant
proprioceptor in the body;
sensitive to pain, touch ,
and pressure (can be
found also in dermis of
the skin); most active at
the start of the movement
Brings a lot of signals to the brain at the start of the
movement. Eventually it will adapt, signal will be
fewer, and it will become steady = if new skill is being
performed, a lot of signals are sent to the brain but
when you practiced the skill, signaling will become
steady
▪ Golgi Type Receptors –
mainly found in the
ligaments around the
joints; same function with
free nerve endings – gives
the positioning and
movement happening in
the joint
▪ Pacinian Corpuscles –
found outside the joint
capsule (surrounds),
detects changes in
movement and pressure
experienced by the joints;
tell the rate of limb
movement; abundant at
the palm of the hands and
heels of the foot
o Muscle mechanoreceptors
- Gives the length and tension information to
the brain
o Muscle Spindle
▪ Sensitive to the rate of
muscles’ lengthening –
“Length detector”
▪ Intrafusal fiber – situated
within the muscle, parallel
to the extrafusal muscle
fibers
▪ Has 2 parts: central and
peripheral parts
▪ Peripheral part – skeletal
muscle; has
characteristics of skeletal
muscles (can be contract,
excite, and lengthen)
Peripheral part is innervated by the Gamma Motor
neuron: if alpha motor neuron is stimulated (where
muscle spindle is located), gamma motor neuron is
automatically stimulated causing contraction of
intrafusal muscle fiber
Relationship of gamma and alpha is important for
the function off muscle spindle so that the
contraction of extrafusal and intrafusal is
synchronized
 ▪ Central part is purely
sensory (true muscle
spindle), detect if the
peripheral part is
shortening or lengthening
Central part has specialized afferent neuron and it
has 2 parts: primary sensory ending (tells rate of
stretch of muscle) and secondary sensory ending
(gives information to the static lengthening/length
of muscle)
o Golgi Tendon Organ
▪ Detects tension produced
by the muscle through the
lengthening of the
tendon; usually located at
musculotendinous
junction
When muscle produced tension, it will pull the
tendon; if tendon is short = small tension, if tendon is
long = high tension
Reflex Movement
- Specific response to a stimulus without
volition and doesn’t require the control of
the brain/direction of the brain
- For protection from harm
- Can be inhibited, desensitized, or amplified
based on the requirement of the activity
- Is still part of somatic nervous system
(motor neuron + muscle fiber)
Anatomy of Reflex Action
- Must have receptor organ
o Contains afferent neuron that
sends the stimulus in the
CNS/spinal cord
- Effector receptor organ
o Efferent neuron
- Happens within the Gray Matter of the
Spinal cord; has 2 types:
Monosynaptic reflex arc
- direct synapse between the afferent neuron
and efferent neuron
- goes straight to the effector organ or at the
muscle
Polysynaptic Reflex arc
- Presence of an interneuron between
afferent and efferent neuron
- Afferent neuron -> interneuron (can be
more than one) -> efferent neuron
Simple Reflexes in the body
- Stretch reflex
o The receptor organ is the muscle
spindle (detects the rate of stretch)
o It will pass the info the afferent
neuron
▪ Will have direct synapse
with efferent neuron
o Will tell the muscle to contract
▪ Monosynaptic reflex arc if
you’re just looking the
muscle being stimulated
▪ Polysynaptic reflex if you
included the antagonist
that will contract
Reciprocal Inhibition
Knee jerk – quadriceps contract; hamstring
antagonist. For proper contraction of quadriceps,
hamstring relaxes. There’s a presence of inhibitory
interneuron that is connected to afferent neuron and
will synapse with the efferent neuron of the
antagonist (this mechanism is called Reciprocal
Inhibition; if agonist is stimulated, the antagonist
will be inhibited/relaxed;)
Stretch + reciprocal inhibition reflex = they will
become complex reflex
- Tendon Stretch Reflex
o Receptor organ is the GTO (detects
the muscle tension through the
