Ectoparasites Class Diplopoda

Class Pentastomida
(Arthropods of Human Disease and Insects of Medical Importance) Class Hexapoda(Insecta)
Order Orthoptera
Order Hemiptera
Although the term ectoparasites can broadly include bloodsucking Order Anoplura
arthropods such as mosquitoes (because they are dependent on a blood Order Siphonaptera
meal from a human host for their survival), this term is generally used Order Diptera
more narrowly to refer to organisms such as ticks, fleas, lice, and mites Suborder Nematocera (Orthorrhapha)
that attach or burrow into the skin and remain there for relatively long Suborder Brachycera
Suborder Cyclorrhapha (Athericera)
periods of time (e.g., weeks to months).
Class Crustacea
Arthropods are important in causing diseases in their own right, but are
 They have two pairs of antennae
even more important as vectors, or transmitters, of many different
 at least five of locomotive appendages
pathogens that in turn cause tremendous morbidity and mortality from
 are aquatic.
the diseases they cause.
 The body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
With a few exceptions, including larvae of a few flies, scabies, mites, and  The head and thorax are often closely joined and is called the
hard ticks, all these parasites bite, feed quickly, and leave. All of these cephalothorax.
skin parasites leave tell-tale signs, including itchy, round, red papules  Respiration is either by means of a true blood gill or directly
(swellings). through the body wall.
 dominant animal forms in the sea and they are also abundant in
lakes, ponds and streams.
Arthropods of Human Disease  They include such common animal forms as crayfishes, lobsters,
crabs, shrimps, barnacles, prawns, pill bugs, sow bugs and water
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA fleas.
 Some crustaceans serve as hosts of parasites which cause human
Characterized by:
diseases.
 Bilateral symmetry Certain freshwater species of cyclops and diaptomus serve as hosts
 Metameric segmentation for the development of serious parasite of man:
 the presence of jointed appendages a) broad tapeworm of man (D. latum),
 hardened exoskeleton b) G. spinigerum
c) guinea worm D. medinensis,
 Certain species of crayfishes and crabs serve as hosts of lung
Class Crustacea flukes, P. westermani, which cause pulmonary diseases in man
Class Arachnida and other animals.
Order Scorpionida
Two forms:
Order Araneida
Order Acarina 1. small forms – COPEPODS
Class Chilopoda
 a) Cyclops
b) Diaptomus
2. large forms – DECAPODA
a) Crabs
b) Lobsters
CLASS ARACHNIDA
 Wide variety of forms such as scorpions, mites and ticks
 All are air-breathin arthropods in which the head and thorax are
usually fused into a cephalothorax which bears 6 appendages,
the anterior chelicerae and the 4 pairs of walking legs
1. order SCORPIONIDA (scorpions)
 Body is elongate and divided into cephalothorax and abdomen
 Abdomen has 13 segments with the terminal segment
differentiated a pyriform poison organ ending in a hollow stinger
spine
 It is 4 to 7 inches in length
 Has a terrestrial habitat and hides in dark places during the day
2. Order ARANEIDA (spiders)
 The cephalothorax joins the abdomen through a constriction
 The abdomen is unsegmented
 The 1st pair of appendage is modified into chelicerae with
opening of the poison gland through the hollow fanged tip
 Three pairs of legs modified and connected to a silk gland or
spinneret
 Latrodectus mactans (black widow spider)  with an
hourglass spot on the ventral side of the abdomen is poisonous
3. Order ACARINA (ticks, mites and chiggers)
 Constitutes a very large group, consisting principally of small to
minute animals
 Body is usually oval and compact, with little or no differentiation
of cephalothorax and abdomen
 Larvae Newly hatched young; which usually have only 3 pairs
of legs and the 4th pair is acquired after the 1st molt
 Chiggers  larval form of mites
 Nymphs  stage between larva and adult
TICKS (Ixodidae – Hard ticks) and (Argasidae –Soft ticks)
 Ticks are small bloodsucking arthropods and are composed of
two families, Ixodidae (hard ticks) and Argasidae (soft ticks),
that each contain different genera and species of ticks
 Leading carriers (vectors) of diseases to humans in the United
States, second only to mosquitoes worldwide
 It is not the tick but the toxins, secretions, or organisms in the
tick’s saliva transmitted through the bite that causes disease
HARD TICKS
 Tough back plate or scutum that defines their appearance
 Tend to attach and feed for hours to days
 Disease transmission usually occurs near the end of a meal as the
tick becomes full of blood
 Are so called because of a horny shield (scutum) that covers the
dorsal surface partially in the female and entirely in the male
 There is a hard dorsal; scutum
 Capitulum extends forward from its articulation with the
anterior end of the body
 Spiracles lie behind the fourth pair of coxae
 The coxae are spurred
 Tarsi bear pulvilli
SOFT TICKS
 Have more rounded bodies and do not gave a hard scutum found
in hard ticks
 Usually feed for less than one hour
 Disease transmission can occur in less than a minute
 Bite of some produces intensely painful reactions
 The adult soft ticks are about the same size as adult hard ticks
 Primarily ectoparasite on birds less commonly on bats, other
small mammals and man
 Sexes are similar
 No hard dorsal plate
 Capitulum is situated ventral to the anterior extremeity
  Spiracles lie in front of the third pair of coxa
 Coxae are unspurred and tarsi bear no pads or pulvilli
How ticks find their hosts
Ticks find their hosts by detecting animals´ breath and body
odors, or by sensing body heat, moisture, and vibrations. Some species
can even recognize a shadow. In addition, ticks pick a place to wait by
identifying well-used paths. Then they wait for a host, resting on the tips
of grasses and shrubs. Ticks can't fly or jump, but many tick species wait
in a position known as "questing“.
While questing, ticks hold onto leaves and grass by their third
and fourth pair of legs. They hold the first pair of legs outstretched,
waiting to climb on to the host. When a host brushes the spot where a
tick is waiting, it quickly climbs aboard. Some ticks will attach quickly
and others will wander, looking for places like the ear, or other areas
where the skin is thinner.
