Aoki 1970 Nez Perce Grammar PDF

Nez Perce
Grammar
By Haruo Aoki
Universi ty o f C a l i f o r n i a P ub li ca ti ons
Linguistics 62
NEZ PERCE GRAMMAR
BY
H ARU O A OKI
U N IV E R S IT Y O F C A L IF O R N IA P R E S S
B E R K E L E Y • LOS A N G E L E S • LO N D O N
1970
PREFACE
T im e is running sh ort fo r the N ez P e r c e lan g u ag e. O f the 2 ,0 9 7 tr ib a l m e m

b e r s (includin g fu ll- to q u a rte r-b lo o d m e m b e rs) in 1968, only a s m a ll fra c tio n
have a prod uctive know ledge of the lan gu age. The num ber d e c r e a s e s with
frighten in g r e g u la r ity . I p resen t this w ork in this fo rm at th is tim e in the
hope that som e of us m ay be a b le to u se this a s a point o f d ep a rtu re in fu r th e r
ing m ore w o rk s in Sahaptian lin g u is t ic s . In te r m s o f recen t th e o re tic a l a d
v an ce s this w ork i s an a n a ly s is of the " s u r fa c e s tr u c tu r e ” of the N ez P e r c e
lan guage. In the view of som e w o rk e rs such an a n a ly s is is a n e c e s s a r y p r e
lim in a ry to any one of a v a r ie ty of p o ss ib le re s ta te m e n ts. I have attem pted
(to quote T e e te r , who put it so aptly) "to fa c ilita te the ta sk o f w o u ld-be r e
s ta te r s , ra th e r than try to w ork out an 'a ir -tig h t' d e sc rip tio n w hich would
turn out to be w e ll-v e n te d , a s is too freq u en tly the c a s e in such m a tte r s .” ^
The p re sen t w ork is o ffered a ls o in the hope that it m ight con tribute to the
g e n e ra l d is c u s s io n of th e o re tic a l points beyond the Sah aptian a rea .^
The fie ld w ork fo r this d e sc rip tio n w as done during the su m m e rs of 1960-
1962 at K o o s k ia and K a m ia h , Idaho, under the a u s p ic e s of the S u rv ey of C a l i
fo rn ia Indian L a n g u a g e s , D ep artm en t of L in g u is t ic s , U n iv e rsity of C a lifo r n ia ,
B e r k e le y , with the coo p eration of the Idaho State H is to r ic a l S o c iety .
M y thanks go to m y t e a c h e r s , W illia m F . Sh ip ley , M a r y R . H a a s , and
M u rra y B . E m en ea u , for their a s s is t a n c e in too m any w ays to m ention.
M y thanks a ls o go to Sven L ilje b la d for m aking a v a ila b le a v alu ab le tape
of M r s . A g n e s M o s e s , who w as one of the la s t m on olin gual s p e a k e r s of this
language and had died b e fo re I re a c h e d the fie ld ; to M r . H. J . Sw inney, D i r e c
tor of the Idaho State H is t o r ic a l S o c iety , D r . M e r le W . W e lls , H is to r ia n and
A r c h iv is t of the sam e S o ciety , M r . M a r c u s J . W a re of L e w isto n , M r . and
M r s . S am u el Swayne of O ro fin o , M r . W illia m Joh n ston and M r . L a d d H a m il
ton of the L e w isto n T rib u n e fo r th eir kind a ssistan ce,- and fin a lly , to m y
te a c h e rs of the lan gu age, e s p e c ia lly to M r . and M r s . H a r r y W h eeler and
^Karl V. T eeter, The Wiyot Language, University of C aliforn ia Publications in

L in g u istics, vol. 37, p. 2 (1964).
note on a phase of Nez P erce (Aoki, 1966) invited some comments on its theo
re tica l im plications (Chom sky and H alle, 1968; Jacobsen 1968; Kip arsky M S; Rigsby
and Silverstein, 1969).
[ V ]
vi P reface
M r s . E liz a b e th P . W ilso n , w hose w a rm h o sp ita lity and rew ard in g fr ie n d

ship w ill never be forgotten .
W hile I am indebted to m any in th is study, the fin a l re s p o n s ib ility for
any e r r o r s or in c o n siste n c ie s i s m ine alo n e.
CONTENTS
S ym b o ls and A b b r e v ia tio n s .......................................................................................................xi
I. I n t r o d u c t io n ........................................................................................................................... 1
I l l u s t r a t i o n s ........................................................................................................................... 9
II. Phonology
100. P h o n e m i c s ................................................................................................................ 10
110. C o n s o n a n t s ...................................................................................................11
120. V o w e l s .............................................................................................................18
130. S u p r a s e g m e n t a l s .....................................................................................20
140. P h o n o t a c t i c s ............................................................................................... 21
141. S y lla b le c a n o n ............................................................................... 2 1
142. P re ju n c tu ra l con sonan ts and c l u s t e r s .............................. 21
143. In te rv o c a lic consonants and c l u s t e r s ................................26
200. M o rp h o p h o n e m ic s..................................................................................................39
210. G ro u p 1 ......................................................................................................... 39
220. G ro u p 2 .......................................................................................................... 42
230. M orphophonem ic s e q u e n c e s .............................................................42
300. Conson an t and vow el s y m b o l i s m .................................................................. 43
III. M o rph ology

400. In tro d u ctio n ................................................................................................................45
500. S u b s t a n t i v e s ............................................................................................................ 45
510. Substantive s t e m s .....................................................................................45
511. G e n e ra l noun s t e m s ................................................................. 45
512. N u m e ra l s t e m s ........................................................................... 49
513. K in sh ip te rm s t e m s ................................................................. 50
514. P e r s o n a l pronoun s t e m s .......................................................54
515. D e m o n stra tiv e s t e m s ..............................................................54
516. A d je c tiv e s t e m s ........................................................................... 55
520. Substantive t h e m e s ................................................................................. 55
521. T h e m a tic a ffix c l a s s e s ...........................................................56
5 2 1 .1 . T h e m atic p re fix c l a s s e s ........................................57
5 2 1 .2 . T h em atic suffix c l a s s e s ........................................ 58
[ v ii ]
v iii Contents
522. T h e m a tic c o n s t r u c t io n s ............................................................. 60

523. D e v e rb a tiv e t h e m e s ....................................................................65
5 2 3 .1 . D e v e rb a tiv e th em es with su bstan tiv e
a f f i x e s ...................................................................................65
5 2 3 .2 . D e v e rb a tiv e th em es with s p e c ia l
d eriv atio n al a f f i x e s ....................................................65
530. Substantive i n f l e c t i o n ............................................................................ 71
531. n i m ......................................................................................................... 72
532. O b j e c t i v e ........................................................................................... 74
533. L o c a t i v e ............................................................................................... 75
534. ...................................................................................................... 77
535. V o c a t i v e ............................................................................................... 79
536. Substantive c o n s t r u c t io n s ..........................................................79
600. V e r b s ..............................................................................................................................80
610. V erb s t e m s ..................................................................................................... 80
611. G e n e ra l v erb s t e m s ....................................................................81
612. C o p u lativ e v erb s t e m s ................................................................ 89
620. V erb t h e m e s ................................................................................................. 89
621. T h e m a tic a ffix c l a s s e s ................................................................ 90
622. C o n stru ctio n of v erb t h e m e s ........................................... 103
6 2 2 .1 . G e n e ra l v e rb th e m e s .............................................103
6 2 2 .2 . C op u lativ e v e rb t h e m e s ......................................105
630. V erb in fle c t io n .......................................................................................105
631. Su bject and o b ject p r e f i x e s ...............................................105
632. £e- ................................................................................................... 107
633. P lu r a l su b ject p r e f i x ............................................................ 107
634. P lu r a l o b ject p r e fix ................................................................108
635. C la s s m a r k e r s u f f i x ............................................................ 108
636. N um ber s u f f ix e s ...................................................................... 109
637. L o c a tiv e s u f f i x e s ................................................................... I l l
638. T e n se -m o d a l s u f f i x e s .........................................................112
6 3 8 .1 . In d icative p r e s e n t ....................................112
6 3 8 .2 . In d icativ e p e r f e c t ....................................... 112
6 3 8 .3 . In d icative in d efin ite p a s t ...................... 113
6 3 8 .4 . In d icative recen t p a s t ............................. 113
6 3 8 .5 . In d icativ e rem o te p a s t ..........................113
6 3 8 .6 . In d icativ e f u t u r e ....................................... 113
6 3 8 .7 . C on d itio n al p re se n t, p e rfe c t, p a s t ..............114
6 3 8 .8 . F req u en ta tiv e p re se n t, in d efin ite p a st,
recen t p a st, rem o te p a s t .................................. 115
6 3 8 .9 . I m p e r a t i v e .................................................................117
Contents ix
639. In flectio n a l suffix com plex and v erb

c o n stru ctio n s ........................................................................... 118
6 3 9 .1 . In flectio n al su ffix c o m p le x ...............................118
6 3 9 .2 . V erb c o n s t r u c t io n s ................................................125
700. P a r t i c l e s ................................................................................................................ 126
710. P a r t ic le s t e m s ........................................................................................ 126
720. S u f f i x e s ......................................................................................................127
721. P ro n o m in a l s u f f i x e s ............................................................ 127
7 2 1 .1 . Subject s u f f i x e s .......................................................128
7 2 1 .2 . S u b je c t-o b je c t s u f f i x e s ......................................129
722. P lu r a l s u f f ix e s .......................................................................... 131
730. P a r t ic le c o n s tr u c tio n s ....................................................................... 131
IV . S y n t a x .....................................................................................................................................132
810. T a c tic u n it s ............................................................................................... 132
811. I n t e r j e c t i o n s .............................................................................132
812. C o n n e c t iv e s .................................................................................132
813. A t t r ib u t iv e s ................................................................................ 133
814. Ex panded su bstan tiv e t h e m e s ........................................133
815. Su bject and o b je c t ...................................................................136
816. L o c a t i v e s ....................................................................................136
817. F in ite v e r b s ............................................................................. 137
820. The c la u s e .................................................................................................. 139
821. D e riv a tiv e c l a u s e ...................................................................140
822. Dependent c l a u s e ...................................................................140
830. The p h r a s e ............................................................................................... 141
831. In te rje c to ry p h r a s e ............................................................... 141
832. G e n e ra l p h r a s e ...................................................................... 141
840. The s e n t e n c e ........................................................................................... 141
841. The m in or s e n t e n c e ............................................................ 141
842. The m a jo r s e n t e n c e ............................................................ 141
850. C o n co rd and a g r e e m e n t ....................................................................142
900. T ext with a n a l y s i s .............................................................................................. 143
910. Ph o n em ic t r a n s c r ip t io n ....................................................................143
920. F r e e t r a n s la t io n .....................................................................................143
930. A n a l y s i s ......................................................................................................143
B ib lio g r a p h y ..................................................................................................................................152
SYMBOLS
phonetic b r a c k e ts (C h ap ter One)

[ X ] "x is optional" (C h a p te rs Tw o and T h re e )
/ / phonem ic b r a c k e ts
II II m orphophonem ic b r a c k e ts
{ } m o rp h em ic b r a c k e ts
< X > " c la s s o f ite m s includin g x"
"in fre e v a ria tio n with"
" v a r ie s with"
" is re p re se n te d by" (betw een two fo rm s )
c consonant
V vow el
p stop
ABBREVIATIONS
aS a d je c tiv e stem dT d em o n stra tiv e them e

aT a d je c tiv e them e esT expanded su bstan tiv e
At attribu tiv e GPh g e n e ra l p h ra se
C connective gvS g e n e ra l v erb stem
Cc coordin ating connective gvT g e n e ra l v erb them e
CL c la u se H h o rta to ry p a rtic le
CLc cop ulative c la u se HW h o rtato ry w ord
CLd dependent c la u se I in te rje c tio n
CLg g e n e r a l c la u se IP h in ter je c to ry p h ra se
CLh h o rta to ry c la u se kS kin sh ip stem
CLi in te rro g a tiv e c la u se kT k in sh ip them e
CLp p o s s e s s iv e c la u se L lo c a tiv e
Cs subordin ating connective nS g e n e r a l noun stem
cvS cop ulative v e rb ste m nT g e n e r a l noun them e
cv T cop ulative v erb them e nuS n u m eral stem
dS d em o n stra tiv e stem nuT n u m eral them e
[ xi ]
x ii Symbols and Abbreviations
O object S su b ject
Ph ph ra se SEN sentence
ppS p e rso n a l pronoun stem sT su bstan tiv e them e
ppT p e rso n a l pronoun them e Vc copula
pS pron om in al su ffix Vf fin ite v erb
Q question p a rtic le Vg g e n e r a l v erb
QW question w ord Vp p o s s e s s iv e v erb
S p e c ia l sy m b o ls fo r the se ctio n on kin sh ip te rm ste m s (513)
(m) m an speakin g Mo m oth er, m o th e r's

(f) w om an sp eakin g O o ld er
Br b ro th e r, b r o th e r's Si s is t e r , s is t e r 's
Ch ch ild , c h ild 's So son, so n 's
Da dau gh ter, d au gh ter's Wi w ife, w ife 's
Fa fa th e r, fa th e r's Y younger
Hu husband, h u sb an d 's
C hapter I
IN TR O D U CTIO N
The N ez P e r c e s c a lle d th e m se lv e s /nim i-pu-/- The neighboring Indians

c a lle d them siw a n is 'stran g e r,' s u k ^ is u k ^ i 'd a rk brow n' (Sahaptin d ia le c ts ),
seh§.pten (F la th e a d ) (T e it, 1930: 300), cug^dtkaâ 'kow s (ed ible ro ot) eater,'
s§.iduka?a 'people under the tule' (B an n o ck), c 6 ig a ? a 'kow s people' (Shoshoni),
ktim un uitsitapi 'd a r k g re e n or d ark blue people' (B lackfoo t).^ The w hites
c a lle d them N ez P e r c e s , P ie r c e d N o s e s , Chopunnish, B lu e E a r th In d ian s,
B lu e M ud In d ia n s, G re e n Wood In d ian s, and F la th e a d s .
/nimi-pu*/ is a n a ly za b le into /nimi*/ and /pu*/- The fo rm e r o c c u rs only
with /pu'/, w hich m ean s 'people.' T o g e th er, they m ean 'the N ez P e r c e
people.' An apparen t v aria n t numipu i s a lso found (Spald ing, 1840; M o r v illo ,
1888, 1891a, 1895; Spinden, 1908a: 171). H ain e s h as N im apu and notes that it
m ean s 'the R e a l people' (H a in e s, 1955: 8 ). C u r t is o ffe r s nun 'we' and pu
'people' a s the e ty m o lo g ic al com ponents, and sta te s that Num ipu or N im ipu
m ean s 'we people' (C u r t is , 1911: 4, footnote 1).
giw anig 's tr a n g e r' is u sed by a ll the d ia le c ts of Sahaptin fo r the N ez
P e rce .^ Som e o ld er people, acco rd in g to R ig s b y , u se g u k ^ iS u k ^ i, w hich
m ean s 'd a rk brow n' or 'm ahogany color,' b e c a u se the N ez P e r c e s a re su p
p o sed to have d a r k e r skin .
The nam e seh^pten and its v a r ia n ts a re re c o rd e d by Thom pson a s e a rly
a s 1809 (W hite, 1950: 72). S o m e tim es it w as u sed to r e fe r only to the N ez
P e r c e s (by Thom pson , se e T y r r e ll, 1916; W hite, 1950); or only to N orth ern
or N o rth w estern Sahaptin (by T o lm ie and D aw so n , 1884: 7 8 -8 7 , who c a ll
th eir o b v io u sly N orth ern Sahaptin v o ca b u la ry "Shahaptan or N ez P e r c ^ e " );
or p r e su m a b ly to S(h)ahaptian includin g both N orth ern Sahaptin and N ez
P erce.
s§.iduka?a 'people under the tule' apparen tly r e fe r s to a N ez P e r c e type
of dw ellin g, and cu g ^d ik a?a 'kow s eater' and c 6 ig a ? a 'kow s people' to one of
^The following term s come from personal comm unications: Sahaptin dialects from
Bruce R igsby, Bannock and Shoshoni dialects from Sven L ilje b la d , Blackfoot from
Allan R o ss T aylor.
^Chinook form i-siw an is 'he is a Nez P erce' (Dyk, 1933:108) is presum ably a loan
from Sahaptin.
[ 1 ]
2 ISez Perce Gram m ar
their fa v o rite fo o d s. A c c o rd in g to L ilje b la d , s iid u k a ^ a in O re g o n P a iu te

m ean s ’ enemy/ 'enem ies.'^
A c c o rd in g to A . R . T a y lo r , ktim un uitsitapi is a n a ly za b le into ktimunui
'd ark g re e n or d ark blue' and tsita p i 'p e o p le'; the fo rm e r is a p o ss ib le loan
fro m N ez P e r c e . N ez P e r c e has no w ord re s e m b lin g ktimunui with the s u g
g este d m ean in g. H ow ev er, the N ez P e r c e w ord /qemtiynu*/ fo r the W allaw a
band of N ez P e r c e s (p rob ab ly id e n tica l with k am ^ in u , defined a s 'own nam e'
in B u lle tin 30 of the B u re a u of A m e r ic a n Ethnology) m ay p o s s ib ly be the
so u rce of the B la c k fo o t fo rm .
A c c o rd in g to Jo se p h y (1955: 14), N ez P e r c e a s a tr ib a l nam e w as coined
by the F re n c h C a n a d ia n s. It w as f ir s t re c o rd e d in D av id T h o m p so n 's Jo u r n a l
on M a rc h 11, 1810 (W hite, 1950: 96). The nam e d e riv e s fro m the e a r ly N ez
P e r c e cu stom of w earin g a dentalium sh e ll through the septum of the nose
a s noted by M e riw e th e r L e w is : "The o rn im en ts worn by the Chopunnish a re ,
in their nose a sin g le sh e ll of W am pom , the p ir l and b e ed s a re suspended
fro m the e a rs." (T h w a ite s, 1 9 0 4 -5 : 4.37 f.) The custom w as a ls o noted by
Thom pson in about 1812 ( T y r r e ll, 1916: 486 f .) , by R o s s about 1818 (1855:
1 .1 8 5 ), by C h ie f Jo se p h (1 879 : 416), by Spinden (1 908 a: 172), by C u r t is (1 911 :
8 .4 , footnote 1), and by T e it (1930: 82, 147, 340). An e a r ly discon tin u ation of
this custom w as in d icated by P a r k e r (1838: 80) in an entry fo r A u gu st 12,
1835: " . . . but how w ill those . . . account for the N ez P e r e a s being so
c a lle d , sin ce they do not p ie r c e their n o ses." and by F e r r i s (P h illip s , 1940:
303), who, in recounting h is ex p e rie n ce s in the R o c k y M ountains fro m 1830
to 1835, noted " . . . th ere is not am ong the N e z - p e r c e s an in d ivid u al having
any p a rt of the nose p erforated ."
T h is e a r ly d iscontinu ation p ro b ab ly accou n ts fo r the view that the custom
n ever ex isted and that the nam e is a m is n o m e r — a view held by not a few
including the authors of the a r tic le on N ez P e r c e in B u lle tin 30. It is to be
noted that N ez P e r c e w as a ls o u se d to d esig n ate the N orth ern Sahaptin as
evident fro m v o c a b u la rie s by R o s s (1 855 : 1 .3 1 2 -3 2 3 ) and T o lm ie and D aw son
(1 884 : 7 8 -8 7 ). The a n g lic iz e d P ie r c e d N o s e s o c c u rr e d a s e a r ly a s the date
of L e w is and C la r k 's f ir s t h is t o r ic a l encounter with the N ez P e r c e s , S e p te m
b e r 20, 1805. N u m ero u s v a r ia n ts a re known, including N e e p e r c il and N e n p e r-
s a a s (H enshaw and F a r r a n d , 1910: 2 .6 7 ). O c c a sio n a l m is s in g of the m a rk is
noted in N e c k p e rc ie (H enshaw and F a r r a n d 1910: 2.67 ) and O r e ille P e r c 6
(C o u e s, 1897: 1 .3 9 8 ).
Chopunnish w as u sed by C la r k in 1805 (T h w a ite s, 1 9 0 4 -5 : 3 .7 8 ). H enshaw
and F a r r a n d (1 910 : 2 .6 6 ) su g g e sted that th is i s a corru p ted fo rm of a
^That the feeling was mutual is indicated by the Nez P erce word tiw ^lqe, which at
once means 'the Snake Indians (and other U to-Aztecans)' and 'enemy.'
Introduction 3
N ez P e r c e w ord T stitp e li, a se lf-d e sig n a tio n . Spinden (1 908 a : 172, note 1 )
su g g e sted that it m ight be fro m a Sioux w ord T su n itp e lu n , a p o ss ib le c o r r u p
tion of the N ez P e r c e fo rm . W hile I could not co n firm T stitp eli of H enshaw
and F a r r a n d , I lea rn ed that th ere is a s e lf-d e sig n a tio n cti*p?nitpelu-. The
v erb p re fix cu- m ean s 'with a pointed o b je c t'; pi?ni* (m ay appear a s p?ni)
m ean s eith er 'com e out o f w oods' or 'p ie r c e '; t is a n om in alizin g su ffix ;
and peiu- is a com m on d e riv a tiv e su ffix fo r tr ib a l n a m e s. The w ord cti-p^nit
'p ie r c e with a pointed o bject' a lso e x ists and a p p e a rs c lo se in fo rm to C h o -
pu nnish. C la r k could have changed the fin a l t to sh on the an alo gy of m any
nation al n am es in E n g lish that end in sh such a s B r it is h , Ir is h , S co ttish ,
T u r k is h , S pan ish , and so on. If this p rop osed etym ology is c o r r e c t, and 1
su sp ect it is b e c a u se m any in sta n ce s of Chopunnish a re im m e d ia te ly follow ed
by the p h ra se "o r p ie r c e d n o ses," then the o ld e st nam e for N ez P e r c e m eant
”nez p e r c 6 ."
B lu e E a rth In d ian s and B lu e M ud Indians m ay r e fe r (as the B la c k fo o t
w ord m ight) to the c o lo r and m a te r ia l of fa ce paint. G re e n Wood Indians
could be a r e s u lt of an e v a siv e explanation by m e m b e rs of the trib e annoyed
by the n ew co m ers' c u rio sity , u sin g the alte rn a te m eaning of pi?ni* 'com e out
of w oods' noted above (A o k i, 1967). B lu e M ud In d ian s w as re c o rd e d by L e w is
and C la r k (T h w a ite s, 1 9 0 4 -5 : 6 .1 0 6 ), B lu e E a rth Indians and G re e n Wood
Indians by H en ry (C o u e s, 1897: 2 .7 1 2 ), and the la tte r again by Thom pson
(W hite, 1950: 105).
The nam e F la th e a d s e e m s to have been applied to at le a s t three g ro u p s:
(1) the ethnic group speakin g a S a lish lan gu age, (2) any group p r a c tisin g
fro n ta l d efo rm atio n , ( 3 ) any trib e inhabiting the m ountainous a r e a w est of
the R o c k y M oun tain s. It is p o ss ib le that in eith er of the la tte r two a p p lic a
tion s the N ez P e r c e s m ay have been included.
The p r a c tic e of fro n tal d efo rm atio n am ong the N ez P e r c e s is noted by
T e it (1930: 168, 3 8 1 f .) . Spinden (1908a: 226) r e f e r s to s k e le ta l eviden ce
su g gestin g that it m ay have been an ancient or o c c a s io n a l p r a c tic e . H ow ev er,
the re fe re n c e Chittenden m a k e s to the testim on y of an "e y e -w itn e s s " that
the N ez P e r c e d e le g a te s to St. L o u is in 1 8 3 1 -3 2 had flat h ead s (Chittenden,
1902: 2 .8 8 9 ) a p p e a rs to be unfounded sin ce H ain e s c la r if ie s that the " e y e
w itn e ss" W illia m W a lk er a r r iv e d in St. L o u is late in 1832, after the d ele g a te s
had le ft the c ity (H ain e s, 1937: 78). F u r th e r , C a tlin did not paint them with
fla t h e a d s. E v en am ong the S a lish -s p e a k in g F la th e a d s who did flatten their
h e a d s, the p r a c tic e m ay have been d iscontinu ed e a r ly , a s noted by P a r k e r
(1 8 3 8 : 80) in 183 5: "I w as d isappointed to see nothing p e c u lia r in the F l a t
head In d ian s to give them th eir nam e."
F la th e a d a s an a r e a l te rm in c lu siv e of the N ez P e r c e s is m entioned by
L e w is and C la r k . A fte r noting that a ll nations w est of the R o c k ie s p r a c tic e d
flatten ing o f h ead s L e w is r e m a r k s ; " . . . it is fro m th is p e c u lia r fo rm of

the head that the nations e a st of R o c k y m ou n tain s, c a ll a ll the nations on
th is sid e , except the A lio h tan s or sn ake In d ian s, by the g e n e r ic nam e of
F la t h e a d s ” (T h w aites, 1 9 0 4 -5 : 4 .18 4)
F u r th e r eviden ce of th is u se m ay be found in G a tlin 's statem en t: "T h e
N ez P e r e a s who inhabit the upper w a te rs and m ountainous p a rts of the
C o lu m b ia , a re a p art of th is trib e [F la th e a d s]." (G a tlin , 1841: 2 .1 0 8 ) and in
the follow in g ph rasin g in a b u r ia l c e r tific a te of an 1831 N ez P e r c e d elegate
to St. L o u is : " J e so u sig n ^ a i inhum § dans le G e m e tib re de Gette P a r o is s e
le co rp s de K e e p e lle l^ ou P ip e B a rd du N ez P e r c ^ de la tribu de Ghopow eck
N ation appel§ T ete P la te s . . . " (Ghittenden and R ic h a r d s o n , 1905: 22,
note 3).
The te r r it o r y o ccup ied by the N ez P e r c e , acc o rd in g to Spinden (1 908 a:
172), extended fro m the B itte rro o t m oun tains on the e a st to the B lu e M o u n
tain s on the w est, betw een latitude 45° and 47°. T h u s, w hile m o stly in Idaho,
they o ccu p ied a c o n sid e ra b le a r e a in O reg o n and W ashington. The adjacen t
tr ib e s w e re N orth ern Sahaptin to the w est, F la th e a d s to the north and e a st,
and the n orth ern U to -A z te c a n s to the south, in in c re a sin g o rd e r of enm ity.
The m ilit a r y a llia n c e betw een N ez P e r c e and S a lish a g a in st the com m on
enem y, h o r s e -th ie v e s who w ere after the fam ed b re e d of A p p a lo o sa , r e
su lted in an a m ic a b le s y m b io s is of the two t r ib e s . S tru c tu ra l bo rro w in g
fro m the S a lis h , in con seq u en ce, a p p e a rs p ro b ab le .
D r iv e r and M a s s e y (1957: 167) state that " e v e ry an th ro p o log ist a g r e e s
that m a n 's b io lo g ic a l evolution took p la ce in the O ld W orld." But we a re yet
to le a rn of the re la tio n s of the O ld W o rld lan g u ag es to the p resen t A m e ric a n
Indians la n g u a g e s, the d ates of their in terco n tin en tal m ig r a tio n s, or their
subsequen t developm ent in the New W o rld .
The eviden ce fo r hum an h abitation in n earb y a r e a s in clu d es the F iv e M ile
R a p id s in O reg o n w here continuous hum an occup ation of a site fro m about
11 ,0 00 y e a r s ago up to the 1 8 2 0 's w as e sta b lish e d (G r e s s m a n , 1960: 6 6 ;
1962: 2), the Indian W e ll site dating fro m 7,5 0 0 to 8,5 0 0 y e a r s ago (B u tle r ,
1959: 13) on the W ashington sid e a c r o s s the C o lu m b ia fro m the D a lle s , the
L in d G ou lee site of som e 8 ,70 0 y e a r s ago (D au g h erty , 1956: 25 6), and the
A s h G ave site of about 7,94 0 y e a r s ago in the C o lu m b ia B a s in (B u tle r , 1962:
71). The fa m ed F o r t R o c k C a v e sa n d a ls have a ra d io c a rb o n date of 9,053 ±
350 (L ib b y , 1955; 119). W ithin the p resen t N ez P e r c e te r r ito r y , the W eis
R o c k s h e lte r site in d ic a te s continuous hum an habitation fro m 7 ,34 0 ± 140
y e a r s ago to about 1400 A .D . (B u tle r , 1962: 2 8 -2 9 ) with in d ica tio n s of v o l
can ic a sh d e p o sits id e n tifie d a s eru ption s o f M t. M a z a m a (ib id .: 25 f.), which
a re dated a s having o c c u rr e d around 6,453 y e a r s ago (L ib b y , 1955: 118 f.).
The W e is R o c k s h e lte r is lo ca ted in /nip 6 he/ o r R o c k y C anyon n ear C o tto n
wood, Idaho.
Introduction 5
C r e s s m a n notes that the tim e of the im p act of the fir s t Shoshonean-