length of tendon)
Ex. bicep curl (heavy weight)
- When carrying the heavy dumbbell, GTO
will send information will send information
to the spinal cord via afferent neuron then
there will be inhibitory interneuron between
afferent and efferent. Inhibitory interneuron
will tell efferent neuron that there’s a need
to relax to prevent injury. Eventually muscle
 will relax (polysynaptic reflex arc because ▪ In between the number of
there’s a presence of interneuron) muscle fibers per motor
- Autogenic inhibition – if a muscle neuron
experiencing tension, it will relax ▪ Eye – 23:1
▪ Big muscles for
Reciprocal inhibition is amplified through repetitive
locomotion – 2,000:1
motion (you should practice it) because if the skill is
new, coactivation will happen (inhibitory neuron is Neuromuscular Junction
not happening)
- Connection between a muscle and a motor
Recurrent inhibition – efferent will arise at the neuron
anterior part, it will go to the muscle; feedback- - Also known as motor end plate
inhibitory mechanism o But in anatomy they are different
- Neuromuscular junction is the space
- Collateral axon, will go back to ventral horn
between the axon terminal of a neuron and
of spinal cord, then it will attach to a
the sarcoplasmic membrane while the
inhibitory interneuron called Renshaw cells
motor end plate is the membrane of the
(sensitive to the stimulation of the alpha
muscle where it will be excite by the axon
neuron).
o Too much stimulation from the Motor Unit Recruitment
muscle, Renshaw cells will tell
alpha motor neuron to relax - Anchored in 3 principles
o Renshaw cells is more on - All or none law
controlling the motor neuron o The muscles are either stimulated
or not; If motor neuron is
Inhibit and lower the sensitivity of recurrent and stimulated, 1000 muscle fibers will
tendon stretch reflex during strength training contract
because they inhibit you to carry in maximal power o The strength of the response of a
Muscle Chemoreceptors muscle fiber doesn’t dependent on
the strength of the stimulus
- Sensitive to the changes happening to the ▪ Action potential is an
muscles specifically to the concentration of electrical message; it
hydrogen, potassium, and carbon dioxide won’t influence muscle
o If they are increased, acidity of the contraction
environment will increase and if - Gradation of force principle
the environment is acidic, o The force of a muscle contraction
processes will slow down is dependent on 2 factors
- Monitors the metabolic rate of the muscle ▪ Frequency of motor unit is
activity discharged (how many
o The response of this stimulus will times am I stimulating the
be anchored to the muscle over time) –
cardiorespiratory system temporal summation of
excitatory mechanism;
Somatic Motor Function & Motor Neurons
More on fine motor for
- 1 motor neuron and its accompanying control
muscle fiber is called motor unit ▪ Number of motor units
o Motor unit is dependent to recruited (more on gross
innervation ratio motor)
▪ Fine motor: 1:1 - Size principle
 o At the initiation of the movement,
the smaller motor unit will be
recruited first. If the smaller units
aren’t enough, bigger motor unit
will come to produce force
▪ Slow twitch muscle fiber is
always first recruited
(because it has small
motor unit)
o After the movement, fast twitch
will rest first before the slow
twitch muscle
Autonomic Nervous System
- Organs and glands
- Vitals in maintaining homeostasis within the
body
- Greatly affected by emotions
- Adaption happens at the parasympathetic
state
- Sympathetic vs parasympathetic
o Everything is elevated
- Parasympathetic
o Rest and digest
o Every blood flow is in the visceral
organs
o For relaxation
o Achieved through the
neurotransmitters excreted by the
nerves of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic
Preganglionic – same neurotransmitter, they will
differ at postganglionic fiber
Parasympathetic - acetylcholine to acetylcholine
(inhibitory in organs)
Sympathetic - acetylcholine to norepinephrine
(excitatory in organs and glands)

