7.

1 Definitions
The discussion of photogrammetry is reduced here to a series of definitions and figures
describing the main concepts. In general, the idea is to relate the geometry of the image to the
geometry of the ground, removing (or accounting for) distortions due to the motion and attitude
of the aircraft, and the fact that the ground is not flat.
7.3.1 General terms
Camera: A lightproof chamber or box in which the image of an exterior object is projected upon
a sensitized plate or film through an opening usually equipped with a "lens," a "shutter" and a
variable "aperture."
Mapping Camera or Surveying Camera: An aerial or terrestrial camera which is equipped with
means for maintaining and indicating the interior orientation of the photographs with sufficient
accuracy for surveying purposes. (Interior orientation: calibrated focal length, location of
calibrated principal point, and calibrated lens distortion).
Shutter: Camera mechanism which controls the length of time that the sensitized plate or film is
exposed to light; (types: focal-plane shutter, between-the-lens shutter, louver shutter).

Lens: One or more pieces (lens "elements") of glass, or other transparent material, shaped to
form an image of an object by refraction.

7.3.2 Terms Associated with Camera Lens

Aperture Stop: Camera mechanism which limits the size of the pencil of light rays passing
through the lens system. Adjusting the size of the aperture stop regulates the brightness of the
image. (The aperture stop may be considered as the effective lens diameter; it is sometimes
called the "diaphragm").
Relative Aperture: The ratio of the equivalent focal length to the effective lens diameter; (also
called the "f number" or "speed of lens"). (e.g., if the focal length = 6 in. and the lens diameter =
1.5 in., then the relative aperture = 4; this would be expressed as f/4).
Aberration: Failure of an optical system to bring all light rays received from a point object to a
single image point; (types: astigmatism, lateral chromatic aberration, longitudinal chromatic
aberration, spherical aberration, coma, curvature of field, distortion).
Nodal Point: One of two points on the lens (optical) axis such that, when all "object distances"
("o") are measured from one nodal point and all "image distances" ("i") are measured from the
other nodal point, they satisfy the lens relation:
(1/f) = (1/i) + (1/o) . . . where f = focal length.
The total distance between an object and its image equals o + i plus or minus a small distance
called the "nodal-point separation."
Focal Plane: The plane perpendicular to the lens axis, in which images of exterior objects are
focused by the lens.
Equivalent Focal Length: The distance measured along the lens axis from the rear nodal point to
the plane of best average definition over the entire field used in the camera (i.e., the distance
between the real nodal point and the focal plane).
Calibrated Focal Length: An adjusted value of the equivalent focal length which is determined
during camera calibration; the C.F.L. is computed such that the effect of lens distortion is
distributed over the entire field used in the camera.
Resolving Power (of lens): An expression of lens definition, usually stated as the maximum
number of lines per mm (line-space pairs) that can be seen as separate lines in the image.
Angle of Coverage: The apex angle of the cone of light rays passing through the front nodal
point of the lens. Lenses are generally classified according to their angle of coverage: "narrow-
angle," less than 60 degrees; "normal-angle," 60 to 75 degrees; "wide-angle," 75 to 100 degrees;
"super-wide-angle," greater than 100 degrees.

7.3.3 Terms Associated with Vertical Aerial Photographs

Vertical Photograph: An aerial photograph made with the camera axis vertically downward;
generally refers to photographs with less than 2 to 3 degrees tilt.
Perspective Center: The point of origin or termination of bundles of perspective light rays. (In a
perfectly adjusted lens-camera system, the "exterior" and "interior" perspective centers
correspond, respectively, to the front and rear nodal points).
Ground Nadir: The point on the ground that is vertically beneath (directly below) the
perspective center of the camera lens.

Nadir Point or Photographic Nadir: The point on the photograph which corresponds to the
ground nadir. The point at which a vertical line (plumb line) from the perspective center to the
ground nadir intersects the photograph.
Fiducial Marks: Index marks, usually four, which are rigidly connected with the camera lens
through the camera body and which form images on the photographic negative.
Fiducial Axes: Straight lines joining opposite fiducial marks on a photograph. X-Axis: The
fiducial axis that is more nearly in the direction of flight. Y-Axis: The fiducial axis that is more
nearly perpendicular to the direction of flight.
Photograph Perpendicular: The perpendicular from the interior perspective center (real nodal
point) to the plane of the photograph.
Principal Distance: The length of the photograph perpendicular. This distance is equal to the
calibrated focal length corrected for both the enlargement or reduction ratio and the film
shrinkage or expansion.
Principal Point: The point on the photograph located at the foot of the photograph perpendicular.
Photograph Center: The point on the photograph that is located at the intersection of the fiducial
axes. (The photograph center is sometimes called the "center of collimation.") In a perfectly
adjusted camera, the photograph center and the principal point are identical (i.e., unless camera
calibration indicates otherwise, the principal point is generally assumed to coincide with the
photography center).
Scale: The ratio of a distance on a photograph or map to its corresponding distance on the
ground. Although photographic scale varies from point to point (due to relief and/or tilt), it is
usually taken as f/H' . . . where f = focal length and H' = height of camera above mean ground
elevation. Scale may be expressed as a ratio (1:24,000), a fraction (1/24,000), or an equivalence
(1 in. = 2,000 ft.).
Relief Displacement: If a ground object is below (above) the elevation of the ground nadir, its
image will be displaced radially inward (outward) with respect to the nadir point. Relief
displacements may be measured accurately from the photography center if two conditions are
met: (1) the photography is truly vertical (i.e., the nadir and principal points coincide), and (2)
the camera is in perfect adjustment (i.e., the principal point and photograph center coincide).
7.3.4 Terms Associated with Stereoscopic Photographs
Stereoscopic Pair or Overlapping Photographs: Two photographs which were taken from two
different camera stations and which include all or part of the same scene ("stereopair"). That
portion of the scene which is common to both photographs (i.e., the overlap area) is called the
"stereoscopic model," "stereomodel" or "model." The stereomodel may also be referred to as the
"stereoscopic image," since the mental impression of three dimensions can only be obtained in
the overlap portion of the photographs.
Overlap: The amount by which one photograph covers the same area as covered by another
(customarily expressed as a percentage). The overlap between aerial photographs in the same
flight line is called "end lap," and the overlap between photographs in adjacent, parallel flight
lines is called "side lap."