sp eakin g p e o p les who filte r e d into the inter m ontane reg io n m ay be the end
of the A ltith e r m a l, that is 4 ,0 0 0 to 4,5 0 0 y e a r s ago (C r e s s m a n , 1960: 69),
and that the date of S a lish settlem en t in the T illa m o o k a r e a m ay be 2 ,00 0
y e a r s ago (ib id .: 71). In r e fe r e n c e to the p re-S h o sh o n ean lin g u istic g ro u p s,
C r e s s m a n notes that " S a p ir ’ s Pen utian sto ck w as app aren tly that of the old
G r e a t B a s in population" (ib id .: 74).
B u tle r re c o g n iz e d an e a r ly cu ltu re c h a ra c te r iz e d by le a f-s h a p e d p r o
je c t ile points found not only in the N orthw est but a ls o in M e x ic o , V en e zu ela ,
P e r u , and C h ile . He c a lle d it the O ld C o r d ille r a n C u ltu re (B u tle r , 1961). At
W e is R o c k s h e lte r , B u tle r c o n sid e rs the C r a ig M ountain ph ase of 5500 B .C .
to 1400 B .C . (B u tle r , 1962: 54) to be the re g io n a l e x p re ssio n of th is culture
(ib id .: 56). A t The D a lle s and in the C o lu m b ia B a s in the cu ltu re w as c o
term in o u s with the a n ath erm al p e rio d , but in the C a m a s P r a ir ie re g io n , in
the P u g et L o w la n d , and in n o rth e astern C a lifo r n ia it p e r s is te d un til a la te r
date (ib id .: 56 ). Sw anson (1 962 : 157) r e f e r s to the co rresp o n d en ce betw een
the O ld C o r d ille r a n C u ltu re and Pen utian .
A d ifferen t lin g u istic id e n tifica tio n of th is cu ltu re h as been su g g e sted by
D au gh erty , who a fte r r e v is in g the O ld C o r d ille r a n C u ltu re to "N orth w est
C o r d ille r a n A r e a tradition," notes that "the r e m a r k a b le co rre sp o n d e n ce ,
both te m p o ra lly and s p a tia lly , betw een the concept o f N orth w est C o r d ille r a n
A r e a tra d itio n and the apparent d istrib u tio n of e a r ly S alish a n la n g u a g e s,
su g ge st a re la tio n sh ip " (D au g h erty , 1962: 149).
Both C r e s s m a n and Sw anson a g re e that Pen u tian p rece d ed Shoshonean.
S till another view is e x p re s s e d by W. W. T a y lo r , who in r e fe r e n c e to the
M a c r o -P e n u tia n c la s s ific a t io n su g g e sted by W h orf (1935: 608) notes that "if
the concept of M a c r o -P e n u tia n is v a lid , the sp lit betw een Pen u tian and U taz-
tecan w as thus p ro b ab ly in the neighborhood of 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ago and s o m e
w here in the m ountainous re g io n north of the G r e a t B a sin " (T a y lo r , 1961: 75).
H e adds that "in fa ct, the M a c r o -P e n u tia n s p e a k e r s , a s they m oved so u th
w ard along the w e ste rn fla n k s of the N orth ern R o c k ie s , m ay have been sp lit
by running into the b lo ck of H o k a lte ca n s a lr e a d y occupying the d e se r t habitat
of the n orth ern B a sin ." It is to be noted that T a y lo r 's quotation b e g in s with
"if." In T a y lo r 's statem en t, the su g g e sted sequ en ce is f ir s t H o k a lte ca n , then
the M a c r o -P e n u tia n , w hich la te r sp lit into P en u tian and U to -A z te c a n .
W ith our p re se n t know ledge it is p rem a tu re to e s ta b lis h any lin g u istic
chronology subsequen t to the e a r lie s t eviden ce of hum an h abitatio n in the
a r e a , e s p e c ia lly in view of the p o s s ib ilit y that neither the equation of a r c h a e
o lo g ic a l c u ltu re s with lin g u istic g ro u p s, nor that of tra n sitio n s in c u ltu re s
with m ig ra tio n s is n e c e s s a r ily w arran ted . One sim p le p o s s ib ilit y is that the
a n c e sto rs of the N ez P e r c e s m ay have o ccup ied th eir p resen t h abitat fo r
s e v e r a l m ille n n ia , and that the people who occu p ied the W e is R o c k s h e lte r
fo r the fir s t tim e som e 7,34 0 y e a r s ago m ay have spoken a lan guage a n c e s
t r a l to N ez P e r c e .
N ez P e r c e , along with N orthern Sahaptin, is a m em b er of the Sahaptian
fa m ily o f la n g u a g e s. Sap ir p rop osed that Sahaptin, W aiilatp u an , and L u tu a m i
a re m e m b e rs of a la r g e r gro up. P la te a u Pen utian , which in turn is a m e m
b e r of a s t ill la r g e r group, Pen utian (S a p ir, 1929). Sahaptian and L u tu a m i
a re p ro b ab ly re la te d (A o k i, 1963b). but beyond th is th ere i s no pu blish ed
d em o n stratio n of P la te a u Pen utian a s a g en etic gro up. B e s id e s S a p ir, e x p lo r a
tory attem pts tow ard the placem en t of Sahaptian in a la r g e r group include
Sw adesh (1 954 , 1956), and H ym es (1957, 1964). C a lifo r n ia Pen utian , p rop osed
by D ix o n and K ro e b e r (1919) and d em o n strated a s r e la te d by P itk in and S h ip
le y (1958 ), and Sahaptian, together with K la m a th , p ro b ab ly belong to the sam e
gen etic g ro u p .
Spinden in 1908 lis te d som e fo rty d iv isio n s or bands w ithin the N ez P e r c e
trib e (Spinden, 1908a: 174 f .) . That they a re g e o g ra p h ica l or m ic r o p o litic a l
u n its and not n e c e s s a r ily lin g u istic su b d iv isio n s is su g g e sted by their nam es
w hich a re m o stly d e riv atio n s of p la ce n a m e s, e .g ., /lamt§.*ma/ 'W h iteb ird
band on Salm on R iv e r ' is com po sed o f /lam ^ta/ 'W h iteb ird (p lace n a m e )’
and /m a/ ’ from ,' 'people from .'
A lm o s t a century after the t r ib a l re lo c a tio n onto r e s e r v a t io n s , the h is t o r i
c a l d ia le c t situ ation is not c le a r . A c co rd in g to the in fo rm a n ts, a ll of whom
liv e in the m id d le and south fo rk re g io n s of the C le a r w a te r R iv e r (M r. and
M r s . W h eeler in S tite s, M r s . W ilso n in K a m ia h , M r . A rth u r in E a s t K a m ia h ,
and M r s . M oody in K o o s k ia ), there is a se p a ra te d ia le c t, w hich m ay be term ed
the L o w e r N ez P e r c e d ia le c t. The d ia le c t tre a te d in th is study, the U pper N ez
P e r c e d ia le c t, and the L o w e r d ia le c t a re m u tually in te llig ib le . T h is d iv isio n
m ay have so m e h is t o r ic a l re le v a n c e sin ce a s im ila r d iv isio n of the trib e w as
m entioned by C ap tain B o n n e v ille in the e a r ly 1 8 9 0 's .
The scan ty in fo rm ation m ay be s u m m a riz e d a s fo llo w s:
U pper Low er
petktihtu? petk^^h tu? 'we w ill be shooting'

tuk^ytet tukW^ytet 'hunting'
p i’tam yalo n p i’tam yanon 'ch ick en hawk'
c§lm en c^nm en 'C h in e se '
m ^ ’yw i m §*ym i 'm orning'
so-y^*po-m so-yd-po-nim 'o f the white'
m an^ m an ^m a 'how'
septi*m sise s e p i-w e m s ise 'I am leadin g'
p e ?^ n p e?y se p e ? 6 npe?nse 'he ta k e s som ebody e ls e 's '
Introduction
U pper Low er
konwac^*n k o n w aci-t ’fo r that r e a s o n ’

li*ckaw n i’ ckaw ’b a sk e t c a p ’
lcocaclc 6 cac kâcackâcac ’po in ted ’
The L o w e r d ia le c t s e e m s to have at le a s t one add itio n al phonem e / k ^ / ,

which would m a rk it a s the m o re c o n se rv a tiv e d ia le c t of the two, acco rd in g
to the tentative inventory of phonem es on P ro to -S a h a p tia n (A o k i, 1962: 173).
The two se ts with /1/ in the Upper d ia le c t and /n/ in the L o w e r m ay or m ay
not be sig n ific a n t sin ce n - 1 consonant s y m b o lism (300) e x is ts in both d ia le c ts.
The set with /y/ in the U pper d ia le c t and /n/ in the L o w e r in a llo m o rp h s of
{e*y} (ben efactiv e suffix) m ay involve an in c o r r e c t id e n tifica tio n by in fo rm
an ts. A . B . Sm ith, in re fe re n c e to h is lin g u istic o b se rv a tio n s at K a m ia h in
1 8 3 9 -4 1 , notes that k ian sh a m ean s ’go for an oth er,’ and hahnansha m ean s
’ se e an o th er's w ife, ch ild re n , etc .’ (D ru r y , 1958: 105). In the d ia le c t of this
study S m ith ’ s fo rm s would be /kiy^*yse/ and /hexn 6 *yse/. S m ith ’ s teach er
of N ez P e r c e w as C h ie f L a w y e r (ib id .: 107), w hose old hom e w as in the Upper
N ez P e r c e a r e a of K a m ia h .
It is p o ss ib le that th ere w as an exten sive v o c a b u la ry lim ite d to m yth s.
A c co rd in g to M r s . E liz a b e th W ilso n , there a re at le a s t the fo llow in g s e t s ,
one fo r com m on u se and the other lim ite d to m yth s.
C om m on M yth
‘?icey^*ye nis§-?w eynu* ’c o y o te ’

w e ’xpus neninm e ’r a ttle s n a k e ’
w ^ ’ptes tipiyel^xne ’ e a g le ’
him i-n teqelixnik^-t ’w o lf’
yd - “^yax w isk e ? y n 6 -t ’g o o s e ’
tit 6 -qan n e ti’telw it ’hum an bein gs'
h i-sem tu k s (lu m in ary) wiyeten§*t ’ su n ’
The w ords u sed only by o ld e r people include /nicu/ ’younger k in sm a n ,’

/no-ciw ^-tx/ ’ we alo n e.’ The fo rm e r is without a o n e-w ord equivalen t in c o m
m on u sa g e ; the new er and m o re com m on fo rm fo r the la tte r is /nonciw§.-tx/.
/ki*?m o likam / ’m o u n tain s’ i s u sed only in connection with the g u a rd ia n s p irit
q u est. The com m on w ord for m ountain is /m ^ ’ x se m / .
C e r ta in phonetic m o d ific a tio n s produce v a r io u s su b s y ste m s of the N ez
P e r c e lan guage a s spoken by d iffe ren t a n im a ls in m y t h s P h i n n e y n o tes, ” F o x
Among others, Sapir d iscu sses this phenomenon in his "Abnorm al Types of Speech
in Nootka," reprinted in D. G . Mandelbaum, ed.. Selected W ritings of Edw ard Sapir in
Language, Culture and P erson ality, University of C alifo rn ia P r e s s , 1958, pp. 179-196.
sp e a k s with utm ost c la r ity and d ir e c tn e s s . B e a r s lu r s con sonan ts into I,

Skunk n a s a liz e s in a high pitched v o ic e and changes x to x and k, s to ts ,
a to a." (Ph in n ey, 1934: ix)
No co rresp o n d in g in fo rm a tio n w as a v a ila b le except fo r the change of n
to 1 and s to s in C o y o te 's sp eech , e .g ., / n is^ “?weynu*/ ’ co y o te’ (in com m on
speech) and [lis§*?w eylu -] ’ coyote' (in C o y o te ’ s sp eech ).
M y p r in c ip a l in fo rm an ts w ere M r . and M r s . H a r r y W h ee le r (1 9 6 0 -6 1 ),
and M r s . E liz a b e th P . W ilso n (1 9 6 1 -6 2 ). O th er in fo rm an ts w ere M r . D av id
A rth u r, M r . Joh n M o ffett, and M r s . L o ttie M oody.
"'m '
M r . and M r s . H a r r y W h eeler
M r s . E liz a b e th P . W ilso n
(left) and M r s . L o ttie M oody
M r . D av id A rth u r
C h a pt er II
PH O N O LO GY
100. P H O N E M IC S
N ez P e r c e h as 36 phonem es a s fo llo w s:
Segm entals
Consonants
L ab ial Dental A lveolar Velar P o st-v ela r Glottal
Plain;
Stops
Spirants
N asals m
Sem ivowels w
Late ral
Glottalized
Stops P
N asals m
Sem ivowels w
Late ral
Vowels
Front Central Back
High i u
Mid o
Low
Suprasegm entals Junctures
Length: Phonological word juncture

S tress: Pause form
T erm inal contour
10
P h on olog y 11
110. Consonants.^ T h e re a re at le a s t two d ire c tio n s in w hich g e n e ra l

allophonic statem en ts for consonants m ay be m ad e: ( 1 ) acco rd in g to the
m anner of a rtic u la tio n , and ( 2 ) a ccord in g to the point of a rticu la tio n .
1. The v o ic e le s s plain stops /p/, /t/, and /c/ a r e u n asp ira ted b e fo re a
vow el, m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re another consonant, and stro n g ly a sp ir a te d
b e fo re a ju n ctu re .
The v o ic e le s s plain stops /p/, /t/, /c/ and /q/ o cc u r in c lo se tra n sitio n
when gem in ated , /k/ and /*?/ do not g em in ate.
The v o iced continuants /m /, /n/, /w /, /y/, and /1/ a re freq u en tly v o ic e
le s s b e fo re a te rm in a l contour.
2. The dental consonants /t/, /i/ , /n/, and /1/ a re p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /u/.
The la m in o -a lv e o la r consonants /s/ and /c/ a re p a la ta lize d b e fo re /i/.^
/p/ (b ila b ia l) is u n asp ira ted and without in itia l c lo su re (sin ce the p r e
ceding segm en t is u n re le a se d ) a fte r /p/ and b e fo re a vow el, e .g .,
m itipp e 'at a p lace w here e ld e r b e r r ie s a re '
u n a sp ira te d with in itia l c lo su r e else w h e re b e fo re a v ow el, e .g .,

pdyn 'to a r r iv e '
•^^pa 'b r ic k of ground c a m a s'
w e y i’letpu* 'C a y u se '
c i-k sp e 'at s is t e r - in - la w 's ' (a w om an speakin g)
u n re le a se d b e fo re /p/, e .g .,
m itipp e 'at a p lace w here e ld e r b e r r ie s a re '
M o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re a consonant other than /p/, e .g .,

q e p si^ s 'ev il'
m 1i? p c 'o n e -y e a r old fawn'
w a l^ p sk sa 'I je r k it away'
and stro n g ly a sp ir a te d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

“^ dsqap 'younger b roth er' (a m an speakin g)
c 6 yn e-sp (p lace nam e)
/t/ (apiCO -dental) is u n a sp ira te d and p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /u/,^ e .g .,

tti-skex 'upw ard'
pe?tti*qes 'm a n -c ra z y '
^The allophony d escrib es M rs. W heeler's ideolect.

În the ideolect of H arry W heeler /s/ and/c/ are palatalized everywhere, apparently
as in the dialects studied by Smith, Spalding, and A in slie.
^/t/ does not occur, probably fortuitously, after /t/ and before /u/.
12 N ez Perce Gram m ar
u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and without in itia l c lo su re a fte r /t/ and b e fo re

v ow e ls other than /u/, e .g .,
?ipnattiw ^*tit 'tellin g a sto ry about o n e s e lf’
u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re v o w e ls

other than /u/, e .g .,
t^hes 'ice'
? 4 ’tim 'a rm '
?is^*ptakay 'p a rfle c h e '
i t i ’x stey n 'to g u e s s wrong'
?e?npt 6 *ce 'I go to g et it'
u n re le a se d b e fo re /t/, e .g .,
w eq ittise 'I lou d ly speak'
m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re consonants other than /t/, e .g .,

petktihtu? 'we w ill be shooting'
w as§.tqsa 'I whip'
w eq iw tkse 'I am cutting g r a s s '

le p it 'two'
?elw eht 'sp rin g ' (se aso n )
weh^yqt 'n ec k lac e'
k e ‘?nipt 'to bite'
/c/ (a p ic o -a lv e o la r ) is u n a sp ira te d , p a la ta liz e d , and without c lo su re after

/c/ and b e fo re /i/, e .g .,
p ic p ic c im 'only re d fir tre e s'
u n a sp ira te d , p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re / i/ , e .g .,

c ilm i 's q u ir r e l'
hiw eh ci-x 'they a re barkin g'
u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and without in itia l c lo su re a fter / c/ and b e fo re

v ow e ls other than / i/ , e .g .,
Iiaccay n 6 *m ya?c 'coyote'
u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re vow els

other than /i/ , e .g .,
caw i'tx 'w ild c a rro t'
pili^’ x sc e 'I am unlucky'
u n re le a se d b e fo re /c/, e .g .,
p ic p ic c im 'only re d fir tr e e s '
P h on ology 13
m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re consonants other than /c/ , e .g .,

l i ’ ckaw (p lace nam e)
l§q ex cn e (p lace nam e)

w ^lc 'knife'
p ilx c 'snow shoe ra b b it'
tite?w xc 'c h is e l mouth'
/k/ (d o r s o -v e la r ) is u n a sp ira te d and slig h tly la b ia liz e d b e fo re / i/ , e .g .,

k im ile 'ta m a ra k '
lia p s k is a 'I eat fro m the bones'
u n a sp ira te d and u n p a la ta lize d b e fo re vow els other than /i/ , e .g .,

k ^ ’tim 's p e a r '
l i ’ ckaw (place nam e)
and m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re con so n an ts, e .g .,

te w li’kt 'tree'
w a l^ p sk sa 'I je r k it away'
/k/ does not o ccu r b e fo re /k/ or a ju n ctu re.
/q/ (d o r s o -p o s tv e la r ) has a sp ira n ta l o ff-g lid e without in itia l c lo su re

a fter /q/ and b e fo re a vow el, e .g .,
hiqq 6 *wise 'he is drunk'
h a s a sp ira n ta l o ff-g lid e with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re a v ow el, e .g .,

qi*wn 'old m an'
h i ‘? p sq ik e?y k se 'he is w alking'
tew qeq§*wit 'nigh tm are'
is u n re le a se d b e fo re /q/, e .g .,
hiq q ^-w ise 'he is drunk'
and m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re a consonant other than /q/, e .g .,

nd*qc 'one'
w ^w pe?qt 'to sp lit'
w a s^ tq sa 'I whip'
With one exception noted in 2 0 0 , /q/ does not o cc u r b e fo re a ju n ctu re.
/■?/ i s g lo tta l, e .g .,
? 6 *le? 'p a tern al g ran d m o th er' (v ocative)
t^ ?c 'good'
mta^pc 'o n e -y e a r old fawn'

?ew xc?tipe“^qe 'I sp lit it by sittin g on it'
The sp ira n ts a re re p re se n te d by the follow in g alloph on es:
/1 / (a p iC O -a lv eo lar la te r a l) a lte rn a te s fr e e ly with a h o m o rgan ic a ffric a te

betw een v o w e ls, e.g.,
cu-Mm 'b u ll, ste e r'
e lse w h e re /1 / is an a p ic o -a lv e o la r la t e r a l sp ira n t, e .g .,
16-piep 'bu tterfly'
/s/ (la m in o -a lv e o la r) is p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /i/, e .g .,

sim u x 'c h a rc o a l'
and u n p a la ta lize d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

s^w ay 'g ra v e y a rd '
m§.qs 'g a ll'
/x/ (d o r s o -v e la r ) is b acke d b e fo re /q/ or /x/, e .g .,

?atw iyaxqana 'I a d v ise d him '
^ f
te*xxi’ c e m k se 'I am angry b e c a u se of cold'
and is d o r s o - v e la r e lse w h e re , e .g .,
w a ti’ sx 'tom orrow ,' 'y este rd a y '
/x/ (d o rs o -p o s tv e la r) is a fo r tis t r ill betw een con son an ts, e .g .,

pitxpd-m a 'nephews,' 'n ie c e s'
and is a l e s s fo rtis sp iran t e lse w h e re , e .g .,

t^sx 'g re a se '
/h/ (fa u c a l), a fter a vow el and b e fo re a consonant, is a v o ic e le s s , non

v o c a lic o ff-g lid e h o m o rgan ic with the preced in g vow el, e .g .,
?elw §ht 'y e a r'
and i s a fa u c a l sp iran t e lse w h e re , e .g .,

h^*m a 'man,' 'husband'
The son oran ts a re re p re se n te d by the follow in g allo p h o n es:
/m/ (b ila b ia l n a sa l) is freq uen tly v o ic e le s s in fin a l p o sitio n , e .g .,

w^-’ ^^wam 'head o f s tr e a m s '
and v o iced e lse w h e re , e .g .,

m itd 't 'three'
P h on olog y 15
/n/ (a p ico -d e n ta l n a sa l) is v e la r iz e d b e fo re /k/ or /q/, e .g .,

?ank^-xalpx 're m o v e l, u n co v er!'
p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /u/, e .g .,
nti'snu 'nose'
freq u en tly v o ic e le s s in fin a l p o sition , e .g .,

?i*mn 'knee'
and is an a p ico -d e n ta l voiced n a sa l e lse w h e re , e .g .,

n^-qc 'one'
/w/ (b ila b ia l sem iv o w el) is freq u en tly v o ic e le s s in fin a l p o sitio n , e .g .,

n i'ck aw 'b a sk e t-c a p '
and is v oiced e lse w h e re , e .g .,

w ti'yce '1 run away'
/y/ (p a lata l sem iv o w e l) is freq u en tly v o ic e le s s after a vow el and in fin al

p o sitio n , e .g .,
ktiy 'go aw ayl'
is v oiced and with strong fric tio n a fte r /n/ and b e fo re a vow el, e .g .,
kony^ 'o v er th ere'
and is v o iced without fric tio n e lse w h e re , e .g .,

y^*ca? 'e ld e r b roth er' (vocative)
/ 1 / (la m in o -a lv e o la r la te r a l) is p a la ta lize d and v o iced b e fo re /u/, e .g .,

?ilti*t 'b e lly '
v o ic e le s s in fin a l p o sitio n , e .g .,
? e x c im il 'throat'
and i s la m in o -a lv e o la r and v o iced else w h e re , e .g .,

le p it 'two'
The follow in g e x am p les support the phonem ic a n a ly s is g iven above;
/p/ - /t/ p^*qt 'b a rk (of tre e )

t 6 *qt 'w oodpecker'
/t/ - /c/ ?^-tim 'com e outl'

? i* c im 'com e ini'
/c/ - /k/ y ^-ca? 'e ld e r broth er

y^*ka? 'brown b e a r'
/k/ - /q/ p§-kt 'w om an 's younger bro th e r'

p 6 -qt 'b a rk (of tree )'
/q/ - / ’ / qi'w n 'old m an'

?i*wn 'urin ation'
/yi/ - / ’ i/ w §-yikt 'to m ove a c r o s s '

w 6 -?ikt 'g r e a se '
/wu/ - /9U/ w 6 *yce 'I run away'

?li’y se 'I begin' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/t/ - /s/ h iw te li’k se 'he s p re a d s (som ething)'

h iw s e li’k s e 'he stan d s'
/c/ - /s/ h 6 -cu 'firew ood '

h^-su 'eel'
/q/ - /x/ q^pqap 'cottonwood tree'

x^pxap 'sk in d is e a s e ' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/k/ - /h/ k^hen 'b ic e p s'

h^hen 'ste m of plants'
/’ / - N ?eh §tew ise 'I a d m ire him '

h eh ^tew ise 'he a d m ir e s '
/x/ - /x/ ?awy§,*xno?qa 'I could see it a s I went'

?aw y^*xno?qa 'I could find it' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/?/ - /h/ x• a l^ la lc ix 'we w alk along the b o rd er'

h a l^ la lc ix 'we ch eer'
/m / - /n/ ?i*m 'you (sg .)'