Tick-Borne Diseases
1. Lyme disease (borreliosis) -- Ixodes species (also known as black-
legged ticks) including deer
ticks (hard ticks) -- vectors for Borrelia species of bacteria (a spirochete
or spiral-shaped
bacterium)
2. Babesiosis -- Ixodes species (hard ticks) -- vectors for Babesia, a
protozoan
3. Ehrlichiosis -- Amblyomma americanum or lone star ticks (hard
ticks) -- vectors for Ehrlichia
chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii bacterial species
4. Rocky Mountain spotted fever -- Dermacentor variabilis (American
dog tick) and Rocky
Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) (hard tick) are the
primary vectors and
occasionally the brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus);
Amblyomma cajennense
(hard tick) is the vector in countries south of the United States -- vectors
for Rickettsia.
5. Southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI) -- Amblyomma
americanum or lone star tick (hard
tick) -- infectious agent not yet identified according to U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC); some researchers suggest Borrelia lonestarimay be
the infectious agent.
6. Tick-borne relapsing fever -- Ornithodoros moubata or African tick
(soft tick) -- vectors for Borrelia
species of bacteria
7. Tularemia -- Dermacentor variabilis (American dog tick) (hard tick)
and Amblyomma
americanum or lone star tick (hard tick)-- vectors for
Francisellatularensis bacteria
8. Anaplasmosis (human granulocytic anaplasmosis or HGA) -- Ixodes
species (hard tick) -- vectors
for Anaplasma phagocytophilumbacteria
9. Colorado tick fever -- Dermacentor andersoni (hard tick) -- vectors
for Coltivirus, a RNA virus
10. Powassan encephalitis -- Ixodes species and Dermacentor
andersoni (both hard ticks) -
vectors for Powassan encephalitis virus, an RNA arbovirus
11. Q fever -- Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Dermacentor andersoni, and
Amblyomma americanum (all
three are hard ticks) -- vectors for Coxiella burnetii, a bacterium
12. African cattle disease -- Rhipicephalus evertsi also known as red
ticks -- vector for parasites
or bacterial infections in cattle
Argasidae (SOFT TICKS)
Argasids take short (a few minutes) but repeated feeds. The bite of
some of these ticks produces intensely painful reactions. Their habitat is
much more limited than that of the ixodids. They live in nests and
houses, in cracks and holes, in close vicinity of their hosts. They feed
primarily at night. Adult females lay approximately 200 eggs after each
blood meal.
Excess water in the blood meal is eliminated partly in the saliva and
partly as coxal fluid (e.g. in Ornithodoros moubata). This coxal fluid is
secreted by specialised glands between the first and second pairs of legs
in the soft tick. Borrelia duttoni can be found in this fluid. When this fluid
is rubbed into the bite wound, an infection can follow.
Some will suck blood from humans if their natural host disappears (e.g.
Argas vespertilionis, a bat tick). Other hosts are hens and ducks. The
adults can survive for months to years without a blood meal. Humans
can be bitten when visiting an abandoned dovecote. The bite is often
painful and the skin will swell and redden.
Ixodidae (HARD TICKS)
Ixodids
Hard ticks (Ixodidae) are dispersed world-wide. There are 13 genera, of
which Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma
and Amblyomma are the most well-known.
Some ticks are so frequent that they have acquired a local name:
Dermacentor variabilis ("American dog tick"), Dermacentor andersoni
("Rocky Mountain wood tick"), Rhipicephalus sanguineus ("brown dog
tick" or “kennel tick”), Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ("brown ear tick").
Rhipicephalus evertsi ("red-legged tick"), Boophilus decoloratus ("blue
tick"), Ixodes ricinus ("European sheep tick" or "castor bean tick"),
Ixodes persulcatus ("taiga tick"), Amblyomma americanum ("Lone star
tick"), Amblyomma hebraeum ("South African bont tick" or “bont-legged
tick”).
Hyalomma truncatum –a vector of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever-
also has a "bont” aspect and is also known as a bont tick. "Bont" refers to
the multicoloured markings with reddish brown and white bands.
c. Family TROMBICULIDAE (chiggers)
There are several species of medical interest. The larvae are known as
harvest mites, red bugs or chiggers. They are annoying pests and certain
species are the vectors of tsutsugamushi disease or scrub typhus.
Chiggers are usually bright red, but may be ornamented with orange, red
or black spots. The body is partly covered with minute hairs, and is
divided into 2 distinct parts, the cephalothorax with the mouth parts and
the 2 anterior pairs of legs, and the longer abdomen with 2 posterior
pairs. The palps have an accessory, finger-like appendage. Though
usually minute, some species attain length of 1.25cm.
d. Family SARCOPTIDAE (itch mites)
The itch and mange mites are of medical and veterinary importance.
These minute, globular, white mites have a finely striated integument
adorned with bristles; 2 widely separated groups of legs; tarsi usually
ending in a stout pair of claws, often in a terminal sucker or hair; and a
prominent capitulum with 3jointed palpi and 2-jointed serrated
chelicerae. The Genus Sarcoptes causes itch or mange by burrowing into
the skin of man and other mammals. It causes scabies in man.
MITES
Mites are related to ticks, scorpions and spiders. In contrast to insects,
they do not have antennae and their body is divided into two rather than
three parts. Larvae have 6 legs and adult animals 8 legs. Mites tend to be
much smaller than ticks.
Some mite larvae belonging to the genus Leptotrombidium transmit
Orientia (Rickettsia) tsutsugamushi (scrub typhus) in Southeast Asia
(transovarial transmission). Transmission of this kind can persist for
several successive arthropod generations. Adult mites are of no direct
medical importance as they feed exclusively on small invertebrates and
insect eggs.
A female lays 1-5 eggs per day on moist ground. After the larvae appear,
they begin to crawl around actively on the ground, grasses, low plants,
etc. Larvae attach themselves to a host when it passes through the
vegetation and seek out a piece of skin that is soft, smooth and not too
thick (peri-anal, groin, ankles).
The very small larvae (150-300 m) inject saliva and suck up the
digested tissues. After 2-10 days the mites fall to the ground and dig
themselves in for further development.
Sarcoptes scabiei
Scabies is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei. Morphologically similar mites
are found on various animals (in dogs Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis) but
do not permanently infect humans. Cat scabies is caused by Notoedres
cati. “Milker’s itch” is caused by Sarcoptes bovis. Sarcoptes equi occurs in
horses and riders can suffer an itchy skin disorder from these mites.
Human scabies is caused by an infestation of the skin by the human itch
mite (Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis). The microscopic scabies mite
burrows into the upper layer of the skin where it lives and lays its eggs.