Anatomical Difference

- Sympathetic
o Located at the between spinal
nerves T1 and L3
- Parasympathetic
o You have fibers as high as brain
stem
o And fibers in sacrum (s1-s3)

There’s also difference in length preganglionic axon

and postganglionic axon

- Sympathetic
o Cell bodies rises near the spinal
column; located anteriorly and
laterally to the spinal column
o Will form sympathetic ganglionic
chain
▪ Short first axon, long
second axon
- Parasympathetic
o Long first axon, short second axon

Functional Difference

- Sympathetic
o Fight or flight response
 Muscle Physiology
Type of Human Muscles Rate of Fast Moderate Very slow
Shortening
Characteristics Skeletal Cardiac Smooth Duration of As brief as Short (..- Very long;
Action 100ms; 300m); may be
Location Attached to Heart Part of blood prolonged summation sustained
bones vessel tetanus and tetanus indefinitely
structure; not possible
surrounds
many internal
hollow organs Gross Structure of the Skeletal Muscle
; Can be found
in the lings of - Tendon
the body; o Located at musculoskeletal
internal organs junction; connects bone and
Function Movement Pumps blood Constricts muscles
blood vessels; ▪ Epimysium – connective
moves tissue that covers the
contents of whole muscle
internal organs
- Fascicle
Anatomic Large Quadrangular Small, spindle-
o Group of muscle fibers
description cylindrical, cells shaped cells
▪ Perimysium – covers the
multinucleated with long axis
(because a lot of oriented in the fascicle
processes are same direction - Muscle fibers
happening in o Synonyms to muscle cell
this muscle) ▪ In one muscle cell, you
cells arranged can see multiple
in parallel
myofibrils
Striated Yes Yes No
o Within is the myofibrils
(presence of
▪ Endomysium – covers the
dark and light
spots) muscle fibers/cells
Initiation of By neuron Spontaneous Spontaneous - One myofibrils contains a number of
action potential only; muscle (paced by the sarcomeres
can’t contract pacemaker o Smallest unit of muscle contraction
without neural cells) is sarcomere
signal ▪ Where actin and myosin
Duration of Short (1-2ms); Long (- Very long, slow can be sin
electrical activity faster 200ms) (-300ms) - Sarcolemma is the cell membrane of the
Energy source Anaerobic, Aerobic Aerobic muscle which separates it from the
aerobic neuromuscular junction and the nerve (and
Energy efficiency Low; because Moderate; High ; same other structure
(how good the it has two because it is with cardiac - Sarcoplasm
flow of energy metabolism involuntary – o In other terms, the cytosol
consumption???) used on how
o ATP-PCR system and Glycolytic
to contract
system (anaerobic metabolism)
continually
Fatigue resistance Low to high; it Low Very low ▪ Aerobic metabolism
(tolerate to stress) varies – happens at the
Rate of Fast Moderate Very slow mitochondria
shortening (continuous) o The fluid space
 - Transverse tubules
o Action potential passes through
here and then those signals will
allow the release of calcium ions
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
(SR)
- Terminal Cisternae
o Enlarged SR
- Nucleus
Neuromuscular Junction
- Acetylcholine stored at the synaptic vesicles
o Once the neuron received the
signal, vesicles will release
acetylcholine
▪ Presynaptic membrane ->
synaptic
cleft/neuromuscular
junction ->postsynaptic
cleft
Microstructure of the Skeletal Muscle
Myofibril contains a number of sarcomere. Within a
sarcomere you have organs
- Thick filament/Myosin
o Dark color
- Thin filament/Actin
o Light color
- I band
o Light portion which doesn’t
contain the myosin; pure actin
- A band
o Contains myosin and actin
- H zone
o Myosin is present but no cross
bridge formation with the actin
- M line
o Line at the middle
- Z line
o Middle of 2 actin (where 2 actin
merged)
Muscular Excitation and Contraction
Excitation
i. When the neuron receives a signal,
Synaptic Vesicles release the stored
Acetylcholine
ii. Acetylcholine (from presynaptic
membrane) goes to the synaptic cleft (or
neuromuscular junction) and binds with
receptors found in the sarcolemma
(postsynaptic membrane)
iii. (depolarization will happen) Inward
movement of sodium ions, sends a wave of
depolarization through the transverse
tubules or T-tubules
Contraction (Calcium pathway)
i. (dumman action potential sa T-tubules)
Depolarization of T-tubules result in a
release of Calcium ions from the
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum into the
Cytosol/Sarcoplasm
ii. Calcium ion binds to troponin (calcium
binding site) which shifts the position of the
tropomyosin(attachment site of myosin
head) that exposes myosin binding sites
iii. Myosin heads attaches to the binding site in
actin
Sliding Filament theory part
Contraction (Cross Bridge Cycling)
i. ATP attaches to the myosin head which
releases actin (atp causes detachment to
the actin)
ii. ATP will be breakdown into ADP + P +
energy
o this will charge the myosin head in
preparation for power stroke
iii. P is released -> power stroke occurs
(contraction itself)
iv. ADP is released and the cycle ends with the
myosin head attached to the next binding
site
Relaxation
i. Motor neuron ceases to fire. Acetylcholine
is no longer released (in neuromuscular
junction)-> (cell membrane)muscle is
repolarized
ii. (action potential will not pass through t-tubules
causing..)Calcium ions is pumped back to SR
iii. Without Ca ions, troponin moves back, the
tropomyosin to cover the binding sites
 this mechanism occurs when the muscle seizes - Eccentric
to contract: o Muscle lengthening
o Myosin and actin splits, but there
a. no signal from the neuron
is still contraction
b. no longer production of ATP
Length-Tension Relationship
Sliding filaments happens if there is a presence of
ATP

Neuromuscular Fatigability

- fatigability: inability of motor unit to

contract
o source(mechanism of fatigability)
can be from motor neuron or
muscle fiber itself
i. Exercise-induced alterations of the CNS
neurotransmitters (motor neuron)
ii. Reduced glycogen content in active muscle
fiber during prolonged (muscle fiber) Active – contractile portion or segment of the
iii. Lack of O2 and increased muscle and blood muscles (sarcomere, muscle fibers. Etc.)
lactate (muscle fiber)
Passive – covering of the muscle (connective
iv. Fatigue at the neuromuscular junction
tissues); doesn’t have contractile element
which does not allow the travel of the
action potential (motor neuron) Active’s force decreases over time because at some
point actin and myosin bridges won’t overlap (when
Types of Muscular Contraction it’s lengthen too much) = no contraction means no
force.