?i*n 'I'
/n/ - /nn/ ‘?im i-ne 'knee' (o bject c a se )

?imi*nne 'gopher' (o bject c a s e )
The g lo tta liz e d con sonan ts a re d istin g u ish ed by sim u lta n eo u s c o a r t ic u la

tion of g lo tta l c lo su r e , w hile ?C and C ? a re c a s e s of p re g lo tta liza tio n and
p o stg lo tta liza tio n , the la tte r being v e ry in frequ en t. In g lo tta liz e d sto p s, a fter
sim u ltan eo u s c lo su re at the two poin ts, the o r a l c lo su re is r e le a s e d slig h tly
b e fo re the r e le a s e of the g lo ttal c lo su re . A s a r e s u lt a sligh t pop is s o m e
tim e s p rod uced , e .g ., p^yn 'to be drained.' In c a s e s of p r e g lo tta liz e d sto p s,
three a r tic u la to r y s ta g e s a re o b se rv e d : f ir s t , g lottal c lo s u r e ; secon d , s im u l
taneous g lo tta l r e le a s e and o r a l c lo su r e ; and fin a lly , o r a l r e le a s e , e .g ..
P h on ology 17
?a?p^Lwaca 'I am putting it.' In c a s e s of p o stg lo tta liza tio n , the th ree s ta g e s
a r e : fir s t , o r a l c lo s u r e ; then sim u ltan eo u s o r a l r e le a s e and g lo tta l c lo su r e ;
and fin a lly , g lo tta l r e le a s e , e .g ., h ip ?im ce 'it is grow ing.'
The g lo tta liz e d sto p s o cc u r w o r d -in itia lly and w o rd -m e d ia lly , w hile the
g e n e r a l pattern s e e m s to in d icate that the g lo tta liz e d continuants o cc u r w ord-
m e d ia lly and fin a lly . In g e n e r a l, the g lo tta liz e d con sonan ts a re found m uch
le s s freq u en tly than th eir u n glo ttalized c o u n te rp a rts. That /n/ and j i j a re
not found w o rd -fin a lly is p rob ab ly fo rtu ito u s.
/p/ i s b ila b ia l stop, e .g .,

p^yn 'to be drain ed'
? ilp ilp 'red '
j i j i s a p ico -d e n ta l stop, e .g .,
tdwn 'to g u e ss in s tic k g am e'
?i*tit 'end,' 's te rn of canoe'
/c/ is a p ic o -a lv e o la r stop, e .g .,
ci-x lu 'm ountain ground s q u ir r e l'
w 6 *cekse 'I am jum ping'
/li/ is d o r s o - v e la r stop, e .g .,
litayc 'nine'
h i’iiw c e 'it is sunny'
/q/ i s dor s o -p o s tv e la r stop, e .g .,

q^xno 'p r a ir ie chicken '
yoqopi 'that'
/m/ is b ila b ia l n a sa l, e .g .,
cti’lim a y n 'for the ste e r'
la?drn 'a ll'
/n/ is a p ico -d e n ta l n a sa l, e .g .,
?a*kinax 'I would have seen him '
/w/ is b ila b ia l se m iv o w e l, e .g .,
?ew ni*se 'I am givin g it'
ti*w 'cut' (p ast p a rtic ip le )
/y/ is p a la ta l sem iv o w e l, e .g .,
?e -y sc e 'I am happy'
h ipstti’y 'enough'
j i j i s la t e r a l, e .g .,
k iw k iw ifec 'drum '
18 JSez P erce Gram m ar
The follow in g e x am p les support the phonem ic a n a ly s is given above:
/p/ - /p/ p&yn 'to a r r iv e '

p&yn 'to be d rain ed'
/t/ - /t'/ t^wn 'to m ake stone to o ls'

tdwn 'to g u e s s in s tic k g am e'
/c/ - /c/ cewc§*w 'w h isp er'

c§*wcew 'ghost' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/k/ - 1^1 tuktix 's tiff

tufeax ' straig h t'
/q/ - /q/ q 6 cqoc 'm ead o w lark '

qocqoc 'naked' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/n/ - /n/ tinta*n 'g r a s s widow'

tinta*n 'm a le m ountain sheep'
/w/ - /w/ w ^ ’wa 'm osqu ito'

w^-wa 'fish hook'
/y/ - /y/ h^*yey 'ste e lh e a d salm on'

h4*yam 's c r a tc h me'.' (im p e rfe c t
/ ’ P/ - /P/ - / P ’ / ?a?p 4w aca 'I am putting it'

âp ap i-pap 'liz a rd '
h ip ? im ce 'it is grow in g'
120. V o w els. A ll u n s tr e s s e d v ow els have som ew hat c e n tra lize d le n is

and la x allo ph o n es.
A fte r g lo tta lizatio n , v ow els have a p h ary n g e alized q u ality , e .g .,

c^*no 'that m an'
c ^ lc e l 'fat, aw kw ard'
A fte r /h/ or /?/ and b e fo re /n/, s t r e s s e d v ow els a r e freq u en tly n a sa liz e d ,

e .g .
?§-ni 'fool hen'
he-neke 'again'
/i/ is high, front and unrounded b e fo re j -j , e .g .,

si*s 'broth'
h a s a c e n tra lize d o n -g lid e a fte r /q/ or /x/, e .g .,

q i’wn 'old man'
x i*cem ce 'I am angry'
P h on ology 19
and is lo w e r high, front and unrounded e lse w h e re , e .g .,

lep it 'two'
/e/ i s lo w e r m id , front and unrounded a fte r /y/, e .g .,

kiy§w kiyew 'katyd ids'
and h igher low , and unrounded e lse w h e re , e .g .,

?§-ks 's is t e r '
/a/ i s h igh er low , c e n tra l and unrounded a fte r /w/ or /m /, e .g .,

m ^q s 'g a ll'
and is low c e n tra l and unrounded e lse w h e re , e .g .,

n^*qc 'one'
/o/ i s m id , b a c k and rounded a fter /w/ o r /m /, e .g .,

m 6 ’la ? 'm aggot'
and is lo w e r m id , ba ck and rounded e lse w h e re , e .g .,

?oyl^*qc 'six '
/u/ is high and ba ck b e fo re /•/ , e .g .,

?ti*yit 'beginning'
and is lo w e r high and b a c k e lse w h e re , e .g .,

litiyc 'nine'
In g e n e r a l, rounding is n o n d istin ctive.
The follow in g e x am p le s support the phonem ic a n a ly s is given above:
/u/ - /e/ - /a/ stihuy 'fat'

s^hey 'w orm '
s ih a y 's o re ' (im p e rfe c t set)
/i/ - /u/ q iy § -sq iy e s 'm ean looking'

q uy§-sq u yes 'blue jay ' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/u/ - /o/ qulusqti*lus 'd a n d ru ff

q o lo sq 6 -los 'esop h agu s' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/i/ - /e/ rJ.kise (p lace nam e)

n ek ise 'I think'
/i/ - /a/ ?a *k ci‘qa 'we saw it'

? a ’kc^-qa 'I saw it'
20 JSiez Perce Gram m ar
130. S u p ra se g m e n ta ls.
/•/ (vow el length) is c h a ra c te r iz e d by r e la tiv e te n se n e ss in the sy lla b le

and a vow el length of a p p ro x im a tely two m o ra e , e .g .,
s i- s 'broth' (cf. s is 'n av el')
m ^-qe? 'snow ' (cf. m ^qe? 'p a tern al un cle' [v o ca tiv e ])
h a -l^ la lc ix 'they ch eer' (cf. h a l^ la lc ix 'we c h e e r')
/ 'I ( s t r e s s ) is c h a r a c te r iz e d by high pitch and re la tiv e lo u d n ess in the

s y lla b le , e .g .,
m ^ 'q e? 'snow '
/+/ (ph on ological w ord jun cture) is c h a r a c te r iz e d by a m id -to -h ig h g lid e

on the follow in g long s t r e s s e d s y lla b le , and by an o c c u rre n c e of the dental
allophone of a p reced in g /n/ when /k/ or /q/ fo llo w s, e .g .,
/nk/ : [i]k] ?an k 4-c]iilk sa 'I te a r it with hand'
/n + k/ : [nk] ?i*n + kti*se 'I go'
/,/ (pause fo rm ) is c h a ra c te r iz e d by a c le a r ly m ark e d sh ort s ile n c e . The

follow in g long s tr e s s e d sy lla b le s ta r t s with m id d le pitch.
/./ (te rm in a l contour) is c h a ra c te r iz e d by a slig h t drop in pitch, and by

v o ic e le s s allo ph o n es o f the p reced in g m , n, w, y, or 1 .
The follow in g e x am p le s support the phonem ic a n a ly s is given above:
/•/ - no length S1*S 'broth'

SIS 'navel'
m ^*qe? ' snow'

m ^qe? 'p a tern al u n cle' (v ocativ e)
?a-t 6 '?sa 'I go out to see som ebody e ls e 's '

? a to ? sa 'I go out to see m ine'
? 6 -qoxc 'ankle'
*?6 qoxc (m an 's nam e)
mti* ' cow'

mti 'c a ll'
/V “ weak s tr e ss w §*cese 'I am rid in g '

w e*c§’ se 'I am dancing' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
/+/ - no juncture *?e- + w i-ce 'you a re cry in g 1

? ew i’ ce 'I am sleepy' (im p e rfe c t p a ir)
P h on olog y 21
140. P h o n o tac tics.
141. The s y lla b le canon is C iV ( - ) ( C 2 ) (C 3 )(C 4 )(C 5 ). A fte r a p h on ological

word jun cture m ay be any consonant except g lo tta liz e d continuants; e l s e
w here, CjL n iay be any consonant. V m ay be any vow el. C2> when follow ed by
a ju n ctu re, m a y b e any consonant except /k/, /q/, /h/ and g lo tta liz e d sto p s.
T h e re a r e no consonant c lu s t e r s a fte r a ph on ological w ord ju n ctu re.
142. P re ju n c tu ra l con sonan ts and consonant c lu s t e r s . In g e n e r a l, th ree-

m em b er and fo u r-m e m b e r p re ju n c tu ra l c lu s t e r s contain tw o -m e m b e r p r e
ju n ctu ral c lu s t e r s in fin a l p o sitio n . N am e ly , in C ^ V (-)C 2 C 3 C 4 , C 3 C 4 a re
p e r m is s ib le fin a l po sition tw o -m e m b e r c lu s t e r s (with the exception of qt
and q s); so a r e in C 2 V (*)C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 . H ow ev er, in fo u r-m e m b e r c lu s
te r s C 3 C 4 C 5 a re p e rm itted fin a l th r e e -m e m b e r c lu s te r s in only seven c a s e s
out of ten e x am p le s.
No g em in atio n or g lo tta liz e d consonants a re found in p re ju n c tu ra l c lu s te r s .
It m ay be sig n ific a n t that /p/ and son o ran ts do not o cc u r a s the fin a l m em b er
a fter sto p s (with the exception of /?/) in p re ju n c tu ra l c lu s t e r s .
The p re ju n c tu ra l consonants and consonant c lu s te r s m ay be s u m m a riz e d

a s fo llo w s:
Cl V(-) C2 C3 C4 ^5
^ - k ,q ,h ,P
»
c - i,c (^ -k ,q ,h ,C
any
vow el
^ - p ,t ,k ,q ,C p ,t ,c ,q ,x ,y t ,c ,s ,x
1 1
j i1
p ,’ ,h ,x t ,c ,n ,y ,w ,s p ,k ,s t ,c ,s
E x a m p le s of C 2 (V )(*)C :
P ?^sqap 'younger b ro th e r of a m ale '

t m itd 't 'three'
c x^?w ic 'sh arp ' (of points)
? ?^*le? 'p atern al gran d m oth er' (vocativ e)
\ t^-qm a*l 'hat'
s t§h es 'ice '
X sim u x 'c h a rc o a l'
X• peqiyex 'nephew'
'Ân exception is /hoqho*q/ 'hog,' a probable loan from English.
m cti-lim 'bull'
n tinu-n 'g ra ss widow
w s^*w 'silence'
y wet§-key 'leggings'
1 ?exci'?mil 'throat'
f
m la?^m 'all'
*
n qeq^-win 'drunk'
w
» < *
k i’w 'cut' (past participle)
y hipstti-y 'enough'
i xitff 'break'
E x a m p le s of C 2 V (*)C 2 C 2 :
The com bin ation s found a re a s fo llo w s (A ra b ic n u m e ra ls in the chart

r e fe r to the subsequen t lis t of ex a m p le s):
t m
P 1 3
t 6
c
k 10 11
q 12 13
? 14 15 16 17 18
s 19 20 21 22 23 24
X 25 26 27
X 28 29 30
h 31
m 32 33 34 35 36
n 37 38
w 39 40 41
y 42 43 44 45 46
1 47 48 49 50 51
1. pt ?uyn§-pt 'seven'
2. pc lia p c i^ p c 'fu rio u s'
3. ps ?ehips 'I ate it'
4. px ?enim ipx 'tow ard w inter'
5. p? sip x sip x 'd irty'
6 . ts s 6 *ts 'deep w ater'
7. tx ? in i’ tx 'to the house'
8. tx pi*tx 'm a te rn a l un cle
9. cx ? i-c x 'go in'.'
P h on ology 23
10. kt te w li’kt ’t r e e ’
1 1 . ks pew §-yiks 'we c r o s s e d o ver'
12. qc n^-qc 'one'
13. qs s ^ -sla q s 'm oose'
14. "P xe?px^?p 'sneaky'
15. ?t k ik ^ ?t 'blood'
16. ?c t^ ?c 'good'
17. ?s sewi*?s 'm u sse l'
18. ?x n a c 6 ?x 'Chinook salm on'
19. cp c^yne-sp (place nam e)
20. St pi St 'father'
21. si m ^si 'so lo n g ; 'that long'
22. ss p is s 'd riz z lin g '
23. sx q il^ -sx 'otter'
24. sx p isx 'tick'
25. xt m tixtinuxt 's m a ll su c k e r fish '
26. xc h 6 *;^xc 'cottontail'
27. xs ptixs 'inner skin'
28. ?p pit§.xp 'm an 's s is t e r 's child'
29. xc t§.xc 'd efin itely'
30. x s t^xs 'w illow '
31. ht ?elweht 'sp rin g ' (se aso n )
32. m t pla*timt 'ten'
33. m s tim s 'ch o kech e rry '
34. m x tam dntoyam x (place nam e)
35. m x pi*mx 'p atern al un cle'
36. mn î-m n 'knee'
37. nx sa p a n k it^ ’nx 'to plant'
38. nm kinm 'this' (p o s s e s s iv e c a se )
39. wt lay m iw t 's m a ll'
40. wx ?isliiw x 'cut it'.'
41. wn qi-wn 'old man'
42. yc liliyc ' n in e'
43. yx ?ti-tkuyx 'take it away'.'
44. y? xayx^yx 'white'
45. yn ciw&yn 'projection '
46. yi kiw dyl 'th is long'
47. ip *?ilpilp 'red'
48. It qtilt 'pen is'
49. Ic w41c 'knife'
50. Ix cti’yeltilx 'c lo se itl'
51. Ix ?isp^*lx 'sack '
E x a m p le s of C 2 V (*)C 2 C 3 C 4 :
The com bin ation s found a re a s fo llo w s:
C4
C2 ^3
t C S X
? 1 2
X 3
X 4
h P 5
n 6
y 7
1 8 9 10
m 11
w t 12
y 13
X c 14
c 15
? 16 17
18 19
s 20
m k 21 22
n 23
w 24
y 25 26
1 27
? 28 29
q
y 30
1 X 31
? y 32
1. ?pt ce-ptuktex 6 ?pt 'to c ra w l under'

2. ?pc mti^pc 'o n e -y e a r old fawn'
3. xpx wepsti-xpx 'to the righ t'
25
4. xpx ?eqt^xpx 'to the sid e'
5. hpt w§-plehpt ’im agination*
6. npt w iye^^npt 'to c a r ry '
7. yps tayp st^yps 'tough' (of wood)
8. Ipt tem ^*ci*lpt 'encam pm ent'
9. Ip s lilp s 'm u sh ro o m , sp .'
10. Ipx ?ankd*xalpx 'open'.'
11. m tx ^ti-yitim tx 'com e and start'.'
12. wtx ?i*cqaw tx 'go in'.'
13. ytx w isk e?§ y tx 'go on a trip'.'
14. xcx leq ex cx (p lace nam e)
15. ckt ?ica p y 6 *ckt 's tr ip of tanned hide'
16. ?kt hi-kte?kt 'to co v er'
17. ?ks tu x ce ?k s 'get stu ck (in mud)'
18. Ikt nik4*qolkt 'to rem o v e'
19. Ik s tuk^-pqelks 'I c ru sh ed with hand'
20. skt sap 6 *ta*skt 'to blow to put out'
21. m kt p i?am kt ' council'
22. m k s w isl^ m k s 'I m oved'
23. nkt sep^-ketinkt 'poison'
24. wkt tax• s4 wkt 'echo'
25. ykt wap^ykt 'to w ash'
26. y k s w ap^yks 'I w ashed'
27. Ikt taqali^lkt 'to c lo s e door'
28. ?qt w§wpe?qt 'to sp lit'
29. ?qs ^m upe^qs 'I b ro k e with head'
30. yqt weh^yqt 'n ec k lac e'
31. Ixc p^lxc 'ra b b it'
32. ?yx w il 6 *ke‘?yx 'run'.'
E x a m p le s of C i V ( - ) C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 :
pckt w ef§yliipckt 'to tie'

kckt w iw tokckt 'to hatch'
?tkti w e?l^ 'm u ?tk t 'to tie h a ir on the fo r
?mqt w e’ ci^m qt 'to get sp lin te r in foo
?npt k 6 ?npt 'to bite'
?ykt quqtike ?ykt 'to gallo p '
?wxc tite?w xc 'c h is e l mouth'
htkt wat^htkt 'to w ade out'
x sk s ttixsks 'I sm a sh ed with hand'
x sk t dM, *?icettixskt 'to cut open'
143. The consonants and consonant c lu s t e r s that o ccu r in te r v o c a lic a lly

m ay be su m m a rize d a s fo llo w s:
Cl C2 C3 C4
any C
C u ,c ,t ,q ,w C -w ,y
Cu C u -l'h C u -x,h ;^-P
p> '^.w,l p ,t ,c ,s ,x ,m ,n ,y ,l p ,c ,k ,q ,s t ,c ,k ,q ,? , s
C u: u n glo ttalized consonants

P : g lo tta liz e d stops
E x a m p le s of V (* )C iV :
P ?^pa 'b r ic k of ground ca m a s'

t ?^*tim 'a rm '
c ?^*cim 'com e in'.'
k h ekice 'I see'
q ? i-q a m 'above'
? ^4-â 'crow '
1 cti*iim 's te e r'
s ?e*se 'claw '
X ttixit 'to m ak e fish in g lin e s'
X ?exew ike?ykt 'to go alo n g sid e'
h ?e-h§ 'yes'
m ?^m a 'isla n d '
n ?§*ni 'fool hen'
w ?^*wit 'widow'
y ?4yi 'younger s is t e r '
1 ?§.*la 'fir e '
i
P tiput 'lung'
t ?^*tis 'red fa ce paint'
i
c ?eci-c 'sh o rt tim e'
?§*liex 'm agpie'
q ? 6 *qoxc 'ankle'
>
m cti-iim ayn 'for the s te e r'
t
n tinCi-n 'm ale m ountain sheep'
t
w wd*wa 'fish hook'
t
y cti’y em 'fish '
i k iw kiw ife c 'drum '
00
LO
00
CO O)
CD
co
CD oo CO CM CM CO 00 tH t-H
tH co 00 o 1—1 00 00 c:5 1-H
1—1 1—1 rH tH rH CM
lO CM tH I> 00 LO CD o
1—1 00 o tH lO CD 05 1-H
tH 1—1 T*l 1—1 tH CM
rH o CD 05 CM o LO
m 00 o 1—1 CM lO 00 05
tH T—1 t-H 1-H 1—J 1-H
rH CD o 05 CO 1—1 05
t-H oo m 00 00 05 CM lO I>
tH 1—1 1—1
o 00 05
00 05 O
CM
crr ■ CD lO CO 05 I> LO r> I> o 00 00 CD

T—1 CM lO CD I> 05 1—1 CM 00 LO CD I> 05 o rH CM
tH 1—1 rH 1—1 1—1 tH rH CM CM CM
CM 00 m 00 CD CD CD 05 CO D- cn
i-H CM LO I> 05 CM CO CD I> 05 o
tH T—1 tH 1—1 1—1 rH CM CM
tH I> I> LO LO LO 00 CM CD CM CD 00
t-H CM I> CJ5 tH CM OO CD I> 05 O CM
rH 1—1 rH rH 1-1 1—1 tH CM CM
o CD CO CO LO CD oo CO 1—1 LO t-H LO 00 CD CM LO
1-H CM LO CD I> 00 05 1—1 CM 00 CD I> 05 o 1-H rH CM CM
tH 1—1 1-H 1—1 1—1 t-H t-H CM CM CM CM CM
m CM LO CO CM CD O O
CM CD 05 rH CD 05 o
rH 1-H 1—1 rH CM
CM 1—1 05
05 1—1
1—1 1—1 CM
CT) 1—1 O LO 05
CM 05 T—1 CO
1—1 1—1 1-H
00 CM
CSl t*H
CM
00 CM o CM OO 00 o 05 00 CO CO 00 00
CM LO CD I> 05 o CM 00 I> CO o
1—1 tH T—1 rH 1—1 tH CM
I> CM 00
I> o
rH
CD 00 CM I>
I> 00
1—1 T—1 1-H
lO T—1 O) CM 1—1 05 CM 05 1-H CD CM

CM 00 CD 00 o LO I> CO O
tH tH rH T—1 1-H CV3
O 00 o 00 CD CM rH 00 o LO T—1 1-H CO
CM CO I> 00 O 00 LO 00 o CM CM
t—1 rH 1—1 rH t-H tH CM CM CM
00 C5 I> 1—1 t-H 05 I> lO CM 1—1 I> 05

1—1 CO lO CD CD 00 O CM 00 LO CD 00 CM
1—1 1—1 1—1 tH 1-H 1-H CM
CM 00 CD o o 00 CD tH o o CD 00 00 O o
1—1 00 lO CD CO 00 o Cvj 00 LO CD 00 o CM
1—1 1—1 rH 1-H tH tH tH CM CM
1—t I> ID 05 C5 I> LO 00 o 05 uO I> CM 05 LO 00

rH CO LO CD CO o CM 00 lO co 00 05 1-H 1—1
1—1 tH 1—1 1-1 t-H 1-H t-H CM CM
a +-> a O' r+l u X ><• 6 !>> rH AO 'S •‘rH

1. PP m itippe 'at e ld e r b e r r y ’
2 . pt ?is^ -p tek ey 'p a r fle c h e ’
3. pc ?istti-ptupce 'I cut hair*
4. pk c4 * p k i?la k sa 'I g a th e r’
5. pq h e?lepq§nut ’ without sh oes'
6 . P" h ip ^ im ce 'it is grow ing'
7. pi lat^ p latap 'flim sy / 'e a s ily bent'
8. ps n ik 6 -pse 'I eat in a hu rry'
9. P? x ip x a p 'sk in d is e a se '
10. pn nexsepnix 'quite d ifferen t'
11. pw pilepw § 'fo ur (m en)'
12. py ?ica p y 6 -ckt 's tr ip o f tanned hide'
13. pi t a li ’play 'sh o rt p e stle'
14. pt ?ipt 6 -se 'I hit'
15. p i ta p a p i^ p a p 'round'
16. pq qapapq^pap 'tight'
17. tp w eyi-letpu- 'C a y u se '
18. tt w eq ittise 'I lou dly speak'
19. tc text§qetce 'I w o rry '
20. tk petktahtu? 'we w ill be shooting'
21. tq hipetqti-ye 'they drowned'
22. ts ? i ‘tsa 'I go out'
23. tx titx in m a (p la ce nam e)
24. tx x§txet ' spine'
25. tm sap ^tm a 'late seaso n '
26. tn w is ^ ’tnix 'we have been standing'
27. tw titw ite-s 'tooth m ark '
28. ty pi-ckatyo 'b ro o k trout'
29. tl t^tlo 'ground s q u ir r e l'
30. tp w ix ci?letp et (p lace nam e)
31. tt tatt^t 'e a s y to tear'
32. tli i^ tia t 'cut frin g e s'
33. tq hipetqu lew ske 'they cam e b ack in a h u rry '
34. tn q i’tnes 'sm o k e hole'
35. cp ?icpe?sttiptupne 'I cut h air'
36. ct lia ‘?li*cti?m ay 'c iv e t cat'
37. cc t a c c ay n 6 *m y a ? c 'coyote'
38. ck li*ckaw (p la ce nam e)
39. cq q i-cqin 'to take c a re o f
40. cs w ^ 'c s a c a 'I beat with stick '
41. cx c ic x e m 6 -mkt 'e lk with one h o rn ’
P h on olog y 29
42. cm n ^ *cm i?s 'I w ish'

43. cn ?ipoxpoq4cna ’your g re a t gran d paren t' (o bject c a s e )
44. cw w acw ^cno ' saddlehorn,' ' p o m m e l'
45. cy x ax a-cy^ -ya 'm a n -lik e g r iz z ly b e a r'
46. cl w icleku*pt 'to b r e a k in cutting'
47. ci ■îcli^tliatin 'frin g e s'
48. cq q ocq 6 c 'naked'
49. kp êkpi-ke^ykse 'I tra c e it'
50. kt hi*kte?ke ' cov er'
51. kc h^*w lekce 'I am d isa p p ea rin g '
52. k s ?ew ni*kse 'I put it'
53. kn cep^-knekt 'to s e le c t the best'
54. ky wewtikye 'bu ll elk'
55. kl lik li* c e 'I turn'
56. kt pilaw tiw a • nektipe c 'anxious to be frien d ly '
57. kc w a tik c ^ ’ sa 'I step on'
58. ky c^kyax 'left handed'
59. qp pfeqpe 'high noon'
60. qt hiliw heqteqt 'dead tim b er'
61. qc te*w ciqce '1 ta lk at night'
62. qq hiqq§*w ise 'he i s drunk'
63. qs w e?w uqse 'I vom it'
64. qm t^-qm a*l 'hat'
65. qn w isteq n 6 *mit 'gift'
66. ql ?ip eq lisn e 'm an 's so n 's child' (o bject c a s e )
67. ''P ■?a?plLwaca 'I am putting it'
68. pe?tti*qes 'm a n -c r a z y '
69. ?c w ^*tiw a?ca 'I am w earin g belt'
70. ?k h i-kte?ke 'co v e r'
71. 9q septeqepe*?qe 'I b ro k e it'
72. 'flat'
73. ?s ?a ?sa liiw k a ?n y a 'I cut h is'
74. ?x ? e ? x ilp is e 'I am q u a rre lin g with him '
75. ?m sa ? m ^ w a s 'belt'
76. ?n pti*?niks 'he n am es it'
77. ?w ?§-le ? w ic 'e a s y to get'
78. "y ti?y e t 'laugh'
79. ?i he?lepq§nut 'without sh oes'
80. m ic y 6 ’xo?tVs 'rad io '
81. ?c ? 6 *le‘?cayn 'fo r fa th e r 's m other'
82. ?q lu ?q i*ckin ik e-y ' south'
83. In k§.lna 'w ild curran t'