The most common symptoms of scabies are intense itching, particularly
at night, and a pimple-like skin rash. The scabies mite usually is spread
by direct, prolonged, skin-to-skin contact with a person who has scabies.
A brief handshake with an infected person does not typically transmit
scabies, and only rarely is it contracted by way of contaminated clothing,
towels, or bedding. However, scabies is easily spread within families and
to sexual partners—it is a common STD.
Scabies provokes a papular, pruritic skin rash (hypersensitive to mite
allergens). There will be itching at sites where the mites themselves are
found (e.g. between the fingers, wrists, elbows, genitalia). The rash is
also seen on parts of the body that are not infested by scabies mites.
Buttocks, groin, shoulders, arms, calves and ankles can become itchy.
Treatment
1. Benzyl benzoate, 20-30% (whole body, except the face, is rubbed
twice after washing with soap for 3 days)
2. Lindane lotion (Quellada) = gamma-benzene hexachloride -has been
phased out because of toxicity concerns
This should be repeated after 7 days as the eggs are not killed by only
one application.
3. Pyrethroids (e.g. 5% permethrin (Zalvor)
4. Malathion is best used as a lotion not as shampoo
5. Crotamiton (Eurax) is also sometimes used, but is less effective
6. Oral ivermectin (Mectizan) also produces relatively good results, but
should preferably be repeated after a few weeks. It is the first
choice in Norwegian scabies.
House Dust Mite
Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
-lives predominantly from skin scales and microscopic fungi. It is a very
small mite with a life cycle of 3 weeks. Dead mites and mite faeces (D.
pteronyssinus and D. farinae) are a major cause of allergic problems
such as asthma, allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis.
e. Family DEMODICIDAE (follicle mites)
This relatively small Family contains only one Genus, Demodex. They
are parasites of the sebaceous glands and hair follicles of mammals.
Demodex folliculorum, a parasite of man, has a cosmopolitan
distribution. It is an elongate cylindrical mite with four pairs of short 3-
jointed legs, a short median sucking capitulum, and a long tapering
transversely striated abdomen with rounded tip. The female is 400 by 40
μm, has a long vulva at the base of the abdominal venter. The male rarely
exceeds 300 μm in length and is correspondingly slender.
Hair follicle and sebaceous gland mites
Demodex folliculorum and Demodex brevis mites are very small and live
in hair follicles and sebaceous glands respectively. Infections are
practically almost always asymptomatic, although blepharitis
(inflammation of one or both eyelids) can occur. However, little is as
yet known about these animals. Treatment with oral ivermectin seems
logical in case of symptomatic infection, but more study is needed.
Grain mites
Other problems caused by miscellaneous mites are allergic itchy skin
reactions to the presence of mites (Tyrophagus sp, Pyemotes sp.) found
in all sorts of animal or plant products. Some of them cause occupational
diseases. This should be distinguished from phytodermatitis.
Tarsonemus Mites
f. Family TYROGLYPHIDAE (vanilla mites)
Scabies-like skin lesions caused by Tarsonemus mites rarely occur.
These mites normally eat fungi. The diagnosis is established by
microscopy of skin scales. Treatment is based on topical permethrin.
Allergy to Euroglyphus maynei also occurs.
Cheyletiella Mites
Many mammals have infestations of Cheyletiella mites, such as dogs (C.
yasguri), cats (C. blakei) and rabbits (C. parasitovorax, C. furmani). The
mites are somewhat larger than Sarcoptes and on close examination can
be seen with the naked eye. Young animals exhibit few if any symptoms,
but in humans the mites cause a pruritic dermatosis. Pets must be
treated.
Bird Mites
Birds can be parasitised by various mites such as Dermanyssus gallinae,
D. hirundinis, Ornithonyssus sylviarum and others. Dermanyssus
gallinae is a frequent ectoparasite of birds. This parasite is known as the
red chicken mite and is a serious poultry pest.
Whenever there is a bird’s nest close to a house (under the eaves or
loose tiles, balcony, loft, house birds such as canaries, aviary, etc.), they
can enter a home and suck blood at night. This happens if their natural
host is absent (young birds flying off, old nests).
The bloodsucking causes a violent nocturnal pruritus and papular
erythema, known as bird mite dermatitis or gamasidosis.
The small mites are sometimes found on the mattress. Diagnosis is based
on identification of the mites. As the mites can live for several months
without a blood meal, the house must be treated with insecticides.
Harvest Mites
Mite larvae of the species Neotrombicula autumnalis cause autumnal
erythema (trombiculiasis or trombidiosis). This occurs in people who
visit meadows or woods during the summer or autumn. The mites don’t
carry pathogenic organisms, but cause a short-lasting pruritic dermatitis.
The itching is most pronounced in areas where clothing is tight-fitting.
The animal itself, 200 mm in length, is orange-red and clings to blades of
grass, mostly in areas with a clay or loess soil. They are rarely found on
humans because they are scratched off.
In Southeast Asia and India, the larvae of Leptotrombidium mites
transmit scrub typhus (infection with a Rickettsia-like bacterium:
Orientia tsutsugamushi).
CLASS CHILOPODA (centipedes)
They are terrestrial, elongate with many segments and with a pair of legs
on each segment. Unlike the millipedes, it has a body which is more or
less flattened dorso-ventrally and the basis of the legs are widely
separated. The appendages of the first body segment are modified to
serve as poison claws.
CLASS DIPLOPODA (millipedes or thousand-legged worm)
They are elongate, wormlike animals. The body segment have fused into
pairs so that each segment has two pairs of legs. Millipedes do not bite
man. They are claimed to be intermediate host of H. diminuta.
CLASS PENTASTOMIDA (tongue worms and their allies)
They are mite-like larvae and pass immature stages in an intermediate
host, the adults have elongated bodies which are either flattened
(Linguatula in dogs) or cylindrical (Armillifer in phytons). In Armillifer
the bodies are divided into series if unusually conspicuous rings which
are not true segments. The adults usually live in the lungs or air passages
of their hosts; the larvae live free or encysted in the viscera of some
other hosts.
