REPORT TITLE: pressure

vessel

2019-2020

Department: ‫ميكانيك‬
Student Name: ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬
Stage: ‫الثالث‬
Study: ‫صباحي‬
College of Engineering
Class: ‫عام‬
Mustansiriyah University
Course Name: ‫اول‬
Email:daliashaker99@gmail.com
 ‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيك‬ ‫كلية الهندسة – الجامعة المستنصرية‬

A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

Pressure Vessels:
are containers which are designed to hold liquids, vapors, or gases at high
pressures, usually above 15 psig. Examples of common pressure vessels used in
the petroleum refining and chemical processing industries include, but are not
limited to, storage tanks, boilers, and heat exchangers. Each individual vessel has
its own operating limits built in by design that it has to work under, refered to as
its design pressure and design temperature. Operating outside of these limits
could damage the equipment and potentially lead to loss of containment or
catastrophic failure. Because they work under immense pressures, a ruptured
pressure vessel can be incredibly dangerous, leading to poison gas leaks, fires, and
even explosions. For this reason, pressure vessel safety is imperative. There are
several standards and practices that cover the construction, maintenance, and
inspection of pressure vessels. Chief among these standards are ASME Section VIII
and API 510.
ASME Section VIII is the section of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)
that covers pressure vessels. It gives detailed requirements for the design,
fabrication, testing, inspection, and certification of both fired and unfired pressure
vessels.
ASME Section VIII is the section of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC)
that covers pressure vessels. It gives detailed requirements for the design,
fabrication, testing, inspection, and certification of both fired and unfired pressure
vessels.

API 510, "Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: In-Service Inspection, Rating, Repair,
and Alteration" is an inspection code, written and published by the American
Petroleum Institute, that covers the in-service inspection, repair, alteration, and
rerating activities for pressure vessels and the pressure relieving devices
protecting these vessels.

Note: When it comes to inspections, most pressure vessels should be examined

once before being placed into service and again every 5 years after every
alteration or major repair. An inspection can be internal, external, or both and
should involve a thorough examination, a thickness evaluation, a stress analysis,
an inspection of the vessel’s pressure release valves, and a hydrostatic pressure
test. It is also important to perform a surface inspection, examine the insulation
and any structural connections, and finally inspect any welds or joints.
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSELS:

 According to the end construction
 According to the dimensions
PRESSURE VESSEL ACCORDING TO THE END CONSTRUCTION:
According to the end construction, the pressure vessels are may be open of end or
closed end. A simple cylinder with a piston is an example of open-end vessel
whereas a tank is an example of closed end vessel. Due to the fluid pressure
circumferential or hoop stresses are include in case of open ended vessels
whereas longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses are induced
in case of closed ended vessels.

PRESSURE VESSELS ACCORDING TO DIMENSIONS:

According to the dimensions pressure vessels may be of thin shell or thick shell.
The deciding factor among thin and thick shells is its wall thickness and shell
diameter if the ratio t/d is less than 1/10 the vessel is said to be thin shell and if
the ratio is greater than 1/10 it is said to be a thick shell. Thin shell are used in
boilers, tanks and pipes whereas thick shells are used in high pressure cylinder,
tanks gun barrels.

USES OF PRESSURE VESSELS:

 The pressure vessels are used fluid to store such as liquid vapors and gases
under pressure. Major uses of pressure vessels are as follows.
 Pressure vessels are used in steam boilers
 Pressure vessels are also used in storage of chemical in chemical plants
 Use in storage of petroleum products (petrol, diesel etc)
 It is also used in engine cylinders.

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF PRESSURE VESSELS

1. Design pressure : Pdesign= 1.2 Poperating
2. Design temperature : The strength of metals decreases
with increasing temperature so the maximum allowable desig stress will
depend on the material temperature. The design
temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the
maximum working temperature of the material,

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures.
3. Materials : Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon
steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad
plate, and reinforced plastics. Selection of a suitable material must take into
account the suitability of the material for
fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material
with the process environment.