84. It cep ^ -lte^ k se 'I flatten'
85. sp p a sp a si-n 'ra n cid '
86. St ?d stay 'aw l'
87. sc w ac^ scasca 'I sp lash '
88. sk tti*skex 'upw ard'
89. sq qe-sqe*s 'd otted ; 'p a r ti-c o lo r e d '
90. ss ia s s d y n o 'elbow '
91. sx c a x i-s x is 'goat'
92. sh hin^-shin 'te ll th em ’.' (in slow speech)
93. sm s is m ix n o t 'without sh irt'
94. sn sa y q isn ix 'v e ry beau tifu l'
95. sw w asw ^sn o 'chicken '
96. sy y o -sy 6 -s 'blue'
97. si s ^ -sla q s 'm oo se'
98. sp îsp^-lx ' sack '
99. St h ilis te q ic e 'it s tic k s'
100. sc w a c^ scasca 'I sp lash '
101. si. 'ro c k m ouse'
102. sq q 6 sqo s 'b la ck b ird '
103. xp ?il§*puxpux 'a sh e s'
104. xt tukuxttikux 'protru ding'
105. xc ca*xc4*x 'w ild onion'
106. xk pet 6 ‘ ?m ix ki 'they went o ver'
107. xq q i ‘?yaxqi?yax 'sq u aw fish '
108. xl M xli-ks 's c a tte r e d ru bbish '
109. xs ?enti*xsukse 'I know by sm e ll'
110. XX te-xxi*cem ke 'I w as a n g ry b e c a u s e it w as cold'
111. xh h e w le ’xhew lex 'thin a ir '
112. xm mtaxmukt 'fish , sp.'
113. xn tukelixn e?w e-t 'hunter'
114. xw *?acixwd’k o ? s ' canteen'
115. xl c i? m ta x l 6 *yn 'to w ear clo th es in sid e out'
f
116. xc c ix c ix 'hay'
117. xk t a ’xli 6 ‘m ayka 'I b e ca m e ill fro m cold'
118. xq qeyexqeyex 'young chub'
119. xn tuxnipec 'ra d io '
120. ?P poxp 6 qc 'g re a t grandparent'
1 2 1 . xt texteqetce 'I w o rry '
122. xc caqaxcdqax 's m a ll so re '
123. xs nexsepnix 'quite d ifferen t'
P h on olog y 31
124. xn sism ^ x n ot 'without sh irt'

125. xw piwixw i*qin 'argum ent'
126. ?^xyew 'm ane'
127. xl ci*xlu 'm ountain chipm unk'
128. xt t^^xtex ' s tr a w b e r r ie s '
»
129. xc c 6 *xcoqca 'I am suckin g'
130. ht petktihtu? 'we w ill be shooting'
131. he hiw ehci*x 'they a r e b ark in g '
132. hk hi we *?yn§hke ?yke 'he took her hom e'
133. hs ti? n 6 hse '(the sun) r is e s '
134. hn mti-hne 'cow ' (o bject c a s e )
135. hw ?inahw ^*latksa 'I c a r r y fir e '
136. hy te?n §h y ekse 'I am going up hunting'
137. hi m ti-hlaykin 'n ear a cow'
138. hq nikt 6 hquyim k s e 'I am d ragg in g (som ething) up'
139. mp ne?^*lem pe 'm y p a tern al g ra n d m o th e r's place'
140. mt t§*m texlikse 'I sp re a d som ething'
141. mk ne*?§-lemki 'through m y p e te rn a l gran d m oth er'
142. mq h iy ^'m q ece 'I c r y a fter'
143. m? h^*m ?aw it 'w idow er'
144. ms t^ -m se p se y e 'I p ack by throw ing in'
145. mx x oyim x oyim 'alone'
146. mm p am m i-w acpa 'freq uen tly'
147. mn h am n^’w isa 'I (a m a r r ie d wom an) retu rn to v isit
m y old fa m ily '
148. mw ne?§*leniw elcet 'b e c a u se of m y p a tern al gran d m o th er'
149. m y p i’tam yalon 'ch ick e n hawk'
150. ml w ey li*m lek s 's tr a y one' (e .g ., a dog)
151. mt x 6 m tuy 'p e riw in k le s'
152. me ? a m ciy a 'I h eard it'
153. mK tam li^cliac 'h ail'
154. mn cep §-p u ?lem n es 'baking pow der'
155. np ?in p ise 'I take it'
156. nt kuntem elti’kt 'the second' (e .g ., a son)
157. nc ?inciw^L*tx 'I alone'
158. nk *?enkitipise 'I am tanning hide'
159. nq capal^-n qana 'I w as w orking'
160. nm septi-n m ise 'I blow horn'
161. nn ?im i-nne 'gopher' (o bject c a se )
162. nw ?inw im 'la s t y e a r'
163. ny kony^ 'there'
32 Nez Perce Grammar
164. nl pat§,nlaykin 'n ear a bush'

165. nli îm uTi^'nlie 'they a lso '
166. nm ‘?inm ^-ks 'm y s is t e r '
167. wp c i 6 i*wpe 'at w ife 's b r o th e r 's'
168. wt t^ ’w ti^y ese 'I laugh at night'
169. wc tam tam ^w ca 'I throw too fa r'
170. wk ?a ?sa k iw k a ? n y a 'I cut h is'
171. wq tew qeqe-w it 'n igh tm are'
172. w? ta w ?o x o ‘?6 x a c a 'I cough at night'
173. w s w 6 ‘w s e se 'I th rash bean s'
174. wh hiliw heqteqt 'dead tim b er' (in slow speech)
175. wn qalaw m *n 'beaded'
176. ww tew w i’ ce 'I c r y at night'
177. wy pi*wyu*cix 'we se p a ra te '
178. wl h 6 -w lekse 'I am d isa p p ea rin g '
179. wt c§,’w ta la h sa sa 'I r a is e front lo c k of h a ir with stiffe n e r
180. wc te*w ciqce 'I ta lk at night'
181. wq qa?^w q a?aw 'white h o rse'
182. yp p a y p a y l 6 *ya 'ta ttle -ta le '
183. yt t^ytay 'little salm on '
184. yc pe-16-yce 'I got lo st'
185. yk tiw ^yka*s 'h a ir oil'
186. yq ta y q isa 'I thread'
187. y? â-tw ay^^yn 'fo r an old woman'
188. y s su^;uystaiuy 'd ark' (of skin)
189. y ? xayx^yx 'white'
190. y m laym iw t 's m a ll'
191. yn p^yna 'I a rriv e d '
192. yw m §*ywi 'm orn in g'
193. yy h ip eyyew icw iye 'they w ere poor'
194. yi cap ^ y laq ca 'I wound (som eon e) fa tally '
195. yc tuk 6 *y c illik s 'I am exhausted'
196. yii ia.y'iikyoc 'ra cco o n '
197. yq sa y q isn ix 'v e ry beau tifu l'
198. yn w ay^w yaw nas 'fan'
199. Ip w isa lp 6 '?s 'paddle'
2 0 0 . It talt^ tk i 'w ith ced a r'
201. Ik *?etelkeli*kce 'I am leadin g'
202. iq hiwa-t41qa 'it stopped'
203. Is c i- lils e 'I c u rl up'
204. Im c ilm i 'pine s q u ir r e l'
205. In liallt^lna 'm aggot' (o bject c a se )
P h on ology 33
206. Iw la w i’ lw it 'in telligen t'

207. ly c ily 6 -xne 'fly' (o bject c a s e )
208. 11 till^ -p c a 'I am lon eso m e'
209. IP cilpti*? 'a ce' (of c a r d s )
2 1 0 . Vk td llcal 'm aggot'
211. iq p ^ 'lq a lla y 'both ends'
f .3 '
212. cx XlCXl’ C 'ru b b e r'
f
213. cn ?in 6 - cnehw ew itise 'it is going dow n stream '
214. cy m ic y 6 ‘xo?tâs 'ra d io '
215. 6 p c 6 *yakpapt 'butter'
216. lin ?ine*linikt 'band' (of people)
217. titeliM -ynin 'pigeon -toed '
218. qp se q p ise 'I am scra tch in g '
219. qh hoqh 6 *q 'hog'
220. mt le m t 1i-s 'opponent'
221. mk ?ickum kum ^*lx 'c a lf
222. mn ‘^ im nicix 'we a re h ere to dig'
223. nk ? e s e p 6 -ketinke 'I poison ed him '
i
224. wc ?ilcw §*w cix 'm o n ster'
225. wn •?ewni*se 'I put it'
226. wl h il^ w lu ’ cix 'they (fish ) a re re s tin g in deep w ater
227. yn lam tayn ix 'the v e ry la s t'
228. fw ?efw ice 'I spend w inter'
E x a m p le s of V (* )C ^ C 2 C 3 V :
The com bin ation s found a re a s fo llo w s:

p t c k q ^ s x m n w y l t c t q
26
27
28
29
30 31 32
33 34 35
36 37 38
P 39 40
t 41
c 42 43
k 44
q 45
s 46 47 48 49
X 50
X 51 52
m 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
n 60 61 62 63
w 64 65
y 66 67 68 69 70
1 71
72
73
74
75 76 77
78
79 80
81
82
83
84 85
86
87 88
90 91
92 93 94
P h on ology 35
Cl C2 C3
p t c k q ’ s x m n w y l t c l i q
P 95
n k 96
? 97
k 98
9 99 100
w S 101 102
X 103
n 104
k 105
q 106 107
y s 108
X 109
p 110 111
c 112
k 113
1 q 114
s 115
X 116
X 117 118
n k 119
1. ptk taxc^p tka 'I shot (it) lengthw ise'

2. pcq ?ip cq i-tit 'b ird with long b ill'
3. pcx c a p c x il^ y k sa 'I sw eep'
4. pci lap cld p c 'c o v e re d a ll o ver'
5. pks ?ecu*ye?ip kse 'I am cu ltivating'
6. p'?n ctip?nit 'e m e rg e fro m tim b er'
7. p?l h ip ^ l^taca 'he g o e s m ining'
8. psc q ^ p sce 'I c lo se e y es'
9. psq ? ip sq ik e ? y k se 'I w alk'
10. pxn t a s i ’ pxne *cow elk' (o bject c a s e )
11. tks cti*yeti*pitkse 'I m ake it sm ooth'
12. tkw petkw^htu? 'we w ill be shooting'^
®M r. W heeler gave this form , which M rs. W ilson said belonged to the lower dialect.
36 A'ez Perce Grammar
13. tqs w a sd tq sa 'I whip'

14. txs cem itxs§,w ay 'h u c k le b e rry bush'
15. txm î'txm e 's is t e r 's ch ildren ' (of women)
16. txl litx litx 'bushy'
17. txc ? a tx c ^ ? k sa 'I shoot and hit the targ et'
18. txp pitx p^’m a 'm o th e r's b r o th e r's'
19. txt ?atxt 6 *ca 'I am sn eakin g up on it'
20. txc ?^ txcap sa 'I shoot it lengthw ise'
21. tx? w e ’tx ^ ip sq ik e “^ykse 'I am w alking in an ger'
22. txs h itx s^ w k sa 'it is echoing'
23. txm w ^ ’tx m ic is a 'I h ear it in an ger'
24. txw w 6 *txwenpse 'I am sin gin g in anger'
25. txq w 4*txqilaw ksa 'I am turning around in an ger'
26. cpk poxpoqcLckinix 'fro m g re a t g ra n d p a ren t’ s'
27. cqc qi-cq ce 'I take c a r e of it'
28. c?l h ic ? li* ce 'he is proud'
29. cxi w icxlioyl^hnapa (p lace nam e)
30. ksp ci-k sp e 'at s is t e r - in - la w 's ' (a wom an speakin g)
31. k st ci?l^ *k stin 'd e e r claw b e lls '
32. k sy h i-sem tu k sy e -y e 'lu m in ary ' (p e rso n ified )
33. q cs ?oylaqcsilii*w p a 's ix days b e fo re or after'
34. qcn ‘?inipoxpoqcna 'm y g re a t gran d paren t' (object c a se )
35. qcw ‘?oyli*qcw a 'six ' (p e rso n s)
36. qst teq st^ -q s 'fern '
37. q sm maqsm^Lqs 'yellow '
38. naqsn n aq sn i'x 'only one'
39. ?px xe?px^?p ' sneaky'
40. ?pt ?e?p t§ -se 'I hit it'
41. ?ts sa p ^ ? tsa 'I let it out'
42. ’ cs sap ^?csa 'I let it in'
43. ?cn *?ele?cnti*t 'without p a tern al grandm other'
44. ?ks h i*kte?kse 'I co v e r'
45. ?qs ? ic e p ^ ‘? qse 'I cut'
46. ?st îcpe^stti-ptupne 'I cut h air'
47. sa p 6 •nm i ? s ?ayn 'e ld e rb e rry '
48. ?sn se w i^ sn im e (p lace nam e)
49. ?sw te q e p si? sw iy e ’he m ade m e u p se t’
50. ?xm k(i?xm ac ' s e v e r a l'
51. ?xs h e ? x si? m ilw i-se 'he ea ts m uch'
52. ?xl la ? x l4 ? x ’p o w d ery ’
53. ‘?mp h i-ti?m p e ?q s ’I b ro k e it with k n e e ’
P h on olog y 37
54. ?mt 'opponent'

55. ‘?mc hi*ti'?m ce 'I am kneeling'
56. ?mq îlst^-^m q et 'p a rtly burned tree'
57. ?inw s^^ m w a-ca 'I w ear a belt'
58. ?inl h i’ti^ m lik s e 'I am about to kneel'
59. h i^ m ia p a c 'edge of mouth'
60. ?np ?e?n p ise 'I a r r e s t him '
61. *?nn ti ?nnlix 'q u ick death'
62. ?nw k e ? n w i’ se 'I knit'
63. ?ny a s alii wka ?nya 'I cut it fo r him '
64. ?ws ce*p^?w se 'I s e le c t'
65. ?wn ?e?w n i-se 'I g iv e it to him '
66. ?yk hiwe ?yn 6 hke ?yke 'he took her with him '
67. 9ys p ^ ’n y a^y sa 'he m a k e s it fo r som eone
68. ?yn t o ‘?yn6 ?ayn 'cru p p er'
69. ’ yy ?a?yyi*?c 'd an gerou s'
70. ’ yq piiu n ?m a ?y q ^ *l 'Sep tem ber'
71. •?lw ha'?lw iya 'I went for nothing'
72. Iks c o ’lah63:ksa 'I s lip it o f f
73. sk s w at 6 ’ s k s a 'I turn it o f f
74. xpk wepti’pkinike 'rig h t hand'
75. xcn l^q ex cn e (p lace nam e)
76. xcw lo x c w i’ sa 'I am in d u strio u s'
77. xci. hintaxciom ayn 'to be s ic k fro m s m e ll'
78. X?1 ta-x ^ld -tw isa 'I am tire d fro m fre e zin g
79. xst liti-xsteyn 'to g u e s s wrong'
80. x sc p i4 § -x sc e 'I am unlucky'
81. xc? w ixc?titekey 'pillow ,' 'cushion'
82. x sc ?em ti*xsce 'I sw allow it'
83. hps hiw w ^’pleh pse '1 im agin e'
84. hts tuk^htse '1 am shooting'
85. htq siw l^ h tq isa '1 sw im to the sh ore'
8 6 . mtn ?apol^m tna 'b rid e' (o bject c a s e )
87. m ck te m ck ile y le k ^ -t 'g r a s s h o p p e r -lik e in sect'
88. m ci ta m cli^ p a ?s 'top' (toy)
89. m kc p i? a m k c a 'they a re gath ering'
90. m ks q u y im k se 'I d rag'
91. m kt w isq u y im k t 6 -sx 'b e fo re tra v e llin g up h ill'
92. m st ? em steq e?§ n p se 'I am an sw erin g h im ’
93. m sc ‘?em scti*kw ece 'I understand'
94. m sli h im sliuye ’ d irty m outh’ (with food)
38 ISez Perce Grammar
95. nps ?em ste q e?en p se 'I am an sw erin g him '

96. nkt hinkti-kce 'he i s d ragging'
97. n?m piliun^m a^yq^-l 'Sep tem ber'
98. w ks h itx sd w k sa 'it is echoing'
99. w ?y y i?y e* w ‘?yew 'a ll o f a sudden'
100. w?t w a w ? ti'liy a x c 'w o od p eck er, sp .'
101. w st piw steq?ne*m it 'fa re w e ll'
102. wsw pew sw e-lu-ye 'we a r e going down'
103. wxk kew x k^’ wx 'brow n'
104. wny yawny4*ya 'C o ld ' (a m y th ica l fig u re )
105. y k s ?in §*tepeleykse 'I am getting con fused by talkin g so m uch'
106. y q s w eh^yqse 'I put a n e c k la c e on'
107. yqn weh^yqne 'n e c k la c e ' (o bject c a s e )
108. y sn ?a y sn im a (p lace nam e)
109. yxc q o y x c^ ’ l 'Ju ly '
110. Ip s tuk^-p ilp se 'I c a r r y in a r m s '
111. Ipx x^lpxalp 'm y th ic a l fig u re on cloud'
112. lew ? ilc w ^ ’w cix 'm o n ster'
113. Ik s ?o*cilii-lk sa 'I sp o il it'
114. Iq s w a-t§.lqsa 'I stop'
115. 1 st ^ ils t^ ’m qet 'p a rtly burned tree '
116. Ix c c^ lx ca lx 'c ric k e t'
117. Ixp qoqalxpipam 'am ong b u ffalo e s'
118. Ixn ?ilxn i*w isix 'we in c r e a se d in num ber'
119. nkt ?esep eketin ktet§*se 'I am going to po iso n him '
E x a m p le s of V (- )C 2 C 2 C 3 C 4 V :
?psq h i? p sq ik e ? y k se 'he i s w alking'

?ck s c a p ti? w a c ^ ? c k sa 'I am re a d y to shoot'
?m ks ? e q sim te q e ti? m k se 'I am throw ing it in anger'
*?npt ?e?npt§*ce 'I go to get it'
?npt ê^n ptip^-cw ise 'I want to m a r r y her'
?nps w §-txw e?npse 'I sin g in an ger'
‘'ypt tu k §?yp tese 'I throw harpoon'
?yks h i^ p sq ik e ^ y k se 'he i s w alking'
nqs ? e h is i? lq se 'I am m oisten in g '
ptks ?^ tx cap tksa 'I shoot it len gth w ise'
P h on olog y 39
p cks w ef§y 6 ip c k se 'I tie up (top of b a sk et)

p sk s w a l^ p sk sa 'I je r k it away'
wtks w eqiw tkse 'I am cutting g r a s s '
wxc*? ?ew xc?tipe?qe 'I b ro k e it by sitting'
Ip sc q i'lp s c e 'I snap ey es at'
Ip sk lia lp s k is a 'I eat fro m the bones'
200. M O R P H O P H O N E M IC S
N ez P e r c e h as 17 m orphophonem es re p re se n te d by phonem ic a lte rn a tio n s.

T h e se m orphophonem es a re in two g ro u p s.
1- l|c L ||k ||, ||q ||, W'W, II- II, ||kW ||, ||qW||
l|h ||. ||H ||, l l ' l l , ||e ||, ||u ||, I L I I , 11-11
2. jjr ll, I k i l l , IIRII
210. The m e m b e rs of the f ir s t group show the fo llow in g phonem ic

alte rn a tio n :
II c II : /s/ b e fo re ||n|| or ||w ||; /c/ e lse w h e re , e .g .,

||yu?c|| : /yta*?c/ 'poor,' 'pitiful'
|y<i?cne|| ; /yCi?sne/ 'poor' (o bject c a s e )
u y l 6 *qc|| : /?o y li*q c/ 'six '
uyle*qcw e|| : / ?oyld*qsw a/ 'six ' (of m en)
l|k| /x/ b e fo re ||k ||, ||q ||, ||n ||, ||l|| or || + ||; /k/ e lse w h e re , e .g .
|c e m it§ k k i|| : / cem it^xki/ 'with h u ck le b e rry '
I *iyeli-kqew ne II : / ?iyali*xqaw na/ ' I d rifted by'
I cem itknti't II : /cemitxnti*t/ 'without h u ck le b e rry '
I cem it§ k ley k in II : /cam it^ xlaykin / 'n ea r h u ck leb e rry '
cem i*tk|| : / c e m i’tx/ 'h u ck leb e rry '
cem itk "§y n || : /cam itli^yn/ 'fo r h u ck le b e rry '
l|ql /x/ before ||k|l, ||n||, ||l||, or || + || ,* /q/ elsew here, e .g .,

hickili-tuqkike II : /hickili-toxkika/ 'he went on back'
|hici-qne|| : /hici-xne/ 'he spoke'
c i’qlu II : /ci*xlu/ 'talking squ irrel'
tti’qil : /tti-x/ 'tobacco'
tti-qise II : /tti*qise/ 'I sm oke tobacco'
40 'Nez Perce Gram m ar
II " II : 0 a fter || ? || or || " j|; / V a fter other sto p s; /?/ e lse w h e re , e .g .,

||tis q e ? | : /tisq e ?/ 'skunk'
II tisq e£/^yn || : /tisqa(^]6.yn/ 'fo r skunk'
II " im 'i-s jl : / im r s / 'your m other'
||te ? § x e t'u || : /te?§xetu/ 'ju st a y ou n gster'
II *ini*t|| : /?iili*t/ 'house'
II ' I! • 1^1 - I ' h e-g*.

||h elx p i-s|| : /h alxpi^s/ L /h alxpi-s/ 'a ll day'
||h|| : 0 after a consonant at n o rm al sp eed ; /h/ e lse w h e re , e .g .,

II hin§*shin II : /h in^'sin/ 'te ll them l'
||h§hen|| : /h^hen/ 'stem ,' 'vine'
||h || : a ho m o rgan ic u n glo ttalized stop b e fo re a g lo tta liz e d stop; the sam e
consonant b e fo re a sonorant ( ||m ||, ||n ||, l|l||); 0 e lse w h e re , e .g .,
||foiyc|| : /litayc/ 'nine'
||p eH itiyc|| : /pekitayc/ 'nine each'
||lepit|| : /lepit/ 'two'
||peH lepit|| : /pellepit/ 'two each'
||pti*timt|| : /pti-timt/ 'ten'
II peHpti*timt II : /pepti*timt/ 'ten each'
II ^ II. W ith v o w e ls. || V || : /V/ when || ^ || o c c u r s with the fir s t vow el in

a w ord or with the th ird vow el which fo llo w s a consonant c lu s t e r ; and 0 e l s e
w h ere, e .g .,
||m ic "ikti-ynekse II : /m ickti-yn ekse/ 'I b e lie v e '
||h im ic "ikti-ynekse II ; /him cikti-ynekse/ 'he b e lie v e s '
||m ic _i* se || : /m ici*sa/ 'I hear'
II " e m ic " r s e || ; / ? a m c i-sa / 'I h ear som eone e ls e 's '
II en^’ sm ic j.s e II : / ? a n ^ -sm ic isa / 'I h ear them '
||h ip e 'ile l 6 ?e m k se II : / h ip a ?la l^ ? a m k sa / 'they a re a ll burned up'
II " II. W ith length. || " || : /•/ when || " || o c c u rs a fte r the f ir s t or third
vow el a fter || + ||; 0 e lse w h e re , e .g .,
||h r m iy e c e || : /h i-m iyaca/ 'I lic k '
II h ih r m iy e c e II : /h ih im iyaca/ 'he lic k s '
II "6 "y ew ise|| : /?^ -yew ise/ 'I am p eacefu l'
||h i"§*yew ise II : /h e?§y ew ise/ 'he is p eacefu l'
II " II. W ith length and ||R ||. ||"|| is 0 in the re d u p lic a tio n and /•/ e l s e
w h ere, e .g .,
||t§"m ul|| : /t^-m ul/ 'hail'
IIR t^"m ul|| : /tem u lt 6 *mul/ ' sle e t'
P h on ology 41
||k’'^l|. |lk ^ V |l ; /ku/ a fter ||" || with the secon d vow el after 1|+||; /kV/
e lse w h e re , e .g .,
II tu k ^ e y l 6 *kse II : /tu keyl§-kse/ 'I d rive down'
||h itu k ^ ey l^ *k se|| : /hitkuyl^-kse/ 'he d r iv e s down'
||qW ||. ||q ^ V || : /qu/ a fter || ^ || with the second vow el a fter ||+ ||; /qV/
II tuq ^ el^h n ece II : /tu q el 6 hnece/ 'I sw im down'
||h itu q ^ el§h n ece II : /hitqul^hnece/ 'he sw im s down'
N ez P e r c e h a s ex ten sive vow el harm on y. In a h arm on ic sequ en ce bounded

by II - II or 11+11 and either co term in o u s with or s m a lle r than a m orphopho-
n em ic w ord , eith er the set /i/ , /a/, /o/, or the se t /i/, /e/, /u/ is found.
The four m orphophonem es || e ||, ||u ||, ||_ ||, and || - || d e sc r ib e the harm on y.
Am ong o ld er s p e a k e r s , the h arm o n ic seq u en ces a re freq u en tly co term in o u s
with m orphophonem ic w o rd s. C on seq u en tly , the o cc u rr e n c e of h arm o n ic
sequ en ce boun dary m a rk e r || - j| is v e ry infrequ en t, the m ain exception being
fo re ig n lo a n s.
II e II : /a/ with ||_|| w ithin the sa m e h arm p n ic sequ ence bounded by || - ||

or 11+ 11; /e/ e lse w h e re , e .g .,
||t 6 -te?|| : /t 6 *ta‘?/ 'fath er' (v ocative)
||'i* te ? || : /?i-te?/ 'm other' (v ocative)
||p& §qe?|| : /p il^q a?/ 'grandm other' (vocativ e) (m atern a l g ra n d
m other'
II c e w itk " ^ n II : / caw iti^y n / 'for w ild c a r ro t'
II 16m -he*y II : /16mha*y/ 'the L e m h i R iv e r , Idaho^
||u|| : /o/ with ||_|| w ithin the sa m e h a rm o n ic sequ ence bounded by ||- ||
or 11+ 11; /u/ e lse w h e re , e .g .,
II su*y 6 *pu* II : /so-y^-po-/ 'the white people'
||tew§-pu-|| : /tew^-pu-/ 'people of O ro fin o , Idaho'
||tu?tiynu|| ; /tu^tiynu/ 'tail'
II tu?ynti'£yn|| : /to?yn 6 ?ayn/ 'crup per,' 'fo r the ta il'
II cti’lim -^ £ y n II : /clJi*limayn/ 'fo r the ste e r
IL II- l|e|| : /a/, ||u|| : /o/, ||i,|| : /i/ . ||_|| i s p h o n em ically 0 , e .g .,

||n§-qc|| : /n4-qc/ 'one'
||t 6 -te?|l : /t 6 *ta?/ 'fath er' (vocative)
||c_i-ce?|| : /ci-ca ?/ 'p a te rn al aunt' (vocativ e)
^Lem hi, originally Lim h i, was named after a king by Mormon im m igrants in the
area ca. 1855.
'^cti-lim 'steer* is a loan from Salish.
II - II (h arm on ic sequ en ce boundary m a r k e r ) is p h o n em ically 0 , e .g .,

||l^m -h £*y|| : /l§m ha-y/ 'the L e m h i R iv e r , Idaho'
II c ti'lim -" e y n || : /cti-iim ayn/ 'for ste e r'
220. The m em bers of the second group are morphophonemes of red u p li
cation.
||r|| ; /he/ before ||'?i|| or ||" i||; /hV/ before ||^ V || or ||"v || (V r e p
resenting ||e|| or ||u||); elsew here a sequence of a consonant and a vowel
corresponding to the in itial C V , e .g .,
II *iskit|| : /îskit/ 'trail'
II r 'isk itll : /he?iskit/ 'trails'
||^6hew|| : /?6hew/ 'wounded'
II r "^hew|| : /he?^hew/ 'wounded' (distributive)
||h6^cwel|| : /hi-cw al/ 'son'
II r h^"^cw£l II : /hah^cwal/ 'sons'
\\riW : a sequence of the following consonant and /i/, e .g .,

||t^?c|| : /td?c/ 'good'
||r i t ^ ? c || : /tit^L?c/ 'good' (d istrib u tiv e )
||x6?wic|| : /x4?wic/ 'sharp' (of points)
||r iX § ? w ic || : /xix^?w ic/ 'sh arp ' (d istrib u tiv e )
||R|| : complete reduplication of the following stre sse d sequence, e .g .,

Ilqi^yexll : /qi?yax/ 'squawfish'
||R q i? y e x || : /qi?yaxqi?yax/ 'little squawfish'
||m ^qs|| : /m^qs/ 'gall'
||R m 6 q s|| : /maqsm&qs/ 'yellow'
II "lip II : / “îlp/ 'reddish skin eruption'
IIR "lip II : /îlpilp/ 'red'
II II • /^^ys/ 'parsnip sp.'
||R "6yc|| : /?ayc^yc/ 'parsnip sp.'
230. Morphophonemic sequences. || ewe || and || ^we || are phonem ically

/u*/, /o-/, /ti*/, /6*/.
II ew6 II : /ew§/ or /aw^/.