CLASS HEXAPODA (INSECTA)
This is the largest and the most important class of arthopods. These are
animals with a distinct head, thorax and abdomen. There is a pair of
antennae, and 2 pairs of wings in the thorax. The abdomen has 11
segments while the thorax has 3 segments. They breathe through a
trachea. The different members of this class have different forms of
metamorphosis. The complete type of metamorphosis includes the egg,
larva, pupa and the adult. The incomplete type does not have the pupal
stage.
It includes the following:
a. Order Orthoptera (cockroaches)
b. Order Hemiptera (bugs)
c. Order Anoplura (lice)
d. Order Siphonaptera (fleas)
e. Order Diptera (mosquitoes and flies)
f. Order Collembola (springtail)
g. Order Ephemeria (mayflies)
h. Order Tricoptera (caddis flies)
i. Order Mallophaga (bird lice or biting lice)
j. Order Coleoptera (beetles)
k. Order Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)
l. Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps)
m. Order Odonata (dragonflies)
Order HEMIPTERA (bugs)
They have 2 pairs of wings with the outer wing being thickened. Some
members are wingless (bedbugs). The body is compressed dorso-
ventrally while the mouth parts are designed for sucking and piercing.
The important species is Cimex lectularius or the common bedbug
which transmits typhus fever. There is also the Reduvid bug or the
Triatomid bug which transmits Chaga’s disease.
BED BUGS
Bed bugs, a problem worldwide, are resurging, causing property loss,
expense, and inconvenience. The good news is that bed bugs do not
transmit disease. The best way to prevent bed bugs is regular inspection
for signs of an infestation.
There are two main species of bed bugs: Cimex lectularius (the
common bed bug which occurs world-wide) and Cimex hemipterus
(the tropical bed bug). In West Africa, Leptocimex bouetti attacks man.
Bed bugs are insects (4-7 mm) with rudimentary, non-functional wings.
This limits their capacity for dispersion.
Order ORTHOPTERA
This includes grasshoppers, locusts, crickets and cockroaches. These
large terrestrial insects have biting mouth parts, narrow hardened
forewings, membranous hind legs for running and jumping and often
stridulent and auditory organs. The cockroaches which belongs to the
Family Blattidae are important household pests and may be mechanical
vectors of pathogenic organism. Some workers place the cockroaches in
a separate Order, Blattaria, but others consider that they belong under
Orthoptera.
Order ANOPLURA (sucking lice)
They are also wingless and the body is compressed dorso-ventrally. The
mouthpart is for piercing and sucking. The important species in this
Order are the Pediculus humanus capitis of the head louse. Pediculus
humanus corporis or the body louse and the Phthirus pubis or the
crab or pubic louse.
LICE
Lice (sing. louse) have parasitised humans since ancient times. They
have been found on Egyptian and pre-Columbian mummies and even on
bodies dug up in Pompei. The Order of lice (Phthiraptera) is divided
taxonomically into sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice
(Mallophaga), but there are alternative taxonomic classifications.
Anoplura only parasitise mammals.
Polyplax spinulosa (Anoplura) is the sucking louse of rats and acts as an
occasional vector of murine typhus. Only a single species of Mallophaga
(Trichodectes canis) is known to have medical significance. T. canis is
the chewing louse of dogs and acts as one of the larval hosts of the dog
tapeworm Dipylidium caninum. This insect cannot live on man.
Human lice survive by feeding on human blood. Lice found on each area
of the body are different from each other. The three types of lice that
live on humans are:
•Pediculus humanus capitis (head louse),
•Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse, clothes louse), and
•Pthirus pubis ("crab" louse, pubic louse).
Body and head lice (Pediculus humanus corporis and P. h. capitis)
are two very closely related species (morphologically almost identical),
but which occupy different ecological niches. The body louse P. humanus
corporis lives in clothing and only comes onto the body to suck blood for
a short time. The head louse P. h. capitis by contrast lives on the scalp
and never on the clothing.
The most reliable morphological distinction between the two species is
the tibial length of the middle (second) leg. The tibial length averages 0,3
mm in P.h. capitis and 0,4 mm in the larger P. h. corporis
Pediculus humanus capitis (head louse)
  commonly found in preschoolers and elementary school aged
children
 transmitted from one person to the next by direct contact, head
to head, or head to hat to head
 live in the hair on the head (not facial hair) and neck and attach
their eggs to the base of the hair shaft, and live nowhere else.
 The human head louse (singular) is 1 to 2 mm in length—about
the size of a sesame seed (some 2.1-3.3 mm in length). Its sharp
claws are used to grasp hair and skin.
 Eggs are cemented to hairs on the head and not on clothing
 It takes roughly 21 days for the entire life cycle from egg to egg
 They also have very specific temperature requirements and will
die if the temperature drops too low.
Treatment
Infestation with lice is treated with insecticides, but head lice are
becoming more and more resistant. Lotions are better than shampoos as
they have a longer contact time with the hair. For asthmatic patients,
aqueous solutions are less irritant than alcoholic. If an alcoholic solution
is used, it is best to allow the hair to dry naturally.
Mechanical measures are rarely necessary, such as cutting the hair short.
The wet comb method involves washing the hair thoroughly with a
neutral shampoo, then applying hair conditioner to make the hair as
smooth as possible. A fine louse comb is then used to go through the
hair, as near to the scalp as possible, from back to front. After each
stroke, the comb is wiped carefully. Subsequently apply conditioner
again and comb the hair from front to back. Oral ivermectin can be used
in multiresistant lice.
Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse)
 "cooties".
 Body lice lay their eggs in clothing, cementing them to fibers.
Adult and immature lice take shelter in the seams and folds of
clothing worn for long periods, moving onto the host only to
feed. Lice avoid light.
 The life cycle is 9-10 days from egg to adult, unless clothing is
removed at night, in which case complete development might
take 2-4 weeks. are known to transmit epidemic and relapsing
typhus in some parts of the world.
 Fertilised females lay 6-9 eggs per day during their life.
 They live usually for 1 month, maximum 2.
 The animals are very sensitive to cold. The females attach the
sticky eggs to underwear, shirt and trousers. Eggs on clothing
cannot survive for more than 4 weeks (usually only 2 weeks).
 The eggs hatch after 6-9 days. Once hatched, the larvae suck
blood five times a day, rapidly returning to the clothing after
each meal.
Treatment
Improved hygiene and access to regular changes of clean clothes is the
only treatment needed for body lice infestations. The insects on clothing
are destroyed by heat. Clothing is washed at 70C, steam ironed or
sterilised. In emergency situations (epidemic), insecticides are sprinkled
(e.g. mixed with talc) between skin and clothing.