There’s an ideal length-tension relationship which

can produce the largest force which is also
equivalent to isometric contraction (in between 0.6-
0.7)

The further you stretch it, after decrease in force of

active, doon lang siya mag iistretch(passive) =
muscle strain (yung blue na nag spike sa bandang
huli)

Force-Velocity Curve of a Muscle

Phasic – relating to a phases or phases (down phase,
up phase, etc.)

Isometric contraction – one(iso) + length(metric), no

change in length but there’s change in tone/tension

Isotonic contraction – one + tone(tonic), no change

in tone but there’s change in length

- Concentric
o Muscle shortening
o Myosin pulls the actin
 - Eccentric: as the force increases the velocity
increases
- Concentric: as the force increases,, the
velocity is inversely proportion

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

- 3 eneryg system
o ATP-PCR: for fast. Quick, and
explosive
o Glycolytic System or anaerobic
lactate: produces lactate, faster
than oxidative
o Oxidative Energy System

Property Type I Slow- Type IIA Type IIB Fast-

twitch SO Intermediate twitch FG
FOG
Muscle Fiber Small (doesn’t Intermediate Large (larger
Diameter require large power output)
power output;
needs prolonged
power output)
Color Red (dark), Red (it depends White (pale),
(aerobically on your it is more
trained – more training inclined with
vascularized; program or the enzymes
there’s steady
sport) within the
supply of O2)
cytoplasm
Myoglobin content High High Low
(connected with the
color)
Mitochondria Numerous Numerous Few
(aerobic
metabolism)
Oxidative enzymes High (aerobic) Intermediate Low
(mixed)
Glycolytic enzymes Low Intermediate High
(produces faster,
explosive, bigger, and
more forces)
Glycogen content (of Low intermediate High
muscle)
Myosin ATPase Low High High (more
Activity (found in myosin
myosin head = if high, ATPase =
more cross-bridge faster
formation) contraction)
Major source of ATP Oxidative Oxidative Glycolysis (or
phosphorylatio phosphorylatio ATP-PCR
n (oxygen) n (or glycolytic)
Speed of contraction Slow Intermediate Fast