4. Design stress (nominal design strength): Typical design stress values

for some common materials are shown in Table 13.2, These may be used for
preliminary designs.
5. Welded joint efficiency, and construction categories : The strength of
a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the
welding. The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-
destructive testing (radiography).
6. Corrosion allowance : 1 mm for dry hydrocarbons, 2 mm for wet
hydrocarbons, 3 mm and more for aqueous solutions.

Shape of a Pressure Vessel

Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of
sections of spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A common design
is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are frequently either
hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More complicated shapes have historically
been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult
to construct. Theoretically, a sphere would be the best shape of a pressure vessel.
Unhappily, a spherical shape is tough to manufacture, therefore more expensive,
so most pressure vessels are cylindrical with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps
on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers.
A disadvantage of these vessels is that greater breadths are more expensive.

Spherical Pressure Vessel (Sphere):

This type of vessel is preferred for storage of high pressure fluids. A sphere is a
very strong structure. The even distribution of stresses on the sphere's surfaces,
both internally and externally, generally means that there are no weak points.
Spheres however, are much more costly to manufacture than cylindrical vessels.
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

Storage Spheres need ancillary equipment similar to tank storage - e.g. Access
manholes, Pressure / Vacuum vent that is set to prevent venting loss from boiling
and breathing loss from daily temperature or barometric pressure changes, Access
ladders, Earthing points, etc. An advantage of spherical storage vessels is, that
they have a smaller surface area per unit volume than any other shape of vessel.
This means, that the quantity of heat transferred from warmer surroundings to
the liquid in the sphere, will be less than that for cylindrical or rectangular storage
vessels.

To determine the stresses in an spherical vessel let us cut through the

sphere on a vertical diameter plane and isolate half of the shell and its fluid
contents as a single free body. Acting on this free body are the tensile stress
in the wall of the vessel and the fluid pressure p .

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

The pressure that acts horizontally against the plane circular area is uniform
and gives a resultant pressure force of :
𝑷 = 𝝆𝝅𝒓𝟐
Where p is the gage or internal pressure (above the pressure acting in the
outside of the vessel).

The stress is uniform around the circumference and it is uniformly

distributed across the thickness t (because the wall is thin). The resultant
horizontal force is :
𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝝈(𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒎 )𝝉
𝒓𝒎=𝒓+ 𝝉
𝟐
Equilibrium of forces in the horizontal direction:
𝝈(𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒎 )𝝉 = 𝒑(𝝅𝒓𝟐 )
𝒑𝒓
𝝈=
𝟐𝝉

rm ~ r for thin walls. Therefore the formula to calculate the stress in a thin
walled spherical vessels is As is evident from the symmetry of a spherical
shell that we will obtain the same equation regardless of the direction of
the cut through the center.
Stresses at the Outer Surfaces.:
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

The element below has the x and y axes tangential to the surface of the
sphere and the z axis is perpendicular to the surface.
Thus, the normal stresses x and y are equal to the membrane stress and
the normal stress z is zero.
The principal stresses are
𝒑𝒓
𝒐𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈 =
𝟐𝝉
and 3 = 0. Any rotation element about the z axis will have a shear stress
equals to zero.
To obtain the maximum shear stresses, we must
consider out of plane rotations, that is, rotations about the x and y axis.
Elements oriented at 45o of the x or y axis have maximum shear stresses
equal to 𝝈/2 or
𝝈 𝒑𝒓
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =
𝟐 𝟒𝝉

Stresses at the Inner Surface

At the inner wall the stresses in the x and y direction are equal to the
membrane stress x = y = , but the stress in the z direction is not zero, and
it is equal to the pressure p in compression. This compressive stress
decreases from p at the inner surface to zero at the outer surface.
𝒑𝒓
𝒐𝟏 = 𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈 =
𝟐𝝉
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

𝝈𝟑 = −𝒑

The in-plane shear stress are zero, but the maximum out-of-plane shear stress
(obtained at 45o rotation about either the x or y axis) is
(𝝈 + 𝒑) 𝒑𝒓 𝒑
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = + +
𝟐 𝟒𝝉 𝟐

When the vessels is thin walled and the ratio. r/t is large, we can disregard the
number 1 and
𝒑𝒓
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒𝝉
Summary for Spherical pressure vessel with r/t large:

𝒑𝒓
𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐 =
𝟐𝝉
As the two stresses are equal, Mohr’s circle for in-plane transformations reduces
to a point
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

𝒐 = 𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress
𝟏 𝒑𝒓
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝈𝟏 =
𝟐 𝟒𝝉

A compressed air tank having an inner diameter of 18 inches and a wall thickness
of ¼ inch is formed by welding two steel hemispheres (see figure).