Pthirus pubis (pubic louse)
Crab or pubic lice (Pthirus pubis) do not themselves transmit disease.
[The name Phthirus pubis is also used, but in 1987 the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature decided to keep the original
spelling of Pthirus pubis]. They occur on areas of the body with coarse
hair (pubic region, peri-anally, sometimes also on legs, eyelashes,
moustache, beard and even armpits and chest).
Sometimes they are present on the scalp, including in neonates. Sexual
contact is the main method of transmission, but not the only one (e.g.
shared clothing). Any transmission involves bodily contact. They cannot
live for more than 24-48 hours away from the host. Condoms do not
prevent the spread of pubic lice.
Occasionally, nonsexual transmission of pubic lice is also possible. Pubic
lice may be spread by close personal contact or contact with articles
such as clothing, bed linens, or towels that have been used by an infested
person.
Young children can get crab lice of the eyelashes from contact with an
individual affected by pubic.
A common misunderstanding is that pubic lice are spread easily by
sitting on a toilet seat. This would be extremely rare because lice cannot
live long away from a warm human body and they do not have feet
designed to hold onto or walk on smooth surfaces such as toilet seats.
Signs and symptoms of pubic lice include:
1. Itching in the genital area
2. Visible nits (lice eggs) or crawling lice
Pubic lice may be difficult to find because there may be only a few. Pubic
lice often attach themselves to more than one hair and generally do not
crawl as quickly as head and body lice. Although pubic lice and nits can
be large enough to be seen with the naked eye, a magnifying lens may be
necessary to find lice or eggs.
Persons infested with pubic lice should be investigated for the presence
of other sexually transmitted diseases.
Treatment
A lice-killing lotion containing 1% permethrin or a mousse containing
pyrethrins and piperonyl butoxide can be used to treat pubic ("crab")
lice. These products are available over-the-counter without a
prescription at a local drug store or pharmacy. These medications are
safe and effective when used exactly according to the instructions in the
package or on the label.
Following treatment, most nits will still be attached to hair shafts. Nits
may be removed with fingernails or by using a fine-toothed comb.
Put on clean underwear and clothing after treatment. To kill any lice or
nits remaining on clothing, towels, or bedding, machine-wash and
machine-dry those items that the infested person used during the 2-3
days before treatment. Use hot water (at least 130°F) and the hot dryer
cycle.
All sex partners from within the previous month should be informed that
they are at risk for infestation and should be treated.
Persons should avoid sexual contact with their sex partner(s) until both
they and their partners have been successfully treated and reevaluated
to rule out persistent infestation.
Order SIPHONAPTERA (fleas)
They are wingless with the body compressed laterally. The hind legs are
long and are adapted for jumping. The mouthparts are for piercing and
sucking. They are usually bloodsuckers. The life cycle includes egg, larva,
pupa and adult.
FLEAS
Fleas are cosmopolitan, wingless insects. They are obligate blood-
sucking ectoparasites. They are not strictly adapted to a specific host and
on occasions can bite unusual hosts, including humans. Although feeding
on less than ideal hosts keeps the fleas alive, it reduces their fertility.
The most important jumping fleas are Pulex irritans (the human flea),
Ctenocephalides species (cat and dog fleas), Xenopsylla cheopis (Oriental
rat flea) and Tunga penetrans (sand flea).
In their identification, the presence or absence of a so-called comb on the
underside of the head and on the pronotum (first part of the thorax) is
important. A comb (ctenidium) is a group of stiff, thick hairs or setae. In
addition, in some species a transverse bar is found in the mesosternum
(also used in identification).
Adult fleas live 6-12 and sometimes even 24 months. Adult fleas may live
from 2 months to 1 year without feeding, but newly emerged adult fleas
only live about 1 week if a blood meal is not obtained.
Fertilised adult females lay 3-18 eggs per day. After 2-14 days,
depending on moisture and temperature, the eggs hatch to give very
active legless larvae. Under favourable conditions, the larvae will pupate
and emerge as adult insects
The cocoon is spun from sticky silk, so that a wide variety of substances
become attached and provide camouflage. These pupae are therefore
very difficult to detect. The pupa stage usually lasts 1 to 2 weeks.
Sometimes the adult insect remains in the cocoon for a long time (up to 1
year).
Fleas can jump 20 cm in height and 30 cm in distance. Bites are
associated with the injection of saliva and cause a local pruritic skin
irritation, principally on the legs. At night bites can occur over the whole
body while people are lying down.
More important is the fact that those insects may be infected with the
bacteria causing plague or endemic typhus (Rickettsia mooseri = R.
typhi; R. felis). Other organisms can occasionally be transmitted. Various
sorts of minor tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum, Hymenolepis diminuta
and possibly H. nana) can also be transmitted by fleas.
Simple hygiene is often sufficient to keep a house free of fleas.
Insecticide resistance is increasing, including resistance to DDT.
Organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids are used. Pets can be
washed with a shampoo with e.g. malathion or can wear a flea collar, i.e.
a collar impregnated with dichlorvos. The latter provides a prolonged
local vapour effect in the animal’s fur.
It should however be noted that most fleas are not present on the host,
but in the bedding, on the ground, etc. For a cat with 25 fleas in its fur,
there are some 500 adult insects, 500 cocoons, 3000 larvae and 1000
eggs present on the ground. Flea control should therefore also be
directed towards the whole environment, not just the animal. Cocoons
are relatively resistant to insecticides.
Tunga penetrans
(SAND FLEA / JIGGER FLEA)
Tungiasis is a superficial infection of the skin by the sand flea Tunga
penetrans (jigger flea; do not confuse with chigger, which are
trombiculid mites).
With a length of less than 1 mm, it is the smallest known flea species.
Both sexes live on sandy ground and bite birds and mammals,
particularly pigs. Newly hatched insects are very active and the larvae
jump around on the ground. When the adult stage is reached after
moulting, copulation occurs. The male dies after mating.
The insects are a poor jumpers. The fertilised female bores into the
epidermis and penetrates deep into the stratum corneum. The soles of
the feet, the interdigital spaces and the skin under the nails are
particularly affected. Any other part of the body that comes into contact
with the ground can be infected (buttocks in beggars, children and
lepers).