Rate of fatigue Slow Intermediate Fast

Respiratory System o For respiratory
o Passageway connecting the nasal
Pulmonary Structure and the mouth cavity to the larynx
- Larynx
- Subdivided to 2 classification: Structural and
o Voice box
Functional organization
o Part of the respiratory system that
Structural Organization (Upper and lower modulates or controls our voices
respiratory tract) ▪ (high or low pitch)
▪ Epiglottis covers it when
- Upper tract we are eating
o Parts that resides within the neck - Trachea
and head (nose, mouth, larynx, o Cartilaginous so that it won’t
pharynx) collapse
- Lower tract - Bronchi (left and right)
o Trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, to o Main passageway going to the left
the alveoli (air sac) and right lung
o Resides within the thorax o Left lung has two lobes (superior
and inferior)
Functional Organization (Conduction zone and
o Right lung has three lobes
Respiratory zone)
(superior, middle, and inferior)
- Conduction zone - Bronchioles
o Main purpose is to deliver air o Smaller tubules
within and going out (passage o Then it will become respiratory
way) bronchioles
o To neutralize temperature and - Alveoli
provide moisture for inhalation
The main point where the two zones divide is in the
It’s easier to run at morning because it’s colder. start of respiratory zone (respiratory bronchioles)
Colder air = more moist = easier inhalation
Conduction zone: Nasal cavity -> (terminal)
- Respiratory zone bronchioles
o Where diffusion happens
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles -> alveoli
▪ Transfer of molecules
sac
from high concentration
to lower concentration 3 Cavities
Respiratory Structure - Visceral pleura
o Covers the lung
- Nasal Cavity/Nasal passage
o Epithelia covering of the lungs
o Nose is the inlet of air but the
- Pleural cavity
mouth can also be
o The fluid in between
▪ Mouth is usually used for
▪ Serves as a medium so
heavy or high intensity
that one pleura can slide
exercise (trying to max
over the other
out or in an all-out run)
- Parietal pleura
• Because it can
o Covers the thoracic wall
accommodate
more air Visceral and parietal pleura are serous membrane
- Pharynx which means they secret mucus or serosa; in
o For digestion
between the two is the pleural cavity; these 3 pleura
is important for air pressure
Breathing Mechanics
- Has two mechanism (the bulk flow and
diffusion)
Bulk flow
- Observable exchange in gas
- Because of higher pressure at the
atmospheric level and the lower pressure
within the lungs that causes us to inhale
o Boyle’s law
Diffusion
- Particles in higher concentration goes to
lower concentration
Inspiration
- Major muscle for inspiration is the
diaphragm
o When it contracts it pulls down
creating larger lung volume
- Active inspiration (in exercise), external
intercostal, scalenes, sternocleidomastoid,
and pec minor are used for raising the ribs
and expands the thoracic wall
o Sternocleidomastoid elevates
sternum
o Scalenes fix or elebate ribs 1-2
o External intercostals elevate ribs 2-
12
o Pec minor elevates ribs 3-5
Expiration
- Passive process (pressure and volume only
matters
- For forceful/active expiration: rectus
abdominis, external oblique, and internal
intercostals are used
o Rectus abdominis (inserts at 5th to
7th ribs) and external
oblique(originates at the lower 8
ribs) will push up the diaphragm
again
o Internal intercostals will depress
ribs 1-11 out
Boyle’s law in Inhalation and expiration
Ex. Environment (outside the lungs): Atmospheric
pressure = 760 mmHg (at the sea level)
Inside the Visceral pleura is called intrapulmonary
pressure
Inside the pleural cavity is called intrapleural
pressure
At rest: Atmospheric pressure is equal to
intrapulmonary pressure but the intrapleural is
usually less than 4 or 5 compared to intrapulmonary
pressure
- Intrapulmonary = 760mmHg
- Intrapleural pressure = 756mmHg
Inspiration
- Diaphragm contracts
- Lung Volume increases, pressure decreases
o Intrapulmonary pressure becomes
757mmHg
o Imbalance outside and inside, air
molecules goes in to balance out
- Air pressure increases again when the air
molecules goes inside (air pressure will
become 760mmHg again within the lungs)
Lung increases, pressure decreases
air molecules goes in
pressure increases
Expiration
- Diaphragm relaxes
o Volumes goes down, pressure
increases (760mmHg equilibrium in
inhaling will increase to 763mmHg
resulting to imbalance of
intrapulmonary and atmospheric
pressure)
- It will attempt to balance (homeostasis)
out; air molecules goes out
o 763mmHg will become 760mmHg
again
Diaphragm relaxes
volume decreases pressure increases
air molecules goes out
pressure decreases
If in you’re in a higher altitude; atmospheric pressure Lung Volume and Capacities
will become higher

- Tight feeling when breathing (forceful

inspiration) because the body tries to
balance
- Pressure is higher;
o In order to increase pressure in our
body (to balance out) volume has
to increase first so that air will go
inside
▪ Climatize

Diffusion

- Lung is efficient for diffusion because of:

o It has very large Surface area
▪ Especially when it
expands (when it expands
doon nagkakaroon ng
transaction in the alveoli
and the capillaries)
• Exchange of O2
and CO2
▪ CO2 is more dominant
when we exhale
o Size of particles should be small
o Amount of particles in relation to
intrapulmonary pressure and
intrapleural pressure
▪ So that diffusion to occur
▪ Intrapulmonary goes (high
concentration) to
intrapleural (low
concentration) to
capillaries
o Thickness of the wall
▪ Serous lining, pleura
cavity, and parietal pleura
separates oxygen to
capillaries
▪ Which makes gas to liquid
relatively easy
Respiratory Volume
Tidal Volume
- Volume at rest (normal breathing)
o Around 500ml to regular adult
male
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
- Volume that you can inspire forcefully
o Around 3000ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
- Volume that you can expire forcefully
o Around 1,200 ml
Residual Volume
- Amount of air remaining in the lungs after
maximum expiration
- Amount of air that can never be voluntarily
exhaled
- Around 1,300 ml
Respiratory Capacities
Vital Capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
- Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled
following a maximum inspiration

Inspiratory Capacity(IC) = TV + IRV

- Max amount of air that can be inhaled

following a normal expiration
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) = ERV + RV

- amount of air remaining in the lungs

following a normal expiration

Total Lung Capacity = VC + RV

- maximum amount of air in the lungs at the

end of maximum inspiration