Floating Mark: (Associated with stereometers or stereoscopic plotting machines). A mark (dot
or cross) seen as occupying a position in the three-dimensional space formed by the stereoscopic
fusion of a stereopair and used as a reference mark in examining or measuring the stereo-model.
Stereometer or Parallax Bar: A measuring device containing a micrometer movement by means
of which the separation of two index marks (i.e., floating marks) can be changed to measure
parallax difference on a stereopair of photographs.
Air Base: The line joining two adjacent camera stations, or the length of this line.
Photobase: The length of the air base as represented on a photograph.
Corresponding Image Points: The images of the same object point on two or more photographs
(formerly called "conjugate points").
Parallax: The apparent displacement of the position of an object with respect to a reference point
or system, when viewed from a different position of observation.
Absolute Stereoscopic Parallax: On a stereopair of equal principal distances, the absolute
stereoscopic parallax of a point is the algebraic difference between the distances of the two
corresponding images from their respective nadir points, the two distances being measured
parallel to the air base; (generally denoted "parallax, but also called "x parallax," "linear
parallax" and "horizontal parallax").
Parallax Difference: The difference in the absolute stereoscopic parallaxes of two points imaged
on a pair of photographs. Customarily used to determine the elevation difference between the
two objects.
Y Parallax: The difference between the perpendicular distances of the two corresponding images
of a point from the vertical plane containing the air base. The existence of y parallax is an
indication of tilt in either or both photographs and/or a difference in flight height (camera
elevation); its existence will interfere with stereoscopic examination.
Angular Parallax, Parallactic Angle or Angle of Convergence: The angle subtended by the eye
base of the observer at the object viewed.
Base Height Ratio: The ratio (B:H) between the air base and the flight height of a stereopair of
photographs.
7.3.5 Terms Associated with Tilted Aerial Photographs
Tilt: The angle at the perspective center between the photograph perpendicular and the plumb
line; also, the dihedral angle between the plane of the photograph and the horizontal plane. Tilt
may be separated into tilt about the x-axis (representing "roll" of the aircraft, and noted by Greek
letter omega, ), and tilt about the y-axis (representing "pitch" of the aircraft, and noted by the
Greek letter phi, ). The direction of tilt is expressed by "swing" (when referred to the
photograph axes) or by "azimuth" (when referred to the exterior coordinate system).
Principal Plane: The vertical plane through the perspective center containing the photograph
perpendicular and the nadir point (and the "isocenter").
Principal Line: The trace (intersection) of the principal plane upon the photograph; also, the line
on the photograph which passes through the principal point and the nadir point (and the
"isocenter").

Isocenter: The point on the photograph where the bisector of the angle of tilt strikes the
photograph; (located in the principal plane as well as on the principal line). The isocenter is the
unique point common to the plane of the tilted photograph, its principal plane, and the plane of
the assumed truly vertical photograph taken from the same camera station and having an equal
principal distance; (i.e., the isocenter is located at the intersection of 3 planes).
Photograph Parallel: The image of any horizontal line which is perpendicular to the principal
plane. Thus, all photograph parallels are perpendicular to the principal line.
Isometric Parallel: The photograph parallel that passes through the isocenter; also, the line of
intersection between the plane of the photograph and a horizontal plane (or a truly vertical
photograph) having an equal principal distance from the same perspective center. (The isometric
parallel was once called the "axis of tilt"; in present usage, the axis of tilt is defined as a line
perpendicular to the principal plane, but passing through the perspective center--not through the
isocenter).
Tilt Displacement: The displacement of images on a tilted photograph, being radially outward
(inward) with respect to the isocenter if the images are on the low (high) side of the isometric
parallel. (The "low" side of a tilted photograph is the side closer to ground).
Swing: The angle about the principal point of a photograph, measured clockwise from the
positive y-axis to the principal line at the nadir point. Swing also refers to a rotation of the
photograph (or photo-coordinate system) around the photograph perpendicular (or photo-graph
z-axis, or exterior Z-axis). In air navigation, swing represents aircraft rotation about the aircraft's
vertical axis and is referred to as "yaw" or "crab." (Swing is often noted by the Greek letter
kappa, ).
Azimuth: The horizontal angle measured clockwise about the ground nadir from a reference
plane (usually the ground-survey north meridian) to the principal plane. (The azimuth of a
photograph is the ground-survey direction of tilt, while swing is the direction of tilt with respect
to the photograph axes)