(a) If the allowable tensile stress in the steel is 14000psi, what is the
maximum permissible air pressure pa in the tank?.
𝒑𝒂𝒓
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅 = then
𝟐𝝉
𝟐𝝉𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅
𝒑𝒂 =
𝒓
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

𝟐(𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏)(𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊)

=
𝟗 𝒊𝒏
= 𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊

(b) If the normal strain in the outer surface of the tank is not to exceed
0.0003, what is the maximum permissible pressure pc? (Assume Hooke’s
law is obeyed E = 29x106psi and Poisson’s ratio is = 0.28)

(c) Tests on the welded seam show that failure occurs when the tensile load
on the welds exceeds 8.1kips per inch of weld. If the required factor of
safety against failure of the weld is 2.5, what is the maximum
permissible pressure pd?

The allowable tensile load on the welded seam is equal to the failure
load divided by the factor of safety. The corresponding allowable tensile
stress is equal to the allowable load on 1inch length of weld divided by
the cross-sectional area of a 1inch length of weld:

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

(d) Considering the four preceding factors, what is the allowable pressure
pallow in the tan
Comparing the preceding results for pa, pb, pc and pd, we see that the shear
stress in the wall governs and the allowable pressure in the tank is pallow
= 666psi.

Cylindrical Pressure Vessel;

Examples: Compressed air tanks, rocket motors, fire extinguishers, spray cans,
propane tanks, grain silos, pressurized pipes, etc. We will consider the normal
stresses in a thin walled circular tank AB subjected to internal pressure p. 1 and
2 are the membrane stresses in the wall. No shear stresses act on these elements
because of the symmetry of the vessel and its loading, therefore 1 and 2 are the
principal stresses.

Because of their directions, the stress

𝝈1 is called circumferential stress
or the hoop stress, and the stress
𝝈2 is called the longitudinal stress

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 ‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيك‬ ‫كلية الهندسة – الجامعة المستنصرية‬

‫‪ /‬الشعبة ‪ :‬عام ‪A‬‬ ‫ثالث‬ ‫المرحلة ‪:‬‬ ‫االسم ‪:‬داليا شاكر كحيط‬

‫‪or the axial stress.‬‬

‫‪Equilibrium of forces to find the circumferential stress:‬‬

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 ‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيك‬ ‫كلية الهندسة – الجامعة المستنصرية‬

A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

Equilibrium of forces to find the longitudinal stress:

This longitudinal stress is equal to the

membrane stress in a spherical vessel. Then:

We note that the longitudinal welded seam in a pressure tank must be twice as
strong as the circumferential seam.
Stresses at the Outer Surface:
The principal stresses 𝝈1 and 𝝈2 at the outer surface of a cylindrical vessel are
shown below. Since 𝝈3 is zero, the element is in biaxial stress. The maximum in
plane shear stress occurs on planes that are rotate 45oabout the z-axis
(𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 ) 𝒑𝒓
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =
𝟐 𝟒𝝉

The maximum out of plane shear stresses are obtain by 45o rotations about the x
and y axes respectively.
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

Then, the absolute maximum shear stress is𝝉max = pr / 2t , which occurs on a

plane that has been rotated 45o about the x-axis.