The insect bores mechanically into the stratum corneum with the head
innermost and bites onto the dermal papillae. The abdomen of the
female swells as a result of the maturation of the approximately 200
eggs. After ten days the flea on average measures 1 cm in diameter. The
hindmost abdominal segments are not distended and protrude out as a
black central spot, through which excreta and eggs are released to the
outside.
After the eggs have been expelled the flea dies. The hole fills with fibrin
and pus and is gradually re-epidermalised. After 3-4 days larvae emerge
on the ground and pupate after approximately a week. The complete
cycle takes 2-3 weeks.
There is local pruritus and vague pain. In the beginning only a central
black dot is visible. Later the lesion is raised, semi-transparent with a
central dark spot and an erythematous halo. The number of parasites
usually remains limited. However, severe infestations with hundreds of
sand fleas are found for example in leprosy patients, cachectic patients,
alcoholics, in cases of advanced sleeping disease, in mental diseased and
handicapped people or in confined communities.
T. penetrans releases proteolytic enzymes during penetration of the
skin, causing an inflammatory response. Superinfection occurs during or
after the primary infection, but particularly as a consequence of clumsy
manipulation to remove the flea, as a result of which it breaks and parts
of it remain deeply lodged. Lymphangitis can result, as well as
septicaemia and gas gangrene with a fatal outcome. Tetanus is a feared
complication.
For treatment, the central opening in the stratum corneum is widened
with a clean metal needle. The flea is removed and the remaining hole is
disinfected. Prevention consists of wearing well-fitting shoes instead of
walking bare-foot or with wide open sandals. Socks that are left lying on
the floor are to be avoided. Regular cleaning of floors using lots of water
is strongly advised, together with removal of pigs from the vicinity of
houses. Affected areas of soil may be burned off. Ointment with cresol or
lysol protects the feet.
MYIASIS
Myiasis is infection with the larval stage (maggots) of various flies.
During this period, the larvae feed on live or dead tissues. Depending on
the life cycle of the insect, myiasis is obligatory or facultative.
Flies in several genera may cause myiasis in humans.
1. Dermatobia hominis is the primary human bot fly
2. Cochliomyia hominivorax is the primary screwworm fly in the New
World
3. Chrysoma bezziana is the Old World screwworm
4.Cordylobia anthropophaga is known as the tumbu fly
5. Flies in the genera Cuterebra, Oestrus and Wohlfahrtia are animal
parasites that also occasionally infect humans
Specific Myiasis:
Caused by flies that require a host for larval development
Semispecific Myiasis:
Caused by flies that usually lay their eggs in decaying animal or
vegetable matter, but that can develop in a host if open wounds or sores
are present
Flesh flies, or sarcophagids, can cause intestinal myiasis in humans if the
females lay their eggs on meat or fruit
Accidental Myiasis (also called “pseudomyiasis”):
Caused by flies that have no preference or need to develop in a host but
that will do so on rare occasions. Transmission occurs through
accidental deposit of eggs on oral or genitourinary openings, or by
swallowing eggs or larvae that are on food.
Geographic Distribution:
1. Dermatobia hominis and C. hominivorax are Neotropical species,
ranging from Mexico into South America
2. The Congo floor maggot (Auchmeromyia luteola) and Cordylobia
anthropophaga are distributed in Africa south of the Sahara
3. Wohlfahrtia magnifica occurs in the Mediterranean basin, Near East,
and Central and Eastern Europe
4. Wohlfahrtia vigil occurs in northern United States and Canada
5. Cuterebra species are found in the New World
6. Oestrus ovis is found throughout the world in areas where sheep are
tended
Life Cycle:
Adults of Dermatobia hominis are free-living flies. Adults capture blood
sucking arthropods (such as mosquitoes) and lay eggs on their bodies,
using a glue-like substance for adherence. Bot fly larvae develop within
the eggs, but remain on the vector until it takes a blood meal from a
mammalian or avian host. Newly-emerged bot fly larvae then penetrate
the host's tissue.
The larvae feed in a subdermal cavity for 5-10 weeks, breathing through
a hole in the host's skin. Mature larvae drop to the ground and pupate in
the environment. Larvae tend to leave their host during the night and
early morning, probably to avoid desiccation. After approximately one
month, the adults emerge to mate and repeat the cycle.
Other genera of myiasis-causing flies (including Cochliomyia, Cuterebra,
and Wohlfahrtia) have a more direct life cycle, where the adult flies lay
their eggs directly in, or in the vicinity of, wounds on the host. In
Cochliomyia and Wohlfahrtia infestations, larvae feed in the host for
about a week, and may migrate from the subdermis to other tissues in
the body, often causing extreme damage in the process.
Clinical Features:
Infestations with D. hominis are often characterized by cutaneous
swellings on the body or scalp that may produce discharges and be
painful. Death is rare, but there have been instances of cerebral myiasis
in children where larvae enter the brain.
Infestations with C. hominivorax, which causes wound myiasis, can be
more serious, as this species may travel through living tissue in the body
and not stay subdermal like most of the other species of flies that cause
myiasis. Death has occurred with severe infestations of C. hominivorax.
Secondary bacterial infections may also occur.
Oestrus ovis has been known to cause a condition called
ophthalmomyiasis,which is infection of the eye with fly larvae. Flies in
the genera Phormia and Phaenicia cause facultative myiasis, where adult
flies lay their eggs in pre-existing, festering wounds and do not invade
healthy, living tissue.
Symptoms:
Cutaneous Myiasis: Painful, slow-developing ulcers or furuncle- (boil-)
like sores that can last for a prolonged period.
Nasal Myiasis: Obstruction of nasal passages and severe irritation. In
some cases facial edema and fever can develop. Death is not uncommon.
Aural Myiasis (in the ear): Crawling sensations and buzzing noises.
Smelly discharge is sometimes present. If located in the middle ear,
larvae may get to the brain.
Oral Myiasis (in the mouth): gum bleeding and discomfort in chewing;
general symptoms including fever and malaise were present
Ophthalmomyiasis (in the eye): Fairly common, this causes severe
irritation, edema, and pain. There could be blindness due to invasion of
the optic nerve.