II weyikniku? II : /weyixniku?/ 'I w ill be flying around'
II peweyikniku? II : /pu*yixniku?/ 'we w ill be flying around'
IIw6-yiksikII : /w^*yiksix/ 'we are going a cro ss'
II sit^w eyiksik II : /sitta-yiksix/ 'we are looking a c ro ss'
II weptem^wne II : /waptamiwna/ 'I m urdered'
P h on ology 43
II 'ew eptem §w ne II : / ?o*ptam^wna/ m u rd e re d (som ebo dy e l s e 's ) ’

II w 6*pci?yew cik|| : /w §,-pci?yaw cix/ ’ we a re k illin g '
II "ew §p ci?y ew cik II : / ?6*pci?yaw cix/ 'we a re k illin g (som ebody
e ls e 's )'
||w §w yece|| : /w ^w yaca/ 'I beat with stick '
II êw ^w y£ce|| ; / ?aw ^w yaca/ 'I beat (som ebo dy e ls e 's )'
T h e re a re the follow in g ex cep tio n s;

||m §w £|| : /m ^wa/ 'when'
||t^w e|| : /t^wa/ 'w ell . . . '
||li^w e|| : /It^wa/ 'so m uch,' 'that m uch'
||k^w eye|| : /k^w eye/ 'let them '
||w £?16we|| : /wa?14wa/ 'W a lla w a , W a sh .'
II îp§w £ce|| : /?ipdw aca/ 'I put in papoose'
||VhV|l and || v ' v || show the fo llow in g:
l|V ih V 2|| : /V2-/ i /VghVa/

||h eq ti-se|| : /heqti*se/ 'I am getting old'
||hiheqti-se II : /he-qti-se/ t /heheqti-se/ 'he is getting old'
l|V ihV 2U : /V2hV2/

||h ^ -sce|| : /h^’ sce/ 'I breath e'
||hih^*sce|| : /heh^-sce/ 'he b re a th e s'
l l V i ’ Vall /V 2 ’ V 2 /
II "elw ice II : / ?e lw ice/ 'I spend w inter'
||h i'e fw ic e II : /h e?efw ice/ 'he spends w inter'
l | V i ' V 2 l| : / V 2 ’ V 2 /
II 6^yew ise II ; /?§*y ew ise/ 'I am p e acefu l'
||hi 6 ^ e w is e || : /h e?§y ew ise/ 'he is peacefu l'
3 0 0 . C O N S O N A N T A N D V O W E L S Y M B O L IS M
A n in te re stin g fea tu re of N ez P e r c e is the o cc u rr e n c e of consonant and

vow el a lte rn a tio n , m ain ly with au g m e n tativ e-d im in u tiv e s ig n ific a n c e , / s/ ,
/n/, /k/, and /e/ a s nondim inutive fo rm s a re p a r a lle le d by / c / , / 1 /, /q/,
and /a/ a s d im inutive fo r m s . The dim inutive fo r m s in d icate s m a lln e s s in
s iz e , p o s s e s s io n by the f ir s t p e rso n (in k in sh ip te r m s ), v e r is im ilit u d e , or
44 N ez P erce Gram m ar
contem pt (in tr ib a l n a m es). T h e se d im in u tiv es often o ccu r with || r 1|
s ~ c:
II p6-su*yece II : /p^*su-yece/ 'he ro ck s (a child)'
II p^-cu-yece II ; /p6*cu*yece/ 'he ro c k s (a baby)'
||R w^ s nu II : /wasw^sno/ 'chicken'
IIR wj|c nu|| : /wacw^cno/ 'saddle horn'
||ne?y§-c|| : /na?y^*c/ 'my elder brother'
II "irny^*s|| ; / ?irriy^-s/ 'your elder brother'
||n e?crcl| : /na?ci-c/ 'my paternal aunt'
II ^ im srs|| : /?im si*s/ 'your paternal aunt'
II "isk i-cu ?m ix II ; / ?isk i*cu ?m ix / 'C o e u r d 'A len e'
II "icki*cu?m ixII : /?ick i*cu ?m ix / 'C o e u r d 'A len e' (in d e risio n )
n ~ 1;
||hit§*mnes II : /hit^*mnes/ 'book' ({hit§*m e} 'read')
IIkiwkiwifec II : /kiwkiwifec/ 'drum' ({k iw k iw i} 'beat')
II îcey6’ye-qen|| : / ?icey^’yeqan/ 'young coyote' ({'ice y 6*y e }
'coyote') cf. ||q£l|| in 'dog' below.
k - q:
||siêm || : / siie m / 'horse'
II ciq§-mq£lII : /ciq^-m qal/ 'dog'
e ~ a:
||s§*x|| : /s6*x/ 'onion'
IIR c^-x|| : /ca*xc§.*x/ 'wild onion'
||k§*tis|| : /k§*tis/ 'spear'
| | R k 6 ^ ic || ; /katickd -tic/ 'toy s p e a r '
C h ap te r III
M ORPH OLOG Y
40 0. IN T R O D U C T IO N
The N ez P e r c e m o rp h o lo g ic a l w ord is a sequence of one o r m o re m o r

ph em es betw een s u c c e s s iv e m o rp h o lo g ica l w ord ju n c tu re s sy m b o liz e d as
{+ }. { + } is re p re se n te d by fr e e a lte rn a tio n of || + || and 0 , e .g .,
{yiiq + *ipnim + 'in i-t} 'that house of h is' : ||yuq + 'ip n im + 'ini*t||
L ||yH ^+ 'ipnim mi*t || L ||yuq "ipnim + ini-t|| L ||yuq 'ipnim
"ini*t II : /yox + ?ipnim + ?ini*t/ L /yox + ?ipnimini*t/ L
/yoqipn im + ?in i’t/ L /yoqipnimini*t/.
The m o rp h o lo g ica l w ord i s eith er id e n tica l with or la r g e r than the them e,

w hich, in turn, is eith er id e n tica l with or la r g e r than the ste m .
T h e re a r e th ree m o rp h o lo g ic a l w ord c la s s e s in te rn a lly d efined: su b sta n
tiv e s , v e r b s , and p a r t ic le s . T h e se a re d iffe ren tia ted by d is c r e te s e ts of
a ffix e s or by the ab sen ce of a ffix e s .
500. S U B S T A N T IV E S
Substantive s te m s a re d is c u s s e d in 510 and su bstan tiv e th em es a re d is

c u s se d in 52 0.
510. Substantive s te m s . T h e re a re six ste m c la s s e s .
511. G e n e r a l noun ste m s (nS) : one or two g e n e r a l noun ro ot m o rp h e m e s.
T h re e fa c to r s d eterm in e the allo m o rp h s of g e n e r a l noun s te m s ; the fir s t

is m o rp h o lo g ic a l, the o th ers a r e ph on olog ical: ( 1 ) the a b sen ce or p re se n c e
of a ffix e s , (2) the ab sen ce or p r e se n c e of s t r e s s in the a ffix , (3) w hether or
not the in itia l consonant o f the su ffix is a v o ic e d continuant. The com bination
of th ese three r e s u lt s in fiv e s e ts of en v iro n m en ts:
I. No a ffix e s .
II. F o llo w e d b y an u n s tr e s s e d su ffix with in itia l v o iced
continuant, e .g ., { n im } , {n e }.
r 45 1
46 JSiez Perce Gram m ar
III. F o llo w e d by an u n s tr e s s e d su ffix with in itia l v o ic e le s s

sto p s, e .g ., { p e } , { c i m } , { k } , { k e k } , { k i } , {k in ik }.
IV . Fo llo w e d by a s tr e s s e d su ffix with in itia l v o iced continuant,

e .g ., { l ^ k i n } , {n im e } , {nla-t}.
V. F o llo w e d by a s tr e s s e d su ffix with in itia l v o ic e le s s stops

or g lo tta liz a tio n , e .g ., {p ip e m }, { "eyn}.
The alte rn atio n betw een a llo m o rp h s of a g e n e ra l noun m ay be s u m m a riz e d

a s a d iffe re n c e in the num ber of se g m e n ts, in length, and in s t r e s s .
O f seg m en ta l d iffe re n c e s th ere is but one, n a m ely , the s te m -fin a l t,
which a lte rn a te s with z e r o in en viron m en ts II and IV . O th e rs involve v o w e ls,
the m o st frequent bein g the a lte rn a tio n betw een C V (* )C C in environm ent I
and C V C V C in en vironm ents II and III.
L en g th d iffe re n c e m ay be o b se rv e d in the a lte rn a tio n betw een fin a l short
v ow e ls in en viro n m en ts I, IV , and V and fin a l long v o w e ls in II and III. T h is
a lte rn a tio n is m o rp h o lo g ic a lly conditioned.
S t r e s s d iffe re n c e i s g e n e r a lly c h a r a c te r iz e d by s t r e s s e d a llo m o rp h s in
environm ents I, II, and III and s t r e s s e d a llo m o rp h s in IV and V. Though
there a re ex cep tio n s, a llo m o rp h s in II and III tend to o cc u r with the s t r e s s
p la ce d c lo s e r to the s te m -fin a l p o sition than in I.
The types of a llo m o rp h y and e x am p les a r e a s fo llo w s:
1. {w exw ^qt} type. The m e m b e rs of th is type have six a llo m o rp h s, two

fo r m s in environm ent V. An exam ple is {w exw ^qt} 'frog.'
I. {w ex w 6 q t + } : ||w exw 6 qt|| : /wexw^qt/ 'fro g'
II. {w exw ^qt ne} : || w exw eq 6 ne || : /w exw eqlne/ 'frog' (object)
III. {w exw ^qt pe} : || w exweq§t pe || : /w exweq^tpe/ 'at the fro g'
IV . {w exw §qt n im e} : || wexw eqe nim e || : /w exw eqenim e/ 'F r o g - P la c e '
V a. {w exw ^qt "6 yn} : Hwexweqt -"^yn|| : /wexweqt^yn/ 'for a fro g'
V b. {w exw ^qt pip em } : Hwexweqet pip em || : /w exw eqetpipem / 'am ong
fro g s'
2. {te l^ te t} type. The m e m b e rs of th is type have fiv e a llo m o rp h s. An

exam ple is {t^ l^ t^ t} 'cedar.'
I. { t e l§ t e t + } : l|te l 6 t£t|| ; /tal^tat/ 'c e d a r'
II. {t£ l^ te t ne} : ||te lt^ n e || : / ta ltin a / 'c e d a r' (object)
III. {te l^ t£ t pe} : ||telt 6 t pe|| : /talt^tpa/ 'at the c ed a r'
IV . {te l^ t£ t n im e} ; || t£lte nim e || : /taltan im a/ 'C e d a r - P la c e '
V . {te l^ te t p ip em } : ||teltet p ip e m || : /taltatpipam / 'am ong c e d a rs'
3. { c 6 *qet} type. The m e m b e rs o f th is type have four a llo m o rp h s. A n

exam ple is { c 6 *qet} 'ra sp b e r ry .'
M orph ology 47
I. { c ^ ’qet + } : ||c§*qet|| : /c^*qet/ ’r a s p b e r r y '

II. {c ^ -q e t ne} : ||c e q ^ *n e || : / c e q ^ ’ ne/ 'r a sp b e r r y ' (object)
III. { c ^ ’qet pe} : ||ceq 6 ’t p e || : /ceq§*tpe/ 'at r a s p b e r r y '
IV and V . { c 6 -qet n im e} : || ceqet nim e || : /ceqetm m e/ 'R a s p b e r r y - P la c e '
{c ^ -q e t pip em } : || ceqet pipem || : /ceqetpipem / 'am ong r a s p
b e r r ie s '
4. {t^ * m s£ s} type. The m e m b e rs of th is type have four a llo m o rp h s. A n

exam ple is { t 6 * m ses} 'w ild ro se .'
I. { t 6 - m s e s + } : ||t§*m s£s|| ; /td*m sas/ 'w ild r o s e '
II and III. {t ^ 'm s e s n im } : ||t£s^*s nim || : /tam s§.*snim / 'w ild r o s e '
(p o ss e s si ve - n o m in ativ e )
{t^ * m s£ s pe} : ||t£m s^*s pe || : / ta m s^ ’ spa/ 'at the w ild r o s e '
IV . {t^ * m s£ s n<i-t} : || te m s^ s nti-t || ; / ta m sa sn 6 *t/ 'without w ild r o s e '
V. {t^ -m s e s "_§yn} : ||tem se*s 6 yn|| : /tam sa-s^ yn / 'for w ild r o s e '
5. { q 6 *m sit} type. The m e m b e rs of this type have four a llo m o rp h s. An

exam ple is {q § * m sit} 'kow s' (ed ible root) (lo m a tiu m k a u s ).
I and III. { q ^ - m s it + } : ||q 6 *m sit|| : /q§.*msit/ 'kow s'
II. {q6*m sit ne} ; ||q ^ -m sin e || 1 || q^*msit ne || : /q4*msina/ L
/q^L-msitna/ 'kow s' (object)
IV . {q ^ ’m s it nti-t} : || q e m s i nti*t || ~ || q e m sit nti*t || : /q a m sin 6 -t/ 1
/q am sitn 6 -t/ 'without kow s'
V. {q § *m sit p ip em } : || q e m sit pipem || : /q am sitpipam / 'am ong kow s'
6. {q e q i't} type. The m e m b e rs of this type have four a llo m o rp h s, with

two fr e e ly altern atin g a llo m o rp h s each in en viron m en ts II and III. A n exam ple
is {q e q i-t} 'root som ew hat lik e kows.'
I. { q e q i’t + } : ||qeqi-t|| : /qeqi-t/ 'qeqi*t'
II. {q eq i-t ne} : ||q e q i-n e || L ||q eq i* tn e|| : /qeqi-ne/ L /qeqi-tne/
'q e q i’t' (object)
III. {q e q i-t pe} : ||q e q i* tp e || L || q eq iy it pe |1 : /qeqi-tpe/ L /qeqiyitpe/
'at qeqi-t'
IV and V . {q eq i-t pip em } : |lqeqi*t pipem || : /qeqi*tpipem / 'am ong q e q i-f
{q e q i-t nli*t} : ||qeqi*t nti*t|| : /qeqi*tnti-t/ 'without q e q i’t'
7. {p ^ -p s} type. The m e m b e rs of this type have th ree a llo m o rp h s. An

exam ple is { p 6 *ps} 'red f ir tree.'
I. {p ^ -p s + } : ||p^’p s|| * /p ^ ’ps/ fir tree '
II and III. {p^*ps n im } : ||p£p^s nim || : /pap^snim / 're d fir tree ' ( p o s s e s s iv e -
n om in ative)
IV and V . {p^*ps pip em } : ||peps pipem || : /papspipam / 'am ong re d fir tre e s'
O th er ex am p les in th is type a re {s i* k s } 'nest,' {p i-p s} 'bone,' { "§*yx} 'white
salm on.'
48 ISez P erce Gram m ar
8 . {lit^ -n } type. The m e m b e rs of th is type have three a llo m o rp h s. A n

exam ple is {M t^-n} ’bitterroo t.'
I, II and III. { l i t ^ - n + } : ||li1;6*n|| : /iiti*n / 'b itterro o t'
{M 1:^*n ne} : ||iit 6 -n n e || : /lit^-nna/ 'b itte rro o t' (o bject)
{li{§ -n k } : ||life * n k || ; jli i k •nx/ 'to b itte rro o t'
IV . {M t 6 *n nti’t} : ||iit^n nii’t || : /litann 6 *t/ 'without b itterro o t'
V. {irit^’n p ip em } : ||iit£*n pip em || : /iita*npipam / 'am ong b it t e r -
ro o ts'
9. { y ^ ’ k e ? } type. The m e m b e rs of this type have two a llo m o rp h s. An

ex am ple is {y § -k e ? } 'brow n bear.'
I, II and III. {y§*k£? + } : Hy^’k^?]! : /y^-’ ka*?/ 'brow n b e a r'
{ y 6 *ke? ne} : ||y§*ke? ne || : /y^-ka?na/ 'brow n b e a r' (object)
{y ^ -k e? pe} : ||y§-ke? pe || : /yd*ka?pa/ 'at the brow n b e a r'
IV and V. { y 6 *ke? nim e} : ||yeke? nim e || : /yaka?n im a/ 'B ro w n B e a r
P la c e '
{ y 6 *ke? pip em } : || yek e? pipem || : /yaka?pfpam / 'am ong
brow n b e a r s '
The freq u en cy of the nine types in a sam p le of 52 g e n e r a l noun ste m s is :
En v iro n m en ts N um ber of F re q u e n c y
Type
A llo m o r p h s (percen t)
I n III IV V
{wexwfeqt} 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 1.9
{tel& tet} 1 2 3 4 5 5 3.8
{c 6 -q e t} 1 2 3 4 4 1.9
{tfe 'm se s} 1 2 3 4 4 3.8
{q fe'm sit} 1 1~ 2 1 3^4 4 4 1.9
{qeqi'-t} 1 1~ 2 1 3 4 4 1.9
{p § -p s} 1 2 3 3 53.8
{litfe-n} 1 2 3 3 3.8
{yfe-kev} 1 2 2 25 .0
M orph ology 49
In com pound s te m s , the m a x im a l num ber of constituent m orp h em es

a p p e a rs to be two. A s in m on om orp h em ic ste m s the a llo m o rp h ic v a ria tio n
is in num ber of se g m e n ta ls, in length, and in s t r e s s . U nlike m on om orp h em ic
ste m a llo m o rp h s, som e m o rp h em es with co n so n an t-fin a l a llo m o rp h s b e fo re
a m o rp h o lo g ica l w ord jun cture have a llo m o rp h s ending in a s t r e s s e d vow el
when they a re the f ir s t m em b er in a com pound. Though there a re ex cep tion s,
the second m em b er tends to have u n s tr e s s e d a llo m o rp h s.
l|hecw £l^- m iy^^cll ; /h acw al^*m iya?c/ 'son'

||h^^cw_el|| : /h^-cw al/ 'boy
llm iy^^cll ; /m iyd?c/ 'child'
II C£wit§x si*s|| : /caw it^xsi’ s/ 'carro t soup'

||c£w i*tk|| ; / c a w i’tx/ 'w ild c a r ro t'
||si* s|| : / si-s/ 'broth'
II £ le t e lu || : /?alat^lo/ 'yellow jacket'

II V i e II : /?^*la/ 'fire'
IIt^*lull : /td-lo/ 'te ste s'
||piy§xc mi*t II : /piy§xcini*t/ 'M t. Idaho' (fro m its shape)

||p iy ex s|| : /piyexs/ 'raw h id e strap '
II ini*t|| : /?im *t/ 'house,' 'tepee'
512. N u m e ra l s te m s (nuS) : any n u m eral. The n u m e ra l a llo m o rp h y m ay

be su m m a riz e d a s fo llo w s:
Before
After Stem {+} {ne} {t} {w e +} [we nik} {e?§le} {6hem} {M *sus} {e?§ptit}
+ {n§-qc} '1' n^-qc = 0 n^-qc neqc nexc neqc 0 0
+ {lep } '2 '. <p 0 lepi lep = = = = 1
+ {rmt6*} '3' 0 0 m_it6* m_it6 rmt = = =
pi- {lep } 2x '2' 0 0 lep = lep = = =
+ {p §'xe} '5' <p 0 p6*xe Pi*? pex peq pe-q p6-q pe-ql peq
uy {n§-qc} 5 + 'l' l§*qc = 0* l§-qc leqc = = leqs
uy {lep } 5 + '2 ' 0 0 n§-p = nep = = = n
uy {m_it§-} 5 + '3' 0 0 mfete = mete mit = = =
+ {^<Lyc} '9' l^tiyc lm?ic 0 lku'?ic lm?ic ^yc = = Ituys
+ {pti’tim } '10' 0 0 pti’tim ! = pu'tim putim pu-tim pu’tm pti’t
N o n o ccu rre n ce
S am e a s left
La c u n a e
B e fo re {e ^ ^ p tit} fo llo w ed b y { + }
E ls e w h e r e b e fo re {e ? § p tit}
513. K in sh ip te rm ste m s (kS) : any kin sh ip te rm . The k in sh ip te rm

ste m s m ay be divided into two g ro u p s and fiv e su b g ro u p s. The re la tio n sh ip
o f these g ro u p s and subgro u p s and a ffix a l a llo m o rp h s m ay be su m m a riz e d
a s fo llo w s:
{ne’ } { ’im } {pe*} {e?c} {nim} {ne} {e} {e 9 }
En v iro n m en ts
1 2 1 2
Stem g ro u p s
G ro u p l a 0 e ?c e
f pi
1
ne*? f, f pi
±111
G ro u p lb n§? p^‘ em pim ep ne e?
'im
pe-
p§ im
pi-
0
G ro u p 2a 'ini
in
G ro up 2b im 0 ep 0
'inm
in im P -
G ro u p 2c
ne
E n viro n m en t 1: + { n e ? } / { i m } stem - +
E n viro n m en t 2: + {pe*} ste m - + o £ + ste m { e ? c } - +
The m em b ersh ip of the g ro u p s above i s a s fo llo w s:
G ro u p la . { q e l 6 c} ' F a F a ; {%•!} 'Fa M o ,' { p i l 6 q} 'M o Fa,'

{q il-c } 'M oM o'
G ro u p lb . {t^*t} ’ F a ; {î*c} ’Mo,' {m § q } 'F a B r ,’

{ c r c } ’ F a S i,’ {t§ q } ’M o B r,' { q 6 -q} 'M oSi,'
{ y 6 *c} ' O B r ; {n^*n} 'O S i'
G ro u p 2a. {\cqe} ’Y B r (m ),’ {n ip e } 'Y B r ( f ) ; {q § n i} ’Y S i(m ),’

{ ' ^ i } ’Y S i( f ) ; {%-ks} ’ S i( f); { p 6 -qiy} ’B r C h (m ),’
{ p 6 -m te} ’ B r S o ( f) ; {p 6 -y} ’ B r D a (f),’ {m ^ m } 'S iC h (m ),’
{'{•te } ’ S iC h (f); {m iy ^ ? c } 'Ch,' {p 6 h ep} ’D a(m ),'
{p e q 6 1 is} 'S o C h (m ),’ {p ^ p le x } ’D aC h (m ),'
M orph ology 51
{p ip tex } ’S o C h (f),’ {p ^ q ex } 'DaCh(f),*

{p in li-kin } 'H u B r ; « B rW i(m ); 'W iSi/ 'S iH u (f);
{ c r k s } 'H u S i; 'B r W i( f ); {tiw ^ -y e } 'W iB r ;
{cilii*w n} 'W i B r ; {p in ^ -x sin } 'H u Fa/ 'HuMo,' 'S o W i;
{p i* s e s } 'W iF a ; {'iw^*p} 'W i’
G ro u p 2b. {h ^-m e} ’H u ’
G ro u p 2c. {c iw e -q u } ’W iM o'
S e m a n tic a lly G ro u p 1 in clu d es the fo r m s r e fe r r in g to sen io r con san guin eal

kin , w hile G roup 2 in clu d es the fo rm s r e fe r r in g to jun io r con san guin eal kin and
a ffin al r e la tio n s h ip s . G roup l a in clu d es four g ra n d p a re n t-g ra n d ch ild fo r m s .
The ste m a llo m o rp h y in G roup 1 i s c h a ra c te r iz e d by a || c 1| - || s || a lte rn a tio n
betw een f ir s t and second p e rso n sin g u lar p o s s e s s e d fo r m s , the fo rm e r o c c u r
rin g with II c II and the la tte r with || s ||, and by fin a l t - l e s s a llo m o rp h s b e fo re
su ffix e s with in itia l n and b y p - le s s a llo m o rp h s b e fo re s u ffix e s with in itia l m .
The com plete in ven tory o f kin sh ip stem a llo m o rp h y is :
E n v iro n m e n ts:
1. + - +
2. + - {e ? }
3. {n e ? } - +
4. {ne'?} - {n im } / { n e }
5. {'im } -
6. {p e -} - + or + - { e ? c } +
7. {p e -} - {n e } or + - { e ? c } { n e }
8. {p e -} - {m e } or + - { e ? c } {m e }
K in sh ip T e r m s E n v ir onme nt s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
{qelfec} FaFa 0 qelfec = = = = = =

{ ’&•!} FaM o 0 'fe-1 = = = =
{pnfeq} M oFa 0 pn §q = = = = = =
{q § -c } M oM o 0 q6-c = = q^-s q6-s = =
Fa 0 t^-t = = = St si Sit
{ ’f-c } Mo 0 "l*C = = i-s ke k^- =
{mfeq} FaBr 0 m 6q = = = mq m ^q =
= f =
{ c i- c } FaSi 0 ci-c = srs s is s i-s
{tfeq} M oBr 0 t6q = = = tq t§q tq
{qfe-q} M oSi 0 q§-q = = = qeq qk-q =
{y § -c } OBr 0 y 6-c = = y i* s yep y§-p y§-
{nfe-n} OSi 0 n6-n nic = n is het M- h§t
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w C ’CQ (D
i
X* X. m
n<D 0) 0) w i) 0) N0 l
cr cr CQ nO)
(p ^&l .& %<D •H ^•H vCDl
ft ft ft ft ft ft o ft .5 rC|
54 Dlez Perce Gram m ar
514. P e r s o n a l pronoun ste m s (ppS) : any p e rso n a l pronouns. The ste m

a llo m o rp h y of the p e rso n a l pronouns is :
*
+ nim ne ie eq ciw ^-tq nik hi "n m e
{'{•n} Is g i-n = = = = in = 0
{" •m } 2 sg I ’m 'im "ime i-m 0 = "im^
*.IPIt "ipin "ipin îpn
{'ip i} 3 sg iP = 0 iP 0
{n ii'n } Ip l rni-n = = = = nun^ ~ nu* nun 0
H ' l ' m } with { m e } , a p l u r a l s u f f ix , i n d i c a t e s e it h e r s e c o n d o r th ird p e r s o n ; and

s e c o n d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r without { m e } .
^{nu-n c iw ^ -tq} h a s two f o r m s , /n o nciw ^ 'tx / and /no*ciw^*tx/, the l a t t e r bein g an
" o l d e r ” f o r m (cf. p. 7).
515. D e m o n stra tiv e ste m s (dS) : any d em o n stra tiv e. T h e re a re two

d em o n stra tiv e ste m m o rp h e m e s: {k i*} 't h is ’ and {k u } 'that.' The a llo m o rp h s
are:
E n v iro n m en ts
1 2 3 4 5
{k i- } 'this' ki* kin kin kin ki-