Stresses at the Inner Surface

The principal stresses are
𝒑𝒓 𝒑𝒓
𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝟑 = −𝒑
𝝉 𝟐𝝉
The three maximum shear stresses, obtained by 45o rotations about the x, y and z
axes are

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

The first of these three stresses is the largest. However, when r/t is very large
(thin walled), the term p/2 can be disregarded, and the equations are the same as
the stresses at the outer surface
Summary for Cylindrical vessels with r/t large

Cylindrical vessel with principal stresses

𝝈1 = hoop stress
𝝈2 = longitudinal stress

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‫‪ /‬الشعبة ‪ :‬عام ‪A‬‬ ‫ثالث‬ ‫المرحلة ‪:‬‬ ‫االسم ‪:‬داليا شاكر كحيط‬

‫‪Hoop stress‬‬

‫‪Longitudinal stress:‬‬

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 ‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيك‬ ‫كلية الهندسة – الجامعة المستنصرية‬

A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

Points A and B correspond to hoop stress, 𝝈1, and longitudinal stress, 𝝈2

Maximum in-plane shearing stress:

Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress corresponds to a 45o rotation of the plane

stress element around a longitudinal axis

A cylindrical pressure vessel is constructed from a long, narrow steel plate

by wrapping the plate around a mandrel and then welding along the edges
of the plate to make an helical joint (see figure below). The helical weld
makes an angle = 55o with the longitudinal axis. The vessel has an inner
radius r=1.8m and a wall thickness t = 20mm. The material is steel with a
modulus E=200GPa and a Poisson’s ratio =0.30. The internal pressure p is
800kPa
Calculate the following quantities for the cylindrical part of the vessel:

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

The circumferential and longitudinal stresses

𝝈1 and 𝝈2 respectively;
The maximum in-plane and out-of-plane shear stresses
The circumferential and longitudinal strains 𝜺1 and 𝜺2 respectively, and
The normal stress 𝝈w and shear stress 𝝉w acting perpendicular and parallel,
respectively, to the welded seam.

Solution
Circumferential and longitudinal stresses:

(b) Maximum Shear Stress

The largest in-plane shear stress is obtained from the equation
The largest out-of-plane shear stress is obtained from the equation:

This last stress is the absolute maximum shear stress in the wall of the
vessel.
(c) Circumferential and longitudinal strains.
Assume the Hook’s law applies to the wall of the vessel. Using the
equations

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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

We note that 𝜺x = 𝜺2 and 𝜺y = 𝜺1 and also 𝝈x = 𝝈2 and

𝝈 y = 𝝈1. Therefore the above equations can be written in the following
forms

(𝟐−𝝂)𝒑𝒓 (𝟐−𝒗)𝝈𝟏 (𝟐−𝟎.𝟑𝟎)(𝟕𝟐 𝒎𝒑𝒂)

𝜺𝟏 = = = = 𝟑𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝟐𝝉𝑬 𝟐𝑬 𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎) 𝑮𝒑𝒂

(d) Normal and shear stresses acting on the weld seam

The angle for the stress element at point B in the wall of the cylinder with
sides parallel and perpendicular to the weld is
𝜽 = 90 – α= 35
We will use the stress transformation equations:

Mohr’s circle
Coordinates of point A (for θ = 0) σ2 = 36MPa and shear stress = 0
Coordinates of point B (for θ = 90) σ1 = 72MPa and shear stress = 0
Center (point C) = (σ1 + σ2) / 2 = 54MPa Radius = (σ1- σ2) / 2 =18MPa
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A ‫ عام‬: ‫ الشعبة‬/ ‫ثالث‬ : ‫المرحلة‬ ‫داليا شاكر كحيط‬: ‫االسم‬

A counterclockwise angle 2θ = 70 (measured on the circle from point A)

locates point D, which corresponds to the stresses on the x1 face (θ = 35o)
of the element.
The coordinates of point D
σx1 = 54 – R cos 70o = 54MPa – (18MPa)(cos 70o) = 47.8MPa
σx1y1 = R sin 70o = (18MPa)(sin 70o) = 16.9MPa

For practical reasons, the angle θ is usually in the range from 20o to 35o.
When seen in a side view, a helix follows the shape of a sine curve (see
Figure below). The pitch of the helix is p = πd tan θ, where d is the diameter
of the circular cylinder and θis the angle between a normal to the helix and
a longitudinal line. The width of the flat plate that wraps into the cylinder
shape is w = π d sin θ.

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