Nosocomial Myiasis: This is not a specific type of myiasis but rather
refers to myiasis in a hospital setting. Unfortunately it is quite frequent,
as patients with open wounds or sores can be infested if flies are
present. To prevent nosocomial myiasis, hospital rooms must be kept
free of flies.
when flies lay their eggs in decaying tissue or in malodorous open
wounds or orifices, including the nasopharynx and eye structures
Laboratory Diagnosis:
The diagnosis of myiasis is made by the finding of fly larvae in tissue.
Identification to the genus or species level involves comparing certain
morphological structures on the larvae, including the anterior and
posterior spiracles, mouthparts and cephalopharyngeal skeleton, and
cuticular spines. Travel history can also be helpful for genus or species-
level identification.
Treatment:
Treatment is usually limited to the physical removal of the larvae from
tissue. Occasionally in heavy infestations of C. hominovorax, surgery may
be necessary if the larvae have migrated beyond the subdermal tissue.
Antibiotic treatment of secondary bacterial infections may be necessary.
Myiasis
In obligatory myiasis, the larvae have to spend part of their life cycle on
a living host. Examples are Cordylobia anthropophaga, Dermatobia
hominis, Cochliomyia hominivorax, Chrysomyia bezziana and
Wohlfahrtia spp.
In facultative myiasis, the larvae are normally free-living, often on
corpses, rotting meat, etc., but are sometimes found on living hosts (e.g.
Calliphora, Lucilia, Phormia and Sarcophaga sp.) They can infect wounds
and superficial ulcers.
Sterile cultured live larvae that feed on dead tissue are sometimes used
therapeutically for debridement of persistent wounds, including
diabetes wounds.
In forensic medicine, the time of death can be estimated by the species of
insect maggot found at the time of a body’s discovery. Clinically, a
distinction is drawn between cutaneous, urogenital, nasopharyngeal,
ophthalmic and intestinal myiasis. Obligatory intestinal myiasis occurs
only in animals, not in humans.
Blood sucking: the free-living Congo floor maggot, Auchmeromyia
senegalensis.
Surface wound myiasis: Lucilia cuprina and L. sericata, Phormia,
Calliphora, Musca and Fannia sp.
Peri-anal and perivaginal: Wohlfahrtia spp.
Shallow subcutaneous lesions: the African Cordylobia anthropophaga
and the American Dermatobia hominis.
Deeper subcutaneous lesions with tunnelling occurs with Hypoderma,
Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis, G. intestinalis and G. nasalis.
Body cavity myiasis (eye, nose): Chrysomyia bezziana, Cochliomyia
hominivorax, Oestrus ovis, Rhinoestrus purpureus. Very severe
mutilations may be the result of such infestations.
Insufficient details are known about some parasites: Alouattamyia baeri
(a parasite of howling monkeys), Pharyngomyia picta (a larva was once
found in the conjunctiva), Megaselia scalaris.
Dermatobia hominis
(HUMAN BOTFLY)
Dermatobia hominis (ver macaque) occurs in scrubland and woody
lowland regions of Latin America. This large (15 mm) blue-grey fly has a
remarkable life cycle. During their short life (8-9 days) adult females
seize various bloodsucking insects. They then attach 6-30 eggs to the
body of these arthropods, which include Psorophora mosquitoes and
stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans).
Cattle flies (Haematobia irritans and H. exigua) can also act as transport
hosts. In some cattle breeding districts they constitute a real plague. The
larva of Dermatobia hominis develops in the egg. When the transport
insect sucks blood, the larva feels the higher temperature and breaks out
of the egg and drops onto the skin or fur.
Subsequently the Dermatobia larva penetrates the skin relatively
rapidly. The larvae cause rather large cutaneous lesions, often painful
and pruritic, few in number and frequently solitary and localised on the
head. Development is slow, up to 12 weeks, and sometimes as much as
18 weeks.
Frequently, the larvae have to be removed surgically (the final size of the
larvae is 18-25 mm). A non-invasive technique of removing larvae is
based on topical application vaseline to cut of their oxygen supply. This
does not work very well.
One can also use fresh bacon. The white part of the raw bacon is laid on
the wound for some hours until the larva has attached itself. The bacon
should then be lifted up and the larva can be grasped and removed with
a rapid movement.
Prevention of Dermatobia hominis infections is difficult. The transport
host Haematobia irritans ("horn fly") principally bites cattle and can be
successfully combated by "ear tags" containing a PVC matrix with
pyrethroids. They can also bite humans.
When these insects form a local plague, they can be controlled in a "low-
tech" fashion since Haematobia irritans and H. exigua obligatorily lay
their eggs on fresh cow dung. When this is broken up mechanically, the
larvae die. A shepherd with a rake can diminish a local plague and limit
the exposure of humans and animals.
Cordylobia anthropophaga
(TUMBU FLY, VER DE CAYOR)
Cordylobia anthropophaga (tumbu fly, ver de Cayor) is a thick, brown fly
limited to tropical Africa. The larvae are obligate parasites, among others
of dogs and humans. The female lays her 100-300 eggs on shaded,
polluted ground or on dirty or inadequately washed linen with some
traces of sweat or urine still on it, laid out on the ground in the shade to
dry. The females never lay their eggs on clothing that has been hung up
in direct sunlight and also never directly on the skin.
The larvae that emerge from the eggs penetrate the epidermis as far as
the subcutaneous fatty tissue and develop there for 8 to 12 days. They
then crawl out of the skin and fall to the ground where they undergo
pupation in 24 hours. The pupae develop into adult flies in 10 to 20 days.
The larvae rapidly penetrate the skin without causing any pain. In the
first few days, an itchy, painful papule appears which develops over the
course of a week into a painful furuncle in the centre of which two black
dots (respiratory canals) are visible. The lesions may be few or
numerous.
The larvae can be pressed out of the skin if their respiration is prevented
by coating the lesion with vaseline. One way to avoid infection is to iron
bed linen and clothes on both sides. Dogs are often infected. Cordylobia
rodhaini normally lives as a larva in rodents and antelopes. Humans are
accidental hosts.
Oestrus ovis
(SHEEP NOSE BOTFLY)
The sheep nose botfly, Oestrus ovis, is a cosmopolitan parasite that, in its
larval stages, inhabits the nasal passages and sinuses of sheep and goats.
It also has been seen in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and European
ibex (Capra ibex) and in uncharacteristic hosts such as humans and dogs.