{k u } 'that' 0 kun ktin kun kun
E n v iro n m en ts 1. b e fo re { + } , {k e k }
2. b e fo re {p e + } , { i k e } , { k i } , { k in ik } , {n e },
{n im } , {w e c e t}
3. b e fo re {"^yn}
4. b e fo re {p e m ^}
5. b e fo re {m e }
E x a m p le s a r e :
{k{*} {k u }
En viro n m en t 1 b e fo re { + } l|kf-ii
b e fo re {k e k } II ki* kek II
En viro n m en t 2 b e fo re {p e + } II km e II II ^ II
b e fo re {ik e } II kin ike || II kun ik§
b e fo re { k i} IIkin k ill II k i II
b e fo re {k in ik } I! kin ik II II kun i-k||
b e fo re {n e} II kin ye || II kun y'e ||
b e fo re {n im } II ^ II II kun im II
b e fo re {w e ce t} II kin w ecet | IIkun wec§*n|
M orph ology 55
{k i- } {k u }
En viro n m en t 3 b e fo re {"^yn} II kin yeynll ||kfin yeyn||
En viro n m en t 4 b e fo re {p e m §} II kin 6 - m e || II kun e m 6 ||
En viro n m en t 5 b e fo re {m e } II ki- m e II II kun m § II
{juq} 'that' is se m a n tic a lly s im ila r to {k u } 'that.' H ow ev er, the allo m o rp h

||ne|| of { n e } , in stead of ||ye|| or ||y ^ ||, o c c u r s with yuq, which m a y b e taken
a s a g e n e r a l noun. B e c a u s e yuq o c c u r s in the f ir s t environm ent, w here ku
does not, yuq freq u en tly i s found a s a su p p letive elem en t.
516. A d je c tiv e ste m s (aS) : any a d je c tiv e . A d je c tiv e ste m allo m o rp h y

m ay be trea ted m o re s y s te m a tic a lly a fte r a la r g e r corp u s is exam ined;
a ffix e s o ccu r with a d je c tiv e s m uch l e s s freq u en tly than with the other su b
c la s s e s of su b sta n tiv e s. H ow ev er, three tren ds m ay be o b se rv e d : ( 1 ) ste m s
with s t r e s s on the la s t sy lla b le in an a llo m o rp h w hich o c c u rs a fte r a { + }
tend to have an a llo m o rp h with s t r e s s on the f ir s t sy lla b le after an u n stre ss e d
p r e fix ; ( 2 ) an u n s tr e s s e d a llo m o rp h o c c u rs a fter {'etey^-} or b e fo re {n ik } ;
(3) a llo m o rp h s ending in V ? C b e fo re a { + } tend to have an a llo m o rp h ending
in V ? V C b e fo re a su ffix .
E x a m p le o f (1):
||c ic q i? c l| ; /cicq f^ c/ 'g en erou s'
||r c ic q i? c || : / c ic ic q i? c / 'g en erou s' (d istrib u tiv e )
||t^?c|| : /t§.?c/ 'good'
||"etey§* te?c|| : /?atay^ -ta?c/ 'too good'
||t e ? c n ik || : /ta?sn ix/ 'v e ry good'
||te ? 6 c wi t|| : /ta?dcw it/ 'goo dn ess'
llq ep si^ sll ; /qepshs/ 'bad'
llq e p si^ is wi 11| : / q e p s i‘?isw it/ 'b ad n ess'
520. Substantive th em es (s T ).
E a c h of the above stem c la s s e s is defined by its o c c u rr e n c e in s p e c ia l

th em atic c o n stru ctio n s. T h e se co n stru ctio n s include c la s s e s of su bstan tiv e
a ffix e s , w hich a re shown below , together with their d istrib u tio n s am ong the
v a r io u s s t e m - c la s s e s .
521. T h e m a tic a ffix c la s s e s .
P r e fix e s
N um ber of O c c u r s w it h
C la s s S u b c la s s
m em b ers
nS nuS kS ppS dS aS
< r > 1 X X
< peH > 1 X X
< ne? > 3 X X X
< e*t > ê’ t 2 X X
"etey 6* 1 X X X
1C 10 X
w iw _ e q i 1 X X
V 1 X X
V 2 X
s il§ w 1 X
S u ffix es
N um ber O c c u r s with
C la s s S u b c la ss of
M em bers nS nuS kS ppS dS aS
< > 31 X
< e ? 6 ce > 4 X
< e?§ptit > 1 X
< we > we 1 X X X
t 1 X
< e ?c > 2 X
< *eq > 5 X
< w eyl > 1 X
< nik > nik 1 X X X X X X
c im 1 X X
ti-te 1 X X
Morphology 57
S u ffix es (continued)
N um ber O c c u r s with
C la s s S u b c la ss of
M em bers nS nuS kS ppS dS aS
< nti-t 1 X
< nim > 1 X X
< me > 1 x X X X
< % yn > ' i yn 1 x X
hi"n 1 X X X
m^ 1 X X
pe 1 X X X
5 2 1 .1 . T h e m a tic p re fix c la s s e s .
< r > The sin g le m e m b e r of th is c la s s is { r } (d istrib u tiv e ), e .g .,

||h^^cw£l|| : /h^*cwal/ 'son'
IIr h 6 "cw el|| : /hah^cw al/ 'son' (d istrib u tiv e )
||wepct!fk|| : /wepc<i*x/ 'in telligen t'
||riw § * p c u k || ; /wiw§*pcux/ 'in telligen t' (d istrib u tiv e)
< peH > The sin g le m em b er of th is c la s s is {p e H } 'each ' (with g e n e ra l

nouns and k in sh ip te r m s ), 'in gro ups of . . . ' (with n u m e r a ls), e .g .,
Ijh^'peyll : /h^-pey/ 'm iddle'
IIpeH h§*pey|| : /peh§*pey/ 'each of the m id d le on es' (e .g ., any
toe other than b ig and little to es)
||p e H le p it|| : /p ellepit/ 'in tw os'
< ne? > The th ree m e m b e rs of this c la s s a re {n e ? } (fir s t p e rso n sin g u lar
p o s s e s s iv e ), { im } (seco n d p e rso n sin g u la r p o s s e s s iv e ), {p e -} (non
p o s s e s s io n ). An exam ple with {n e ? } is :
||ne? t;6 *t II : /n a?t 6 *t/ 'm y fath er'
< > T h is c la s s h as 18 m e m b e r s , g e n e r a lly a ttrib u tiv e in m ean in g. An

exam ple is {%-t} 'big,' 'very.'
||t§?c|| : /t^L?c/ 'good'
II "e*t- t^ ?c|| : /?e*tt§.?c/ 'v e ry good'
The o th ers a r e :
{"etey^*} 'd ista n t; ’u n b e lie v a b ly ’
{'ic } ’ d irectio n o f
{ i l § - } ’of f i r e ’
{'iliw } ’by f i r e ’
{k e -} ’ connected with b itin g ’
{kun} ’once re m o v e d ’
{p ex } ’ e a ch ’
{te li* } ’ sh o r t’
{t£ m } ’th row ’
{w e ? } ’with hand’
{w iy 6 -} ’ in cam p in g ’
{w iw e q i} ’o ld ’
{"tiy} ’ a ll,’ ’both ’
{u y } ’ fiv e ’
{pi*} ’ tw ice/ ’m utually'
{s il§ w } ’ s e e m in g ly ’
{ R } (dim inutive)
5 2 1 .2 . T h em atic su ffix c la s s e s .
< "e*l > T h is c la s s h as 28 m e m b e rs . A n exam ple is {'^*1} ’ se a so n of . . .

||q;6 yxc|| : /q 6 yxc/ ’ s m a ll re d d ish salm on '
llquyxc "^*l|| : /qoyxci*l/ ’ se a so n of s m a ll re d d ish sa lm o n ’
{'e s} ’ cure fo r . . . ’
{ ?m } ’ s e a so n of . . . ’
{^w e-t} ’ p e rso n who u s e s ’
{ e ? 6 l} ’p la ce w here . . . i s ’
{e?§*t} ’fe m a le . . . ’
{en } (m eaning un certain )
{e *s} ’ site of . . . ’
{e te *s} ’p la ce w here . . . liv e s '
{h i-c } ’p la ce w here . . . is' (of plants)
{h t} ’beginning of . . . ’
{{} 'p o s s e s s o r of . . . '
{ i ? l e s } 'one that liv e s in . . . ' (?)
{in m e } 'a c re a tu re fro m . . . ’
{k in ik e*y} ’ . . . one of the tw o’
{m ep } 'p la ce of . . . '
{ n iie y } 'a ll of . . . ’
M orph ology 59
{n im e } 'p la ce w here . . . i s '

{nim u*} 'people who eat . . . '
{n um e} (p lace nam e form an t)
{pefu*} 'p e rso n connected with . . . '
{pu-} 're s id e n ts at . . . / 'band or trib e of . . . '
{qen } 'young of . . . ,' 's m a ll'
{s i^ w e y } 'bush of . . . '
{tw e*} 'frie n d in . . . ,' '-m ate,' 'p e rso n having . . . in
com m on' twe- a fte r v o w e ls, o th erw ise tiwe*.
{w 6 *ku?s} 'a thing lik e . . . '
{w ite*s} 'p la ce w here . . . w as,' 'p e rso n who u sed to be . . . '
{y § -y e } 'the fa m ily of . . . '
< e ? 6 ce > The four m e m b e rs of th is c la s s a re {e ? § c e } 'group,' {e ? § le }

'pair,' {^ h em } 'tim es,' {^ -lu y } ' strin g (of b ead s).' A n exam ple
(with {§ h e m }) i s :
||le p ^ h e m || : /lep§hem / 'tw ice'
< e?^ptit > The sin g le m e m b e r of this c la s s is {e ? e p tit} 'ten tim es,' e .g .,
||u y m it e^^ptitll ; / ?oymita*?^ptit/ 'eighty'
< hti-sus > The sin g le m e m b e r of th is c la s s is {hti*sus} 'hundred tim es,' e .g .,

II uy im t hti-sus II ; /?o y m it 6 -so s/ 'eight hundred'
< we > The two m e m b e rs of this c la s s a re {w e } (p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r ) ,

{t} (neutral c la s s if ie r ) , e .g .,
| |u y n ^ ’p w e || : /?uyn§-pwe/ 'seven ' (people)
||u y n § - p t || : / ?uyn§’pt/ 'seven '
< e?c > The two m e m b e rs of this c la s s a re {e ? c } (n o n -p o sse ssio n ), and

{eyu*} ' . . . and oth ers,' e .g .,
||qel§c e ? c || : /q aldca^c/ 'p a tern al gran d fath er'
line? tu ’t eyu* II : /n a?t 6 *tayo*/ 'm y father and o th ers'
< *eq > T h is c la s s h a s six m e m b e rs . A n exam ple is {ciw e*tq} 'alone.'

II i*n|| : /?i*n/ 'I'
II in ciw ^'tq II ; / ?inciw^L*tx/ 'I alone'
{'eq} (optative suffix)
{ t e } 'a ls o '
{qu*?c} 'fir s t '
{t i't } 'being the sam e one again'
{x w ey } 'in stead of another'
< w eyl > The sin g le m em b er of th is c la s s is {w e y l} 'so m u c h ; e .g .,

||ki w §yl|| : /kiw dyl/ 'this long,' 'this m uch'
< nik > The th ree m e m b e rs of this c la s s a r e {nik} (in te n sifie r), {c im }
'only,' {ti*te} 'sam e.' E x a m p le s with {n ik } a r e :
||t 6 ?c|| : /t^?c/ 'good'
||t £ ? c n ik || : /ta?sn ix/ 'v e ry good'
||'i*n|| : /?i-n/ 'I'
ll'in n ik ll : / ?innix/ 'I m y s e lf
llkun^ll : /kon^/ 'there'
||kuney nik|| : /konaynix/ 'at that v e ry p lace'
< nti-t > The sin g le m e m b e r of th is c la s s is {nti-t} 'without,' e .g .,

||'§-tim || : /?^*tim / 'a rm '
ll'etim nt'tW : / ?atim n 6 *t/ 'a r m le s s ,' 'G e n e r a l O liv e r O .
H ow ard'
< nim > The sin g le m em b e r of this c la s s is {n im } (p o s s e s s iv e -n o m in a

tiv e), e .g .,
||s i 6 em || : /siiem / 'h o rse '
II s ili 6 -m nim II : /sili§*m nim / 'h o rse' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
< '^yn > The four m e m b e rs of th is c la s s a r e {'^yn} '(thing) for . . .

{hi"n} '(an o b ject) with . . . {m § } '(people) fro m . . . {p e }
'at . . . ,' 'p la ce of . . . ,' {p i} (em phatic p a r tic le ).
||c iq ^ -m q e l|| : /ciq^*m qal/ 'dog'
||ciq e-m qel '^yn|| : /c iq a-m q a fiy n / 'fo r dog,' 'dog sled'
||h^’ s £ s || : /hd*sas/ 'nit'
||h£s^*s hi-^nII : /h as4-si?n / 'nitty,' 'Shoshoni'
ll^lp^w ew ill : / ?alp§.wawi/ 'A lpow a C r e e k , W ash.'
Il^lp^w ew i m § II : / âlpawawimî/ 'people fro m Alpow a'
llttounll : /t 6 hon/ 'le g g in g s'
||tuhto pe II ; /toh 6 npa/ 'in leg g in g s' (pe o c c u rs a s pe b e fo re
sp a ce , o th erw ise a s p ey, e .g ., w aqi'p a 'long ago,'
w aqi-paynikay 'even a fte r a long tim e.')
l|ya*qu|| : /y 6 -qo/ 'that'
llyniqu pi|| : /yoqopi/ 'that v ery'
||k u n § || : /kon^/ 'th ere'
||kun e pi|| : /konapi/ 'that v e ry p lace'
522. T h e m a tic c o n stru ctio n s. The v aryin g in tern al str u c tu re s of the s u b

stantive them e (s T ) a r e d e sc rib e d in the follow in g s e c tio n s. The elem en ts
surroun din g the s t e m - c la s s m a r k e r s a re r e fe r e n c e s to the p rece d in g chart
of a ffix e s .
M orphology 61
sT : ne? r peH 'e*t nS ^^’1 ^§yn me we nik
1. X X X
2. X X X X
3. X X X
4. X X X
5. X X
6. X X X X
7. X X
8. X X
9. X
E x a m p le s :
1. {n e? 'll 1a*t twe*} : \\\n 'flti-t we* || : /?inlta*twe*/ 'm y h a lf-b ro th e r'
(a w om an speakin g) ({n e ? } 'my,' {*tlti*t} 'belly,' {tw e*} 'a p e rso n
having . . . in com m on')
2. {r m w im m ^ c im } : ||r m wi*m e c im || : / h e?in w i-m cim / 'only

y e a r lin g s ' ( { r } d istrib u tiv e , {"inwim } 'year,' {m § } ' (a bein g) from ,'
{c im } 'only')
3. { r peH n§qe} : ||r^ peH n§qe || : /pipenn^qe/ 'h a lf-b r e e d s' ( { r } d is

trib u tiv e, {p e H } 'each,' {n ^qe} 'h a lf')
4. {peH cili6*t pe} : ||peH ciliet pe || : /pecilietpe/ ' every night,' 'night
after night' ({cili^*t} 'night,' {pe} 'place or tim e of . . . ')
5. {"etey§* M * s } : |fetey§- k u -s|| : / ?etey§-ku*s/ 'ocean' ({ e te y e -}

'distant,' 'd eceased ,' {k ti’ s} 'w a ter')
6. {"^ys nim e pe w e} : ||'eys nim § pe we || : / ?aysnim ^*po-/ 'C a th o lic s '

({"^ys} 'p a rsn ip sp.,' {n im e } 'a p la c e w here . . . is,' {p e } 'p la ce of
. . {w e } p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r )
7. {ij^wtiwe* m e} : || l^w tiw e*m e || : /ldw tiwa*m a/ 'frie n d s' ({l^w tiw e*}
'fr ie n d ; {m e } p lu ra l suffix)
8. {Le?^m w e} : ||le^^n i we || : /la^^m w a/ 'a ll the people' ({ l£ ? ^ m } 'all,'

{w e} p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r )
9. {l^wtiwe*} : ||l^wtiwe*|| : /l^wtiwa*/ 'friend'

ST: nS nti-t
E x a m p le :
nti-t} : ||'etim nti*t || : / âtim nd-t/ 'a r m le s s ,' 'G e n e r a l O . O .
H ow ard' ({' 6 -tim } 'a r m ; {nti*t} 'w ithout')
U n like su b stan tiv e th em es in which a g e n e ra l noun ste m is a constituent,

the su b stan tiv e them es having a n u m eral ste m a s the constituent o ccu r with
at le a s t one o b lig a to ry su ffix .
>
sT : peH e-t nuS e?§ptit h(i*sus we e?^ ce nik
1. X X X X
2. X X X
3. X X X
4. X X X
5. X X X
6. X X X
7. X X X X
8. X X
E x a m p le s :
1. {p e H uy n^-qc §hem } : ||peH uy le q c §hem || : /p a?oylaq c^h am /
's ix tim e s each' ({p e H } 'each,' { uy} 'five,' {n§*qc} 'one,' {e h em }
'tim e s ')
2. {le p e?§ptit hu*sus} : ||l e?ep tit hti-sus || : /le?eptitti*sus/ 'two

thousand' ({le p } 'two,' {e ? § p tit} 'ten tim es,' {hi:i-sus} 'hundred
tim e s ')
3. {pti-tim t e ? ^ le } : ||pu-tim t e ? § le || : /p u-tim te?§le/ 'ten p a irs '

({p li’tim } 'ten,' {t} n eu tral c la s s if ie r , { e ? § le } 'p a ir')
4. {p 6 -xe we nik} : ||pex lu- nik|| : /paxlo-nix/ 'only fiv e people' ({p ^-x ^}
'five,' {w e } p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r , {n ik } in te n sifie r)
5. {p^*x£ e ? 6 ptit ^hem } : ||p^q eptit §hem 1| : /paqaptit^ham / 'fifty

tim e s'
6. {le p hti-sus w e} : ||lep hti-sus we || : /lepti-susw e/ 'two hundred

people' ({le p } 'two,' {h ti-su s} 'hundred tim es,' {w e} p e rso n a l
c la s s if ie r )
7. { u y lep we nik} : || uy nep we nik || : / ?uynepwenix/ 'only seven

people' ({ uy} 'five,' {le p } 'two,' {w e } p e rso n a l c la s s i f i e r , {n ik }
in te n sifie r)
M orph ology 63
8. {le p t} : ||lepi 11| : /lepit/ 'two' ({t} n eu tral c la s s ifie r )
E ith e r the < ne? > c la s s , or the < e ? c > c la s s is re q u ire d a s a constituent
with a kin sh ip ste m (kS).
sT : "e-t ne? kS e?c me nim '§yn nik
1 X X X
2. X X X X
3. X X X X
4. X X X
5. X X X
6. X X
7. X X
E x a m p le s :
1. {p i- pe- "§*ks} : ||pi* pe "eks || : /p i*pe?p e?eks/ 'c o w iv e s,' 'r iv a ls '
({p i-} r e c ip r o c a l p r e fix , {pe*} n o n -p o ss e ss io n , {"6 *ks} 's is t e r ')
2. {n e? "§*1 nim %yn} : Une? "6*1 em - "eyn|| : /n e?^-lem ayn/ 'a r tic le
for m y p a tern al gran d m oth er' ({n e ? } 'm y,' {"^*1 } 'p a te rn al g ra n d
m other,' {n im } p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e , {'eyn } '(thing) for . . . ')
3. {n e? '^-1 nim c im } : ||ne? em cim || : /n e?^*lem cim / 'only m y

p a tern al grandm other' ({ c im } 'only')
4. {'6*1 e ? c '§yn} : ||'§*1 e ? c -'ey n || : / ?§*le?cayn/ 'a r t ic le fo r a

p a tern al grand m other' ( { e ? c } n o n -p o sse ssio n )
5. {q e l^ c e ? c m e} : ||q £l^c e ? c m e || : / q a l^ ca?cm a/ 'p a tern al g ra n d

fa th e rs' ({q ^ l^ c } 'p a te rn al grandfath er,' {m e} p lu ra l suffix)
6. {n e? q e l^ c } : ||n e ? q e l^ c || : /n a?q al4c/ 'm y p a te rn al gran d fath er'
7. {q e l^ c e ? c } : ||q el§c e ? c || : /q al^ca^ c/ 'p atern al gran d fath er'
sT : ppS me nim 'eq nik "^yn
1. X X X X
2. X X X X
3. X X X X
4. X X
5. X X
6. X X
7. X X
8. X
64 /Vez Perce Gram m ar
E x a m p le s :
1. {"{‘ in m e nim n ik} : || im e m nik || : /?im em n ix/ 'your (p i.) v e ry
own,' 'th eir v e ry own' ({"I’m } 'you (sg .),' {m e } p lu ra l su ffix , {n im }
p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e su ffix , {n ik } in te n sifie r)
2. {'i-m m e nim t e } : ||'im §• m l5:e || : /?im ^-m lie/ 'you (p i.) also,'
'they a ls o ' ({ 4 e } 'a ls o ')
3. { i p i nim nik pe} : ||'ip nim nix pe || : / ?ipnim nixpe/ 'h is own p la ce '
({'ip i} 'he, sh e, it,' {p e } 'p lace of . . . ')
4. { i-m pe} : ||i m p § || : /?im p§/ 'your (s g .) p la ce '
5. { i-m n ik} : ||im n ik l| : / ?im nix/ 'you (s g .) y o u r s e lf
6. { i*m i e } : ||i* m lie l| : /?i*mS:e/ 'you (sg .) a lso '
7. { i*m m e} : | | i m 6 || : /?im §/ 'you (pi.),' 'they'
8. { i - m } : |li*m || : / ?i-m / 'you (s g .)'
sT ; dS w ^yl me nim "^yn ni k
1. X X X X
2. X X X
3. X X X
4. X X
5 . x X
6 . x X
7. X
E x a m p le s :
1. {ku m e nim ti*te} : ||kun m e m ti-te || : /konm am ti-ta/ 'the sam e
those' ({k u } 'that,' {ti*te} 's a m e ')
2. {ku pe nik} : Ukun ey nik|| : /konaynix/ 'that v e ry p lace'
3. {k u m e ^^yn} : ||kun m e y^n|| : /konm a?y^yn/ 'an a r t ic le fo r those'
4. {k u pe} : ||k u n § || : /kon^/ 'that p lace'
5. {k u m e } : ||lm n m § || : /konm ^/ 'those'
6. {k i- w £ y l} : ||ki w ^yl|| : /kiw dyl/ 'this long'
7. { k i '} : ||ki*|| : /ki-/ 'th is'

M orphology 65
sT : r "e*t aS we nik
1 . x X
2. X X
3. X
4. X
5. X
E x a m p le s :
1. { r n^xsep} : ||r^ n § x se p || : /nin^xsep/ 'd ifferen t' (d istrib u tiv e )
( { r } d istrib u tiv e , {n ^ x se p } 'd iffe re n t')
2. { e t e y 6 * t^ ? c } ; ||'etey§* t§ ?c || : / ?atay4*ta?c/ 'u n b eliev ab ly good'

({'etey ^-} 'un believably,' {t^*?c} 'good')
3. {n e x se p nik} : ||nexsep nik || : /nexsepnix/ 'v e ry d ifferen t'
4. {îl^xni w e} : ||ilx n i- we || : /?ilxni*w e/ 'm any' (people) ({"il^xni}

'm any,' {w e } p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r )
5. {t^ ? c } : ||t^?c|| : /t^?c/ 'good'
523. D e v e rb a tiv e th em e s. T h e re a re a ls o su bstan tiv e th em es which

contain v e rb ste m s (vS).
5 2 3 .1 . D e v e rb a tiv e th em es in w hich a ffix e s fo r su b stan tiv e th em es

o ccu r a s optional con stitu en ts:
sT : vS '§*1
1. X
2. X
E x a m p le s :
1. {p ^ y n im e} : ||p 6 y nim e || : /pdynim a/ (p lace nam e) (lite r a lly 'p la ce
of a r r iv a l') ({p ^y } 'com e,' {n im e } a p la ce nam e fo rm an t, a m em b er
of < '§-1 > c la s s )
2. {l^ w y e le } : |llj|w yele|| : /l§.wyala/ 'fish in g' ({l^ w y ^ le } 'fish (v b .)')
5 2 3 .2 . D e v e rb a tiv e th em es in w hich s p e c ia l s u ffix e s fo r v erb d eriv atio n

o c c u r. T h is s p e c ia l su ffix c la s s w ill be c a lle d < ? 6 *t > c la s s . The 21 m e m
b e r s of th is c la s s and th eir a llo m o rp h s a r e a s fo llo w s:
(agentive 1) in d ic a te s the p e rfo r m e r of an actio n . T h e re a re four

m o rp h em es (agen tives 1-4 ) with s im ila r sem a n tic content, the la s t two a re
e x tre m e ly lim ite d in o c c u rr e n c e . {?^*t} : ||ne-t|| or ||n§-t|| a fter a c - c l a s s
v erb them e (cf. 620 fo r c - and s - c l a s s d istin c tio n s); ||y e ? 6 *t|| a fte r an s - c l a s s
them e ending in l|i||; or ||‘?^t|| e lse w h e re .
||ne-t|| {p t? im ? 6 *t} : /pi?im ne-t/ ’young p e r s o n ’ ({p l? im } 'grow '

c -c la s s )
||n^*t|| {t^ m t^ ’y ?§*t} ; /tamtayn^*t/ 'm in iste r' ({te m t 6 -y} 'p r e a c h ;
'g o ssip ' c - c l a s s )
||y e ? 6 -t|| {se p i-n e w i ?^ ’t} : / sepi-new iye?§*t/ 's u r v e y e r ' ({se p i-n e w i}
'm e a su re ' s - c l a s s )
||?§*t|| {ttik ^ e Ita* ?^-t} : /tu kelu’ ^6 't/ 'd iv er' ({ttlk ^ } 'd iv e '; {iti*}
'm ove under w ater' s - c l a s s )
||?§t|| {w ep^yete ? 6 *t} : /w apayata?dt/ 'helper,' 'a ss is ta n t' ({wep_eyete}

'help' s - c l a s s )
{e*?w^*t} (agentive 2 ): ||ne?w§*t|| a fte r a c - c l a s s them e; ||y e?w ^ ‘t|| after

an s - c l a s s them e ending in a vow el other than ||e ||; ||?w §-t|| after an s - c l a s s
them e ending in l|e ||; ||e?w§*tl| e lse w h e re .
||ne?w 6 *t|l {sep^* h it§-m e e?w§*t} : / se p e h ite m e n e ‘?w^*t/ 'teach er' ({se p § -}
c a u sa tiv e 62 0; {h it§*m e} 'read ' c - c l a s s , lit e r a lly 'one who m a k e s
one re a d ')
||y e?w ^ ’t|| {tu k ^ Ita* e?w§*t} : /tukelu-ye?w§*t/ 'd iv er'
l|?w 6 *t|| {w ep ey e t£ e ?w 6 *t} : /w apayata?w ^-t/ 'helper,' 'a ss is ta n t'
|le?w^*t|| {h ip i e?w 6 -t} : /hipe^w^-t/ 'e a te r' ({h ip i} 'eat' s - c l a s s )
{u n } (agentive 3) o c c u r s a fte r s - c l a s s th em es.
{"im ^-cinp un} : / ? im 6 -cinpun/ 'prophet' ({îm §’ cinp} 'p rop hesy'
s -c la s s )
{k ti‘ e*yik un} : /kik^-yikun/ 'p e ren n ia l t r a v e le r ' ({kti-} 'go'

s - c l a s s ; {e -y ik } re p e titiv e 620 s - c l a s s )
{lu } (agentive 4) is found in the follow in g sin g le ex am p le a fte r a c - c l a s s

them e.
{ci*q lu } : /ci*xlu/ 'talkin g s q u ir r e l' ({ci*q } 'talk' c - c l a s s )
M orph ology 67
[e'î] (inanim ate agentive) : HeîH b e fo re { + } ; ||e?i*|| e lse w h e re . T h e re

a r e no e x am p les of { e ? i} a fter a c - c l a s s them e.
||e?i|| {we* ke^ eyk e ? i} : /w e*ke?yke?i/ 'a irp lan e ' ({w e*} 'fly ';
{k e ? ^ y k } 'go' s - c l a s s )
||e?i*|| {'ipn§* wil§* k e ? 6 yk e ? i k i} : / ?ip n ew leke?y ke?i*ki/ 'by au to

m o b ile' ({"ipn§*} third p e rso n sin g u la r re fle x iv e p r e fix , < pi* >
c la s s 620; { w ll 6 *} 'run' 6 1 0 .1 ; { k i} 'by' of < k > c la s s 533)
{ e ? s } 'an o b ject for . . . ing' : |ln e s |l, ||fec|| or || s || a fter a c - c l a s s

them e; ||e ? s|| a fte r a con so n a n t-fin a l s tr e s s e d s - c l a s s them e; ||^ ‘?s|| after
an u n str e ss e d s - c l a s s them e; ||tes|| e lse w h e re .
lines II {h it 6 *me e ? s } : /h it 6 *menes/ 'book' ({h it§*m e} 're a d ' c - c l a s s )
II fee II {k iw k iw i e ? s } : /kiw kiw ifec/ 'drum ' ({k iw k iw i} 'beat' c - c l a s s )
II s II {ti*ps_e‘? e ? s } : /ti*p sa?s/ 's c r a p e r ' ({ti* p s£ ?} 's c r a p e ' c - c l a s s )
lle^sll {'tse iiw k e ? s } : / ?isalîw ka?s/ 'saw ' ({'fs e } 'with a cutting
in stru m e n t'; {liiw } 'cu t'; {k } m eaning u n certain , < etk > c la s s
620, s - c l a s s )
||^ ?s|| {w e tik i e ? s } : /watik^'^s/ 'so le ' ({w e t^ ki} 'ste p on' s - c l a s s )
||tes|| {"ip§*te e ? s } : / ?ip^*tetes/ 's c r a p e r ' ({"ipe*te} 's c r a p e ' s - c l a s s )
{;^ ?s} 'an o b ject for . . . ing' : ||-n 6 ?s || a fter a c - c l a s s them e; Hu'ûsH
a fte r an s - c l a s s v e rb them e ending in a sin g le consonant and not b e fo re { + } ;
lli^^sll e lse w h e re a fter a con so n an t-fin al s - c l a s s them e; ||-tu ? s|| e lse w h e re .
Il-nli^sjl {'ly^ l§h n e;Q ?s} : / ?iyehnen 6 ?s/ 'pole' (for a canoe) ({'fy e}
'a flo a t'; {l^ h n e} 'down' c - c l a s s )
l|u ’ 6 s|| { w islip ;^?s ne} : /wislipo*? 6 sna/ 'sn o w -sh o v e l (o b ject c a se )'
({ w is lip } 'sh o v el' s - c l a s s ; {n e } o b je ctiv e 532)
||;6 ?s|| { w is lip ; 6 ? s} : / w is lip 6 ?s/ 'sn o w -sh o v e l'
||- t 6 ?s|| {c u li 6 *ymi ;6 ? s } ; /culieym it 6 ?s/ 'bone in stru m en t fo r scra p in g

the inner pine b a r k u sed fo r food' ({c u i§ * y m i} 'get b a rk ' s - c l a s s )
{n w e*s} 'p la ce o f . . . in g ': ||niw e*s|| a fte r a c - c l a s s c o n so n an t-fin a l

them e; ||inw e*s|| a fter an s - c l a s s co n so n an t-fin al them e; ||nwe*s|| e l s e
w here.
68 JSez Perce Gram m ar
||niw e-s|| {"6 **?ys nwe*s} : / ^ysn iw e’ s/ 'heaven,* 'H appy Hunting G round'
( { ' 6 -? y s} 'be happy' c - c la s s )
||in w e-s|| {"§*lik nw e-s} : / ?d*likinw a*s/ 'fir e p la c e ' ({"§*lik} 'm ak e fir e '
s -c la s s )
l|nwe*s|| {"ttemy§- n w e-s} : / ?itam y^-nw a-s/ 'sto re,' 'town' ({'item y§*}
's e ll' s - c l a s s )
{te si*n } 'p la ce of . . . ing' is found in one ex am p le.
{w ept§* tesi*n } : /w ept§-tesi*n/ 'p la ce fo r fea th erin g a rro w s'

({w ept^*} 'fea th er a rro w s' s - c l a s s )
{§ h e } 'p la ce of . . . ing' i s found in one ex am p le.
{"li*yi §he} : /?uy§he/ 'sta rtin g p la ce ' ({"ti-yi} 'begin,' 's ta rt'
s -c la s s )
{s i* m e y } 'one in cap ab le o f . . . ing' : ||ci-m ey || a fte r a c - c l a s s them e;

||si*m ey || e lse w h e re .
||ci-m e y || {le m e m t si*m ey} : /lam am tci-m ay / 'im p atien t p erso n ' ({le m e m t}
'be patient' c - c l a s s )
||si-m e y || {"ci-q si*m ey} : /ciq si*m ey/ 'd eaf-m u te,' 'quiet p erso n ' ({c i-q }
'talk ' s - c l a s s )
{e ? y ^ -? y } 'one in cap ab le of . . . ing' : l|?n §“?y|| a fte r a c - c l a s s them e;

||y§*?y|| a fte r a s tr e s s e d v o w e l-fin a l s - c l a s s them e; 1|e?y ê-?y || or ||e?y^-y||
else w h e re .
||?n 6 *?y|| {siw l§* e ? y ^ “?y} : / s iw le ? n 6 -?y/ 'one un able to sw im ' ( { s iw l 6 *}

'sw im ' c - c l a s s )
||y 6 *?y|| {te q e M* e ? y § ’ ?y} : /teqelti’ye*?y/ 'one un able to dive' ({te q e }

'dive/ {iti-} 'un derw ater' s - c l a s s )
||e?y§*?y|| {w e k^yk e?y^*?y} : /w akayka?y^*?y/ 'u n rin sed' (of clo th es),
'un sifted ' (of sand) ({w e} 'with im p lem en t'; {k ^ y k } 'clean '
s -c la s s )
||e?y§«y|| {n e k i e?y §*?y} : /neke?y§*y/ 'unthinking p erso n ' ({n e k i} 'think'

s -c la s s )
M orph ology 69
{tp es} 'one who is unwilling to . . . ’ is found in one exam ple.
{m^ci* tpes} : /m ici*tpas/ 'one who does not want to understand,'

' stubborn per son' ({n ^ci*} 'hear' s - c la s s ) cf. /m icisi*m ay/ 'one
who does not understand (a language),' 'deaf-m ute'
{tekey} 'object for . . . ing' is found in the following two exam ples.
{w ix s tekey} : /wixc?utekey/ 'buffalo robe to sit on,'

'cushion' ({w ix s} 'sit'; {^ti} meaning uncertain, c -c la s s )
{"is^-pe tekey} : / ?isd-ptakay/ 'parfleche' ({"is§*pe} 'put in a

parfleche' c -c la s s )
{tp es} 'object for . . . ing' : is found in one exam ple.
{k icu y "ite tpes} : /kicti*yitetpes/ 'purse' ({kicu y} 'money,'

'm etal'; { ite} 'put in' s - c la s s )
{"ew} 'ch aracterized by . . . ing'
{henim "ew} : /hemmew/ 'lazy man' ({hem m } 'not to go' c -c la s s )
{"tkti*y tim êw} : / îkti-ytimew/ 'honest man' ({"tkti-y} 'be honest';

{tim } 'speak' s -c la s s )
{i?n } 'one that is . . . ed'
A fter a stre sse d s - c la s s theme with final ||i||

and before { + } ........................................................................................... 11*^ÎI
A fter a stre sse d s - c la s s theme with other finals

and before { + } ........................................................................................... 111*^^11
A fter a stre sse d s - c la s s theme elsew here ............................... II 1*^2 11
A fter an u n stressed vow el-final s - c la s s theme

and before { + } .......................................................................................... I h i’^ll
E lsew h ere after an s - c la s s theme and before { + } ................ Ilyi'^ll
A fter a c - c la s s theme and before { + } ......................................... I I I !
E lsew h ere after a c -c la s s theme ................................................... ||ni?s||
{i?n } is not found after an u n stressed s - c la s s theme and not before {+}.
|l?n|| {qeq^-w i i?n } : /qeq§*wi?n/ 'drunk' ({q eq ^ -w i} 'd rin k' s - c l a s s )
||i?n|| {w e k 6 yk i?n } ; /w ak^yki^n/ 'sifte d (sand)' ({w e } 'with im p le

m ent'; {k ^ y k } 'clean ' s - c l a s s )
||i? s|| {sep^* piytixte i?n "_§yn} : / c e p 6 ’pyuxti?s'?ayn/ 'fo r a pie' ({se p § *}
cau sa tiv e p re fix 620; {p iytixte} 'p la ce in betw een' s - c l a s s ; { '^yn}
'fo r' 534)
llî-nll {y e x se i?n } ; /yaxsa?i*n/ 'poured o ver' ({ y e x s e } 's p ill' s - c l a s s )
||y i’n|| {h£*ni i?n } : /hanyi-n/ 'm ade,' 'm an ufactured' ({h_e*ni} 'm ak e'
s -c la s s )
||ni?n|| { V t i m lii*w i?n } : / ?a-tim lii-w ni?n/ 'G en . O . C . H ow ard' ( < 'a rm
cut') ({'§*tim } 'a r m '; {ii* w } 'cut' c - c l a s s )
llni^sll {^^*tim ii'w i?n ne} : / ?a*tim ii*w n i?sn a/ 'G en . O . O . H ow ard
(o bject c a se )' ({n e } o bject c a s e su ffix 532)
{t} '-in g '
A fte r a v o w e l-fin a l c - c l a s s them e and b e fo re { + } ................... ||n||

E lsew h ere after a vow el-fin al c - c la s s theme ............................ 0
A fte r a co n so n an t-fin al c - c l a s s them e ............................................. ||in||
A fte r an s - c l a s s them e ............................................................................... ||t||
||n|| {pi* we-p ci^yew t} : /pi*w apci?yaw n/ 'w ar' ({pi*} r e c ip r o c a l

p refix 620; {w e*p} 'with hand or paw '; {c i? y e w } 'k ill' c - c l a s s )
0 {pi* we*p ci?y ew t pe} : /pi-w apci^yaw pa/ 'during the w ar' ({p e }
'at the tim e o f 534)
||in|| {tu k ^ e li*k t} : /tu keli'kin / 'hunting' ({tu k ’^ê} 'hunt'; { l i ’k } 'm ove,'
'go' c - c l a s s )
||t|| {n ek i t} : /n^-kt/ 'thinking,' 'id ea' ({n e k i} 'think* s - c l a s s )
{tip e c } (d e sid e ra tiv e su ffix) in d ic a te s ( 1 ) d e s ir e and ( 2 ) tendency
A fte r a c - c l a s s them e and b e fo re { + } .................................... ||nipec||

E ls e w h e r e a fte r a c - c l a s s them e .............................................. ||n ip §-c|
A fte r an s - c l a s s them e and b e fo re { + } .................................. ||tipec||
E ls e w h e r e ................................................................................................. ||tip§*c||
M orph ology 71
||nipec|| {tuk tipec} : /tuxnipec/ ’one who lik e s to talk,' 'go ssip er' ({tuk}
'gossip ' c -c la s s )
||nip6*c|| {cik li- tipec wi s e} : /cikli-nip§-cw ise/ 'I want to go home'

({cikli*} 'turn' c - c la s s ; {w i} 'do' 622.1)
||tipec|| { In ^ ’ kti’ tipec} : / ?ineku*tipec/ 'one given to drinking' ({in § -}

reflexive prefix 620; {kti-} 'drink (with a reflexive prefix)'
s - c la s s )
||tipe*c|| {hi cikli- tuq tipec wi s e} : /hickili*toqtip^*cwisa/ 'he is anxious

to return' ({tuq} 'back' s -c la s s )
{tic } 'one who does,' 'one who is ch aracterized by . . . ing'; ||'ic||, Ifis ||,
or ||c|| after a c - c la s s theme; ||tic|| elsew here.
||'ic|| {till6-p tic} : /till§.-pic/ 'lonesom e' ({till§-p } 'be lonely' c -c la s s )
II IS II {se y q i tic} : /sayqis/ 'beautiful' ({s^ y q i} 'be beautiful' c -c la s s )
II c II {im m ^y tic} : /^:om^yc/ 'sick' {{i^ -m ^ y } 'be sick' c -c la s s )
||tic|| {'il^-tw i tic} : / ?ilatwi*tic/ 'tiresom e' ({'il^-tw i} 'be tired'

s - c la s s )
{R } 'one who is ch aracterized by . . . ing'
{R k^yk} : /kayxk^yx/ 'clean' ({k^yk} 'be clean' s - c la s s )
{R tf-pit} : /ti-piti'pit/ 'smooth' ({ti-pit} 'be smooth')
The secon d type of d ev erb ative th em es m ay be su m m a riz e d a s fo llo w s:
sT : gvT < ?§*t >
G e n e ra l v e rb th em es (gvT ) a re d e sc rib e d in 6 2 2.1.
530. Substan tive in flectio n .
The fo llo w in g fiv e c la s s e s of s u ffix e s o ccu r a s in fle c tio n a l elem en ts in

con stituen cy with substan tive th em es.
(N ote: n T , nuT, k T , p p T , d T , a T a re su bstan tiv e th em es having nS, nuS,

kS, ppS, dS, aS a s con stituen ts r e s p e c tiv e ly . nT a ls o stand s fo r an s T having
a v erb ste m a s a con stituen t.)
N um ber of O c c u r s with
C la s s S u b c la ss
M em bers
nT nuT kT ppT dT aT
< nim > 1 X X X X X X
< ne > 1 X X X X X X
< k > k 1 X X X X X
k ek 1 X X
ki 1 X X X X X X
k in ik 1 X X X X
hi-nek 1 X
le y k in 2 X X
ik e 2 X
w ecet 1 X X X
< '^yn > '§yn 1 X X X X
hi n 1 X X X
m§ 1 X X X
pe 1 X X X X X
< e > 2 X
531. < nim > . The sin g le m em b er of this c la s s is {n im } (p o s s e s s iv e -

n om in ative), in d icatin g eith er the p o s s e s s o r of an o b ject or the p e rfo r m e r
of the action of the v e rb .
{n im }
W ith g e n e r a l nouns: l|m |l, ||in i||, |ln m |l, ||nim ||
A s ||m || a fter a th em atic su ffix , e .g ., {ciq §*m q el nim } : /ciq§.*m qalm /

'dog' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
A s ||im || e lse w h e re a fte r ||n ||, e .g ., {qi*wn n im } : /qi-w nim / 'old

m an' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
A s ||nm || e lse w h e re a fter a v ow el, e .g ., {p isw e nim } : /pisw§*nm /

'stone' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
A s ||nim || e lse w h e re , e .g ., {l^ -q e c nim } : /laq ^-sn im / 'm ouse'

M orph ology 73
W ith k in sh ip t e r m s : ||e m ||, ||im |l, ||pini||
A s ||em || with the f ir s t group (5 1 0 .3 ) and with {n e ? } 'my,' o r {"im }

'your (sg.),' e .g ., {n e ? t t 'i nim } : /na'^tb-tam/ 'm y father'
(po s se s siv e - n o m in ativ e)
A s ||im || e lse w h e re a fte r ||p ||, e .g ., {p iy e p nim } : /piy§-pim /

'eld er b roth er' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
A s ||pim || e lse w h e re , e .g ., {pe* 'i*c nim } : /pik§*pim / 'm other'

(p o sse ssiv e -n o m in a tiv e )
W ith per son al pronoun s: || nim ||, || im ||, || m ||, || im ||
A s IInimII after {'ip i} 'he, she, it,' e .g ., {'ip i n im } : /?ipnim / 'his,'

'he'
A s ||im || after {'i*m } 'you (sg.),' e .g ., { i*m nim } : /?im im / 'your

(sg.),' 'you (s g .)'
A s ||m || after {m e } (p lu ral su ffix ), e .g ., {"i*m m e n im } : / ?im §*m /

'your (pi.),' 'their,' 'you (pi.),' 'they'
A s ||im || e lse w h e re , e .g ., {'i*n n im } : /?i-nim / 'my,' 'I'
W ith d e m o n stra tiv e s: ||m ||, || im ||
A s ||m || a fte r {k i*} 'this,' e .g ., {ki* nim } : /kinm / 'th is' (p o s s e s s iv e -

n om inative)
A s ||ini|| a fter {k u } 'that,' e .g ., {k u nim } : /konim / 'that' (p o s s e s s iv e -

n om inative)
W ith a d je c tiv e s : ||nim ||
E .g ., { ic w ^ - y s nim } : / ?icw e?i*sn im / 'cold' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
O c c a s io n a lly a llo m o rp h s of {n im } fo r g e n e ra l nouns o cc u r with k in sh ip te r m s ,

p o ss ib ly in d icatin g an a n a lo g ic a l fo rm atio n , e .g ., {pe* "i-c n im } : ||pik^*nm ||
: /pik§-nm / 'm other,' in stead of /pik§*pim /.
A p o ss ib le in d ication of the preced in g m orphophonem ic segm en t a s the
conditioning fa cto r with g e n e r a l nouns m ay be in the follow in g fr e e ly a lt e r
nating d ou b lets:
||c 6 *qet|| : /c^*qet/ 'b la c k b e rry '

||ceq 6 -tn im || L ||c e q 6 - nm || : /ceq^-tnim / t /ceq§*nm / 'b la c k
b e rry ' (p o ss e s siv e -n o m in a tiv e )
||^_§*wit|| : /?^*wit/ 'widow'

||"ewi*t nimII L ||"ewi* nm|| : / ?aw i-tnim / I /?aw i-nm / 'widow'
(p o sse ssiv e -n o m in a tiv e )
532. < ne > . The sin g le m em b e r o f this c la s s is {n e } (o b jectiv e) in d i

cating the o bject of the v e r b a l action. When the v erb in the sa m e sentence
contains no b e n efa ctiv e, {n e} m a rk s the in d ire c t o b je ct, o th erw ise it m a r k s
the d ir e c t o bject.
{n e}
W ith g e n e r a l nouns: ||n 6 ||, || e ||, ||ne||
A s ||n§|| a fter {k ^ l^ } 'that much,' e .g ., {k £ l£ ne} : /kalan^/ 'that

much' (object)
A s l|e|| a fte r ||l|| or ||n ||, e .g ., {qi*w n ne} : /qi-wne/ 'old m an'
(o bject). Ex ce p tio n s a re tile l ' c l i f f (til^-ln e) and te*kin
'm eadow ' (t§*kinne)
A s ||ne|| e lse w h e re , e .g ., {c^*qet ne} ; /ceq§*ne/ 'r a s p b e r r y '

(object)
W ith n u m e r a ls: ||in e ||, ||in e ||, ||ne||
A s ||ine|| a fte r {t} (neutral c la s s if ie r ) p rece d ed by {pti-tim } 'ten,'

e .g ., {pti*tim t n e } : /pu*tim tine/ 'ten' (object)
A s ||ine|| e lse w h e re after { t } , e .g ., {le p t ne } : /lepitine/ 'two'

(object)
A s ||ne|| e lse w h e re , e .g ., {le p we ne } : /lep 1i?n e/ 'two (people)'

(object) ( { w e } p e rso n a l c la s s if ie r )
W ith kin sh ip t e r m s : ||e p ||, ||ne||
A s ||ep|| with group 1 or 2b (5 1 0 .3 ) and with {n e ? } 'my,' or { 'im }

'your (sg.),' e .g ., {n e ? q e l 6 c ne } : /n a?q al^cap / 'm y p a tern al
gran d fath er' (object)
A s ||ne|| e lse w h e re , e .g ., {q_el_§c e?c ne } : /q al^ca?cn a/ 'p a tern al

gran d fath er' (object)
W ith p e rso n a l pronoun s: ||n ^ ||, || e ||, ||n^*n|l, ||en||
A s ||n§|| a fte r {"ip i} 'he, sh e, it' and b e fo re { + } , e .g ., {"ipi ne } :

/?ipn 6 / 'h im , h er, it'
M orphology 75
A s ||e|| else w h e re b e fo re { + } , e .g ., {'i* n n e } : /?i*ne/ 'm e'
A s ||n^*n|| e lse w h e re after { 'i p i} , e .g ., { I p i ne lie } : /?ipn^*nlie/

'h im / h e r/it a lso '
A s ||en|| else w h e re , e .g ., { i * n n e l i e } : /^ i-n en ie/ 'm e too'
W ith d e m o n stra tiv e s: ||y e ||, ||y§||
A s ||ye|| a fte r {k i-} 'this,' e .g ., { k r ne } : /kinye/ 'this' (object)
A s ||y§|| a fter { k u } 'that,- e .g ., { k u n e } : / kony^/ 'that' (object)
W ith a d je c tiv e s : || ene 1|
A s ||ene|l e v ery w h ere, e .g ., {ktackuc ne } : /ktickucene/ 's m a ll'

(object)
533. < k >. The ten m e m b e rs of this c la s s , m o stly with lo c a tiv e or

in stru m en ta l m ean in g s, a re a s fo llo w s:
{k } 'to,' 'up to,' 'than,' 'against,' '-th' (with n u m e r a ls).
T h is su ffix a p p e a rs a ls o a fte r n o m in alized v e r b s in sen ten ces such a s

p§*kcene wihnepx 'they saw h im go,' ?am ciy a k ^ -?le se p x 'I h ea rd him ch ew
ing som ething,' ?a m c iy a w e?npitx 'I h eard him sing.'
W ith n u m e ra ls: ||k ||, ||k ip k ||, ||ip k ||, ||ipk||
A s ||k|| a fte r { t t iy c } 'nine' or {e ? § p t it } 'ten tim es,' e .g ., {litiyc k }

: /liuîcx/ 'ninth'
A s ||kipk|| a fte r {h ti-s u s } 'hundred tim es,' e .g ., {pta-tim hti-sus k }

: /pu-tm ti-suskipx/ 'one thousandth' ({p ti'tim } 'ten')
A s ||ipk|| a fter {n^*qc} 'one' or {p ^-x ^} 'fiv e' fo llo w ed by { t }

(n eutral c la s s if ie r ) , e .g ., {p^*x£ t k} : /pa-xatipx/ 'fifth'
A s ||ipk|| e lse w h e re , e .g ., U e p t k} : /lepitipx/ 'secon d ' ({le p }

'two')
W ith n o n -n u m e ra ls: ||p k ||, ||k||
A s ||pk|| a fte r a vow el, e .g ., { V i e k } : /?^-lapx/ 'a g a in st fir e '

({'^ •le } 'fir e ')
A s ||k|| e lse w h e re , e .g ., {m ^ -x se m k} : /m exs^-m x/ 'to m ountain'

({m § -x se m } 'm oun tain ').
76 JSez P erce Gram m ar
{ k e k } ‘in the d ire ctio n of . . . '
A s ||kek|| e v ery w h ere, e .g ., {n^*we k e k } : /new ^'kex/ 'tow ard L o lo

C r e e k ' ({n^*w e} 'L o lo C r e e k , Idah o ').
{k i } 'in the lan guage of . . .,' 'at the tim e of . . .,' 'on account of . . . ,'
'in co m p a riso n with . . . 'about . . . ' (of a su b ject m a tte r), 'by m ean s
of . . . 'than' : ||ki|| a fter { k u } 'th at’ ; ||ki|| e lse w h e re , e .g .,
{ k u k i } : /konki/ 'with that'
{su -y e- pe we tim t k i } : /so-ya*po*tim tki/ 'in E n g lish ' ({su*ye*}
'the white,' {p e } 'p la ce of . . . {w e } p e rso n a l c la s s i f i e r ,
{tim t} 'lan g u ag e')
{k in ik } 'fro m . . . ||i’k|| a fter {k u } 'th at'; || ik || a fte r {ki*} 'th is ';

|!pkinik|| after ||?||, ||k ||, ||q|| o r a v ow el; ||kin ik|| e lse w h e re .
l|i-k||
{ku k in ik} : /koni'x/ 'fro m that'
llikll
{ki* k in ik} : /km ix/ 'fro m this'
llpkinik ||
{ c e m i’tk k in ik } : /cem itexp kin ix/ 'fro m h u ck le b e rry ' ( { c e m i’tk}
'h u ck le b e rry ')
I kinik |
{n e? t 6 ‘t nim k in ik } : /n a?t 6 ’tam kinix/ 'fro m m y father'
In two in sta n ce s of p la ce n am es ||kin ik|| is found a fte r a v ow el:

{w e?l§ w e k in ik } : /wa?lw^.-kinix/ 'fro m W a lla w a lla , Washington*
{le m § te k in ik } : /lam t^-kin ix/ 'fro m W h iteb ird , Idaho'
W ith p e rso n a l pronouns ||kin ik|| is found a fte r a th em atic su ffix and ||k in i‘k||
{'i*m nim k in ik } : / ?im im kin ix / 'fro m you (sg .)'
{"i*m k in ik } : /?im kini*x/ 'fro m you (sg .)'
The la s t two w ere given a s p o ss ib le fr e e alte rn a n ts in a text.
{hi*nek} 'even . . . '
{p i-p s hi*nek} : /p ipsi'n ex/ 'even a bone'

{w esw ^ sn u hi-nek} : /w asw asnohi-nax/ 'even a chicken ' ({w esw ^ sn u }
'c h ic k e n ')
M orph ology 77
{le y k in } 'in the v icin ity of . . . '
{l§ -q e ley kin } : /1 ^-qalaykin/ 'near a pine tree' ({l^ *q e} 'pine tre e ')
{ s i i e m ley kin } : / s i 6 ^*m laykin/ 'n ear a h o r s e ' ({ s ik e m } 'h o rse ')
{p ip em } 'am ong . . . '
{lew tiw e- pipem } : /law tiw a-pipam / 'am ong frie n d s' ({lew tiw e*}
'fr ie n d ')
{ik e } 'at . . . s id e ': || ike 1| a fte r {k i-} 'th is '; || ik§ || a fte r {k u } 'th a t; e .g .,
{ki* ik e } : /kinike/ 'on th is side'