While its incidence in some northern European countries has decreased
in recent years, it continues to be one of the most widely distributed
sheep parasites in South Africa, Brazil, and countries in the
Mediterranean basin.
There have been widespread reports of human infestation most
commonly on shepherds living in close proximity to the sheep but there
are records of hapless visitors being subject to infestation and carrying
the parasites home to their native country. The effects can usually be
treated easily with medical attention or medication.
Auchmeromyia senegalensis
(CONGO FLOOR MAGGOT)
The eggs of Auchmeromyia senegalensis (Congo floor maggot) are laid
on the dry earthen or sandy floor of huts. The larvae do not constantly
remain on the host. They emerge at night from cracks and crevices and
suck blood from sleeping people before crawling back again. Larvae
cannot climb and sleeping on beds prevents these parasites from taking
a blood meal.
SCREW WORMS
Cochliomyia hominivorax
(NEW WORLD SCREW WORM)
Cochliomyia hominivorax ("New World screw worm"; syn. Callitroga
hominivorax) is a fly that occurs in Latin America and the Caribbean. It
belongs to the Calliphoridae ("blow flies") and was first described in
1858 by Dr Coquerel, a French army doctor in Cayenne, French Guyana.
The name "screw worm" refers to the somewhat screw-like appearance
of the larvae. They have mouth hooks in order to attach themselves
firmly. The larvae enlarge the initial wound, as a result of which other
flies are attracted. The larvae feed for 5-10 days and become 20 to 25
mm long. After they leave the wound, they fall to the ground, dig
themselves in and pupate. After a lapse of one to nine weeks, the adult
insects emerge.
The insect lays its eggs on all types of wounds. The larvae bore deep in
the tissues with serious consequences, such as mutilation or even death.
Although the species name translates as "man eater", the insect
preferentially plagues cattle. All warm-blooded animals can act as hosts,
but infections in birds are exceptional.
The adult fly is approximately twice as large as the house fly. The eyes
and body are blue-green and there are three dark stripes on the back.
After fertilisation (a "once in-a-lifetime event") a female can lay batches
of up to 300 eggs in a wound. During her life (on average a month) she
can lay up to 2800 eggs. Approximately 12 hours after the eggs are laid,
the larvae emerge and feed on the host’s tissues.
At first, it is difficult to be certain whether there are larvae in a wound
since they lie deeply and often perpendicular to the skin surface.
Treatment consists of the mechanical removal of the intact larvae,
standard wound care and tetanus prophylaxis. Antibiotics are usually
necessary to combat superinfection.
Chrysomyia bezziana
(OLD WORLD SCREW WORM)
Chrysomyia bezziana ("Old World screw worm") strongly resembles
Cochliomyia hominivorax, but does not lay its eggs on wounds. When
larvae invade natural openings (vagina, nose, eyes, mouth), they can
cause very painful and serious lesions. The larvae complete their
development in humans in 5-6 days, after which they crawl out of the
tissues and fall to the ground to pupate.
METALLIC FLIES
Lucilia and Calliphora
Adult Lucilia ("greenbottles) and Calliphora species ("bluebottles")
have a green resp. blue metallic sheen. A synonym of Lucilia sericata is
Phaenicia sericata. Of the bluebottles, Calliphora vomitoria and
Calliphora vivina are best known. These flies occur world-wide.
They normally lay their eggs on meat, fish, corpses and all types of
rotting material, but sometimes also on purulent wounds and excreta.
The presence of larvae usually does not lead to serious consequences,
since they feed on pus and debris. They were even used to clean wounds.
Their unhygienic habits, however, can give rise to the mechanical
transport of pathogens.
Maggot Therapy
Maggots cleaning wound. Maggots are used to eat away dead and dying
flesh and leave the healthy areas. The maggots clean the wound far more
efficiently than is possible with drugs or other methods. These maggots
are antiseptic, and keep the area free of bacteria. Only the maggots of the
fly Lucilia sericata are used, and they are bred for this purpose in sterile
conditions
Sarcophaga spp.
Sarcophaga sp. are large, hairy, non-metallic-coloured, grey flies.
Sarcophaga carnaria and Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis are the most well-
known species. Larvae are sometimes laid on wounds. They cause little
damage as they feed only on necrotic tissue. When meat contaminated
with live Sarcophaga larvae is eaten, this can cause accidental intestinal
myiasis (larvae are excreted with the faeces).
Hypoderma spp. & Gastrophilus spp.
These species are specialised endoparasites of various animals. When
they infect humans, they cause a condition similar to a deep larva
cutanea migrans. Removal is performed surgically. Hypoderma species
(cattle grub fly; warble fly) such as H. bovis, H. diana, H. lineatum and H.
tarandi can occasionally cause deep, visceral lesions.
Cuterebra
(RODENT OR RABBIT BOTFLY)
The Cuterebra fly is a large non-biting fly that looks like a bee and lays
its eggs on rocks or vegetation located near the openings of rabbit or
rodent burrows. The rabbit or wild rodent are the normal hosts, and can
pick up these eggs on their coats and ingest them during grooming.
Cats and dogs may also be exposed in this manner by contacting the eggs
as they pass near rabbit or rodent burrows in their environment. Eggs
hatch once they are exposed to the warm body temperatures of their cat
or dog hosts. The newly hatched larvae invade the host body often
through the mouth, nasal passages, or an external wound.
The larva migrates to an area under the skin of the pet, typically on the
head, neck, or trunk. A cyst or thick capsule is created under the skin as
the larva grows; a circular breathing hole may appear as an open wound
with matted hair. There is often fluid drainage from the opening and the
animal, especially the cat, will groom the area excessively.
Humans can be infested with Cuterebra larvae but not from their pets.
They become exposed to the larvae in the same manner as their pet by
contacting soil or mulch that is found near rabbit or rodent burrows.
Wounds created by larvae under the skin do occur rarely in people and
these follow the same path as infestations in cats and dogs. These are
considered “accidental” infestations as they are caused by cuterebra that
target wild animals for their hosts. There is one specific Cuterebra fly
that does target humans as their host, but it is only found in South
America.
Stinging Flies
Tabanids
Stinging flies that belong to the tabanids (Haematopota, Chrysops,
Tabanus) can be mechanical vectors for anthrax and tularaemia (“rabbit
fever”). This last infectious disease is caused by Francisella tularensis.