{ku ik e } ; /konik^/ 'on that sid e'
{m e t } 'at the tim e of . . . '
{ki* m e t } : /ki*m et/ 'at th is tim e'
{w e c e t} 'b e ca u se of . . ||wece*n|| a fte r {k u } 'th at'; ||w ecet|| e l s e

w h ere, e .g .,
{ku w e c e t} : /konwacdfn/ 'th erefo re'

{"itu* w e c e t} : / *?itta*wecet/ 'why' ({"itu*} 'w hat')
534. < £yn > . The four m e m b e rs of th is c la s s m ay o ccu r eith er a s

them atic a ffix e s or in fle c tio n a l elem en ts.
{'§ y n } 'fo r the sa k e of . . . || yeyn|| a fte r {k u } 'that' follow ed by {m e }

(p lu ra l su ffix ); ||y ey n || e lse w h e re a fter d e m o n stra tiv e s; !|^yn|| - ir^ynH
after || s ||; ||'§yn|| ~ H'eyn || ~ ||-£ y n || e lse w h e re .
HViynll
{k u m e "^yn} : /konma?y§.yn/ 'for those'
H'yeynll
{ki* '^yn} : /kinyayn/ 'fo r th is'
lliyn I!
{ p is k is "^yn} : /p isk is^ y n / 'fo r door'
ll'iynll
{ciq ^ 'm q£l ’^ n } ; /ciqa-mqafîyn/ 'for dog'
ll’eynll
{tu?<iynu £y n } : /to?yn 6 ?ayn/ 'for ta il'
II - ’ e y n II
e?c '^yn} : /?^-le?cayn/ 'for paternal grandmother*
{hi-'n} 'with . . : ||hi’"n|| ~ ||hi"n||, e .g .,
{pe* tu*t hf"n} : /pisti-n/ 'with father'

{h ^ -s e s h i-n } : /has^-si'^n/ 'nitty' ({h^vses} 'louse egg')
{m ^ } 'fro m . . . '
A fte r {liti-seyn} 'M ontana' or { k u } 'that' em e ||

A fte r {t^-kin } 'm eadow ' .................................... W II
A fte r a them e with fin a l ||m || ........................ ell - ir^ll
E ls e w h e r e ................................................................ m e II - Ijm ^l
II em&ll
{t^L’ seyn m §} : /liuseynem ^/ 'fro m M ontana'
llm ^ll
{t^ -kin m e} : /tekinm ^/ 'fro m m eadow '
{ inw im m e} : / ? in w i’m e/ 'fro m la s t y e a r' ({'in w im } 'y e a r')
{m ^ -x se m m e} : /m ex sem ^/ 'fro m m ountain'
II me II
{nip^he m §} : /nipeh^m e/ 'fro m G r a v e s C r e e k , Idaho'
||m §||
{'elp ew ew i m §} : / ?alpaw aw im ^/ 'fro m A lpo w a, W ashington'
{p e } 'at,' 'in,' 'at the tim e of . . . '
A fte r { k i ’} 'th is ': b e fo re { + } ....................................................... ||e||

b e fo re { n i k } .................................................... j| ey j|
A fte r {k u } 'th at': b e fo re { + } ........................................................ || 6 ||
b e fo re { n i k } .................................................... || ey ||
A fte r {n ik } or {i* m } 'you ( s g . ) ' .................................................. I I I !
E ls e w h e r e .................................................................................................. II pe I!
{k i- pe} : /kine/ 'h ere'

M orph ology 79
II ey II
{k i- pe n ik} : /kineynix/ ’ at this v e ry spot'
{ku pe nik} ; /konaym x/ 'at that v e ry spot'
ll&ll
{ku pe} : /kon^/ 'there'
IIp ÎI
{n §-qc nik pe} : /na-qcnip^/ 'at the p la ce of only one'
II pe II
{t^hun pe} : /tohonpa/ 'in le g g in g s' ({t;6 hun} 't r o u s e r s ; 'le g g in g s')
535, < e > . The two m e m b e rs of this c la s s a r e :
{ e } (jun ior v o cativ e suffix) o c c u r s with the four kin sh ip te rm s denoting

g ra n d p a ren t-g ra n d ch ild re la tio n sh ip and in d ic a te s that the v o cativ e r e fe r s
to the younger refe re n t of the r e c ip r o c a l sy ste m . The four e x am p les are:
{q e le c e} : /q al^ca/ 'so n 's child 1' (a m an speakin g)

{ p i l 6 q e} : /pil4qa/ 'd au g h ter's child'.' (a m an speakin g)
{"e*l e} : /?e-le/ 's o n 's childl' (a w om an speakin g)
{qe*c e} : /q§.-ca/ 'd au g h ter's child' (a w om an speakin g)
{ e ? } {se n io r vocativ e su ffix) o c c u r s with tw elve kin sh ip te rm s and in d i

c a te s the se n io r re fe re n t.
{q ^ l^ c e ? } : /q al^ca?/ 'p a tern al gran d fath er'

{p ile q e ? } : /pil^qa?/ 'm a te rn a l gran d fath er'
{"6*1 e?} : / ? 6 *le?/ 'p a tern al g ran d m o th er'
536. The su bstan tiv e co n stru ctio n s in which the in flectio n a l su ffix c la s s e s
above p a rtic ip a te a r e :
Ss = su b je c t su bstan tive
Ss : s T [nim ]
E x a m p le : sT < nim >
{ ’ip i nim }
l|iP nim II
?ipnim
he
So = o b ject su bstan tiv e

So : s T [ne]
E x a m p le : sT < ne >
f • ne }
{ ip i
II
II iP nfe II
/ ?ipn^ /
him
SI = lo c a tiv e su bstan tiv e

SI : s T k/ £yn
E x a m p le s : sT < k > sT < '§yn >
{tiw e lq e k i} { ku pe}
II tiw elqe kill ||kun e||
/ tiw ^lq ek i / / kond /
on account of the enem y at that p la ce
= attrib u tiv e
At : s T [nim ]
E x a m p le : sT < nim >
{'ip i nim
ll’ip nim II
îpnim
h is
I = in te rje c tio n
I : St e
E x a m p le : sT < e >
{q e l^ c e?}
Ilqelec e?||
/ q a l^ ca ? /
p a tern al gran d fath er:
600. V E R B S
V erb s te m s a re d is c u s s e d in 610 and v erb th em es a re d is c u s s e d in 620.
610. V e rb s te m s .
T h e re a re two v erb ste m c la s s e s .

M orph ology 81
611. G e n e r a l v e rb ste m s (gvS) : one or two g e n e r a l v erb ro ot m o rp h em es,

or a g e n e ra l v e rb root m orp h em e p lu s a p rece d in g g e n e ra l noun root m o r
phem e.
The two m ain v a r ia b le s in the allo m o rp h y of m on om orp h em ic v e rb ste m s
a re s t r e s s and can on ical fo r m s .
The two m a jo r types of v e rb s te m s , in te rm s of the fir s t v a r ia b le noted
above, a re s tr e s s e d and u n str e ss e d ty p es, the la tte r with two su bty p es.
A s tr e s s e d v e rb stem o c c u r s a lw a y s with a s t r e s s and ends in eith er a
consonant or an u n str e ss e d vow el, e .g .,
{te q i-k } 'com e down' s - c l a s s

|jteqi-k s e|| : /teqi-kse/ 'I am com ing down'
||teqi*k s e q^ll : /ta q i'k saq a / 'I cam e down'
{ti-w e } 's m e ll bad' c - c l a s s

||ti*we c e|| : /ti*wece/ 'I s m e ll bad'
||ti*we c e q£|| ; /ti*w acaqa/ 'I sm e lle d bad'
M e m b e r s of the u n s tr e s s e d type a re re p re se n te d by som e s tr e s s e d and

som e u n s tr e s s e d a llo m o rp h s and m ay be fu rth er divided into two su bty p es:
{h ip i} type and {hem *} type.
{h ip i} type is c h a r a c te r iz e d by fin a l s tr e s s e d || 11| in an a llo m o rp h b e fo re
{ s } c la s s m a rk e r and { e } sin g u la r su ffix , and by u n s tr e s s e d a llo m o rp h s
{h ip i} 'eat' s - c l a s s
||hipi s e II : /h ipise/ 'I eat'
||hip s qe II : /hips4*qa/ 'I ate'
||hip ti‘?|| : /hipti?/ 'I w ill eat'
{h e k i} 's e e ' c - c l a s s
||heki c e II : /h ekice/ 'I see'
||hek c k' qe|| : /hakc^-qa/ 'I saw '
II"e hek n ti? || : / ?e*xnti?/ 'I w ill see it'
{hem *} type is c h a r a c te r iz e d by fin a l s t r e s s e d vow el in an a llo m o rp h

b e fo re { s } and { e } , {u ? } in d ica tiv e future su ffix , o r {u ? q e } con dition al past
su ffix , and by u n s tr e s s e d a llo m o rp h s else w h e re , e .g .,
{h en i-} 'm ak e' s - c l a s s

||heni* s e|| : /hani*sa/ 'I m ake'
||heni s k- q^|| : /hanis^*qa/ 'I m ade'
Ijheni yu*? II : /haniyo?/ 'I w ill m ake'
The fo llow in g show s the su ffix a l allo m o rp h s d eterm in ed by the two stem
types and subtypes d is c u s s e d above.
A fte r A fte r U n s tr e ss e d Stem

S tre sse d
Stem { h ip i} {heni*}
{ e } sin g u la r (not b e fo re { + } ) lie II II 6 - II II6 - II
{ i } p lu ra l II ill I|i-Il Ilf-II
{u ? } in d ic a tiv e future llyu’ ll l|6 ’ || llyu’ ll

I h ’ ll llu’ ll
{e q } con ditional p resen t II eq II ll’i- q l! ll’i-q il
{u'?qe} con ditional past ||y u ’ qe|| ||la?qe|| llyu’ qejl

||u?qe ||u?qe II
{ t e } freq u en tative p resen t ||te||, ||te-|| I|t 6 -Il I|t6 -|l
{q e q e } freq u e n tativ e re c e n t past

with { i } II y e ’ niqell ||ye?ni*qe II llye’ m -qe II
II e?niqe ||
{q en e} freq u en tativ e rem o te past

with { i } II yenixne || II eni-xne || II eni-xne ||
II enixne ||
When c e rta in p r e fix e s o ccu r with an u n s tr e s s e d ste m , a s tr e s s e d a llo -

m orph of the p re fix o c c u rs if the p re fix can be re p re se n te d by a s tr e s s e d
a llo m o rp h . In such c a s e s the stem a llo m o rp h b e fo re { s } and { e } is without
the fin a l ||il|. F u r th e r m o r e , an u n str e ss e d set of su ffix a l allo m o rp h s o c c u r s ,
e .g .,
llweqe Ip i s e || : /w aq alp isa/ 'I hug' {{w e q i} 'in a r m s ,' { m p i }
's e iz e ')
|l"ipn§ w^qe Ip t|| : / ?ipn 6 *qalpt/ 'to fold a r m s ' ({ip n § * } third
p e rso n sin g u lar re fle x iv e p r e fix , { t } g eru n d ia l su ffix;
lit. 'to hug h i m s e l f )
IIpi* weqe Ip s i k|| : /p i'w aq alp six / 'we a re hugging each other'
({pi*} r e c ip r o c a l p r e fix , { i } p lu ra l su ffix , { k } in d ica tiv e
p resen t)
M orphology 83
The can o n ical alte rn a tio n m ay be found s te m -in itia lly or s te m -fin a lly ;
the fo rm e r i s found in a ll types of s te m s , w hile the la tte r is found only in
{h ip i} and {heni*} ty p es.
The s te m -in it ia l alte rn a tio n is a s fo llo w s:
C 1 V C 2 C 3 a fter { + } and C ^ C 2 V C 3 e lse w h e re .
||c ik li-k s e II : / cik li* k se/ 'I return'

||hi c k ili-k s e II : / h ick ili-k se / 'he re tu rn s' ({h i} th ird p e rso n
su b je ct p refix )
||titweti* s e II : /titw ati-sa/ 'I te ll a sto ry '

||hi ttiw_eti* s e II : /hittiw ati*sa/ 'he t e lls a story'
The s te m -fin a l alte rn a tio n is a s fo llo w s:
C^C^Y{-) b e fo re { s } and { e } , and b e fo re { t } .
II we m pi s e II : /w e?n pise/ 'I am sin gin g' ({w e } 'with mouth,'

{ I n p i } 's e iz e ')
IIwe m ip t|| : /w e?nipt/ 'to sing'

||tekpi s e|| : /tekp ise/ 'I dip out w ater'
lltekip t|| : /tekipt/ 'to dip out w ater'
||xe?p i c e II : /x e?p ice/ 'I craw l'
||x e ? 6 p in || : /xe?^pin/ 'craw lin g'
1 -s te m s . T h e re is a group of ste m s w hich have ||l|| (or ||n||) - 0 a lte r n a

tion s te m -in itia lly . In g e n e r a l, a llo m o rp h s without ||l|| (or ||n ||) o cc u r a fter
stops and s p ir a n ts, w hile th ose with ||l|| o cc u r a fte r v o w e ls and se m iv o w e ls.
T h e re a r e so m e ex cep tio n s. S e m a n tic a lly , m e m b e rs of th is group in d icate
som e lo c a tiv e -d ir e c tio n a l id e a s .
F o rm s Fo rm s
with II111 O c c u r s a fte r without 111 I O c c u r s a fter M eaning
l^ h se V, m , w, q 6 h se t, k, q, s 'up'
16hne V, y ^hne k, q, s, y 'down'
l§h yek V 6 hyek k, s, n 'u p stre am '
le w i’k V ewi*k t 'd ow n stream '
ley l§ -k w, y, V e y l§-k k, k ^ , q, s , n 'into'
l§ht V ^ht k , q, n 'out'
E x a m p le s :
lll^hse II |h i quql^h se ye II : /h iqqol^hsaya/ 'sh e g allo p ed up' ({quqti*}

'gallop,' { e } in d ica tiv e ind efin ite past)
ll^hs^ll ||w is ^ h s £ s e II : /w is§.hsasa/ ’ I am m oving up' ( { w is } 'm ove,'

't r a v e l')
||l§hne|| II w ile l§hne c e || : /w ilel^h n ece/ 'I am running down' ({w il^ -}
'ru n ')
||§hne|| ||w is 6 hne c i k|| : /w is^h necix/ 'we a re m oving down'
||l 6 hyek|| || hi "ipsqi 16hyek s e || : /h i?p sq il§h y ek se/ 'he is w alking

u p stre am ' ( { h i} th ird p e rso n su b ject p r e fix , {" ip sq i}
'w alk ')
||§hyek|| || w is 6 hyek 11| : /w is^hyekt/ 'to go u p stre am '
||lew i*k|| ||hi w ise le w i'k e || : / h iw se le w i’ke/ 'sh e m oved dow n stream '
||ewi*k|| I! wet ewi*k s e || : /w ataw i-ksa/ 'I wade d ow n stream ' ({ w e t }

'w ade')
||leyl§*k|| IIhi w x si l^ y le k s e || : / h iw x sil 6 y le k se / 'he s its in' ({w ix s }

' s i t ; ||ley l^ -k|| a lte rn a te s with ||l§ y le k ||)
||eyl^-k|| II hi tuk''^ e y l^ ’k s e || : /h itku yl 6 *kse/ 'he d iv e s in' ({tuk'^}

' d iv e ')
||l§ht|| irJye l^ht s e II : / ?iy el^ h tse/ 'I am com ing out of w ater' ({"lye}
'afloat,' 'in sw im m in g')
||§ht|| Ifin ek §ht s e || : / ?in ek 6 htse/ 'I am taking out' ({ m ek} 'c a r r y ')
Com pound v erb ste m s a r e of th ree ty p es:
( 1 ) a d v e rb ia l p re fix + v erb root

( 2 ) v erb root + v erb root
(3) noun ro ot + v erb root
The f ir s t type of com pound ste m is v e ry com m on, the m an ner of actio n
bein g e x p re s s e d by the a d v e rb ia l p re fix and the g e n e ra l d ire ctio n or scen e
of actio n by the root. T h e re a r e at le a s t 167 a d v e rb ia l p r e fix e s . They a r e :
c§w 'with s h e ll- or b e a d lik e cuqta* 'turn'

object' cti-ye 'with im p lem en t'
c im i 'by lyin g on' cti*ye 'by shaking'
cu 'underneath' hi- 'in subduing'
cti- 'with pointed object' h ic il 'c lim b '
cix- 'in a sin g le file ' h im 'with mouth'
cu*le 'with a lo o p -lik e object' hi^t (cau sa tiv e )
M orph ology 85
h i'tem 'dan ce' t 6 -l 'run (of hoofed a n im a ls)'

h i’ti^m 'with knee' tel§- 's ic k '
ke- 'w ith teeth' t^ ’lk e 'be in control,' 'lead (people),'
kipi* 'tra c e (a n im a ls)' 'tie (a n im a ls)'
kiye* 'm ove,' 'trav el,' 'w ander' t^*m 'throw (p lu ral o b je c ts)'
le k 'fu s s (of b a b ie s)' tem ^- 'throw (one o bject)'
lew 'build,' 'con stru ct,' 'fra m e up' tem§* 'lie down,' 's it down'
1 ^ ’w 'p ertain in g to fish ' teqe 'suddenly,' 'ten tatively'
le"w 'in speech' teqefw e 'stran d,' 'd e se rt'
Iqi 'lift' teqe 'bathe,' 'sw im '
m^*y 'in the m orning' tew 'w e e d (? )'
m is 'with e a r' t^w 'm eat'
mu* 'with four (or m o re ) le g s' t^ ’w 'at night'
m tixc 'sw allow ,' 'gulp' te*x 'fre e z e ,' 'be cold'
n^ 'le a v e behind' tex 'heated'
nik ' with h id e ' tex 'sound,' 'echo'
n ik § ’ 'with hand (often in con te ? 6 n 'in hunting'
nection with fib e r or hide) te ? le 'in w orsh ip'
nikteh 'd rag' te?pe 'c a st'
nim 'with ey e s' t il 'w ar'
nim §- 'w ith e y e s' timn^* 'at h eart'
nta-xc 'with nose' tiqe 'floatin g in a ir o r on w ater'
piti 'pound,' 'punch' tiq i 'in hiding'
qi 'with stic k y m atter' tis q i? 'b a c k w ard s'
q is im 'in anger' tiw eh 'follow '
quqti* 'gallo p ' tiwi* 'le a d (of w a r r io r s )'
se 'with ey es' tiw e 'with stic k or pointed object'
sek 'so a r,' 'c ir c le in the a ir ' tiy 6 * 'again st,' 'in an o b stru c tiv e
se p 6 * 'wind,' 'a ir ' m anner'
sepia- 'blow' ti? 'sun,' 'm oon'
s ik e , sik e 'in the d istan ce' ti?n 'w alk (p lu ral su bject)'
s l L^-w 'on the su rface ,' 'in ti*?wc 'in connection with a b a rk lik e
a p p earan ce' object'
s ilim 'w ith ey es' ti?w e le 'in r a in or snow'
S IS 6 'in sight' tu* 'throw'
s it 6 'look' tti* 'hypnotize'
siw i 'sw im ' tukte 'c ra w l'
sti-x 'c a u se to stand' tukw 'd iv e (un derw ater)'
su 'y e 'push' tukw 'shoot'
t6 * 'by sp eech ' tukw§*p 'w ith low er a rm or hand'
tukê*y ’with foreh ead ' w is 'trav el,' 'cam p,' 'p ack or
tulce ’with palm ' unpack for tra v elin g '
tCi'lke 'w ith a c a n e -lik e object' w is§- 'in standing position,' 'in
tu im i 'on o n e’ s b e lly ' p ile s'
tu t’^ e le 'in a h u rry ’ w isle 'with im p lem en t'
tu l^ ’ ’with fo o t’ w istu k 'shoot'
ttJi-le 'throw' w ite 's p re a d out'
tuqw 'fish ' witi- 'w hile doing som ething e lse '
tuqWel ’ s w im ’ w ite 'in g ro u p s (of b ird s )'
tux ’ s t ic k ily ’ wite 'with c la y (of h a ir)'
tuxpil ’with le g ’ w ix si? ’ s it ’
we ’r i v e r ’ w iy ’ snow'
we ’with e y e s ’ w iy§- 'a s one g o es'
we ’with chopping in stru m e n t’ wti-1 'w alk (of quadruped),' 'rid e'
we 'with spou se' :^ l e 'ro ll'
we 'with m outh’ yeq 'to ss'
we* ’ sw iftly ,’ ’in fly in g ’ "eliw 'in starv ation ,' 'in w inter'
w ekim ’ w hip’ "ewiye 'in shooting (arro w )'
w ele ’w hile w aiting/ 'in check' exew 'a b rea st,' 'sid e by side'
we*le 'in flyin g' "H 'in loud v o ice (?)'
we*p 'with hand or paw' "lie 'in fir e or sm oke'
wepe 'd r e s se d ' 'He 'in talking'
wepe 'run (of claw ed a n im a ls)' "ilelim 'cry,' 'sin g'
wepe- 'unintentionally' "iliw 'in fir e '
w esqe 's it with le g s sp read ' "iliw steqe 'with fa ce down'
wet 's t ic k - lik e object' "ils 'in burning'
w §'tx 'loudly,' 'in an ger' "imle 'dig'
w§*w 'into p ie c e s' m ek ' c a rry '
w§'w 'm eet' îp 'with fist,' 'with blunt in stru m en t'
we-win ’ s ic k ’ Tpe* 'with fist,' 'with blunt instrum ent'
w §-wqi ’h ack away,' 's tr ik e ' Ip sq i 'on foot'
wextui- ’ with se a t,’ ’by sitting' "iptek 'c a r ry '
wey 'with w ife' 'iptqi 'p ierce,' 's p e a r'
wey§* 'in m oving,' ’ in flyin g' Tq£ 'in supine position '
w e?l§- ’ in k n o ts’ *is 'with knife' (p lu ral o b jects)
w eqi ’in a r m s ’ "ise 'with knife' (one object)
w£t ’ w ad e’ "i-tem ’ d an ce ’
w£?we 'fish ' 'iw^-1 'pertain in g to sc a lp dance'
w icx ’ d e fe c a te ’ Twi 'urin ate'
w il§- ’run,' 'm ove qu ickly' Ty§- 'afloat,' 'sw im ,' 'pole (a c a n o e )’
wil§- 'wind'
M orph ology 87
E x am p les:
{w ile*} ’run'
||wil§* ke?y k s e II : /wil§*ke?ykse/ 'I am running' ({k e?§y } general

locomotion, { k } suffix of uncertain meaning)
||wile l^hs_e s e || : /w ilal^hsasa/ 'I am running up' ({l^h s^ } 'up')
II wile 16h teqi s e || : /wilaldhtqisa/ 'I am running up from the

bottom of valley' ({l_eh} 'up,' {t^qi*} 'com e out of w ater')
II w l L§- quyim k s e || : /wile-quyim kse/ 'I am running up to the

ridge' ({quyim } 'to the top')
II wile tuy^'m i s e || : /wilatoy§.*misa/ 'I am running on the ridge'

({t;6’yem } 'ridge')
II wile* yewne c e || : /wile-yewnece/ 'I am running over (e .g ., h ills,

humps)' ({yewne} 'over')
||wile l§hne c e || : /wilelehnece/ 'I am running down' ({l^hne} 'down')
||wil§* welu* s e II : /wil§*welu*se/ 'I am running down to the riv e r'

({weM*} 'go down to the riv e r')
II wile l§hyek s e || : /w ilelehyekse/ 'I am running upstream '

({l^hyek} 'upriver')
||w l L^* wewiti s e || : /wil§*wewitise/ 'I am running downstream '

({w§*witi} 'dow nriver')
||wile we-yik s e || : /wilew^*yikse/ '1 am running a c ro ss (e .g .,

riv e r)' ({w^*yik} 'a c ro ss')
{"ip sq i} 'on foot'
ll'ipsqi k e ? y k s e || : / ? ip sq ik e ? y k se / '1 am w alking'
{kipi*} 'trace (e .g ., footprints)'
||"e kipi* ke?y k s e || : / ?ekpi*ke?ykse/ 'I am tracing' ({"e} third

person object prefix)
{q is im } 'in anger'
llqisim ke?y k s e II : /qisim ke?ykse/ 'I am going away in anger'

{quqti'} 'gallop'
IIhi quqti ke?y k s e|| : /hiqqtike^ykse/ 'he is galloping'
{ s iw i} 'sw im '
||siw i ke?y k s e|| : /siw ike?ykse/ 'I am swim m ing'
{tu-lte} 'with a can e-like object'
||tti*l5:e ke?y k s e|| : /tu-lieke?ykse/ 'I am lim ping with cane'
Exam ples of the second type of compound stem are:
{m p O 'se iz e , catch' + {cikli*} 'turn'
ll'inpi s e II : /?inpise/ 'I catch'

Ijcikli* c e II : / c ik li’ce/ 'I turn'
II mp cikli- tuq i m e || : / ?inpcikli*toqima/ 'I cam e back to get it'
({tuq} 'back/ { i } plural suffix, { m } motion toward the speaker
or to the second person, { e } indicative indefinite past)
{'ewi-} 'shoot' + {tiw i’k} 'follow'
ll'ewi* s e|| : /?ewf-se/ 'I shoot'

||tiwi-k c e|| : /tiwi*kce/ 'I follow'
llê êwiye tiwik c e || : / ?e?wiyetwikce/ 'I shoot as I chase it'
({'e } third person object prefix)
A bound root m orpheme m ay occur as the second m em ber of a compound

stem. {t_em^*w} 'be in excess,' which does not occur after { + } , but occurs
im m ediately before su ffixes, is an exam ple.
{ci*q} 'speak' + {tem e-w } 'be in excess'
||ci-q c e II : /ci*qce/ 'I talk'

II ciq teme-w n || : /ciqtamd*wn/ 'I talked too much' (||n ||, an allo -
morph of { s } c la ss m arker)
The third type of compound stem , which shows a kind of noun in co rp o ra
tion, appears to be ra re and often o ccu rs with nom inalizing suffixes.
Ex am p les of noun root + verb root:
{qililu*} 'raw hide' + {w§wye} 'beat'
llqililu’ ll : /qililu*/ 'raw h id e'

M orph ology 89
||w 6 wye c e|| : /w ^w yaca/ 'I beat'

llqillli* wewye c e || : /qillo-w aw yaca/ ’ I sin g a d eparting song for
w a r r io r s ' (lit e r a lly 'I beat raw h id e')
{w_elc} 'knife' + {"ite} 'put in'
||w ^lc|| : /w ^lc/ 'knife'

ll'ite s e II : /^ itese/ 'I put in'
||w_elc " ite te s || : / w alc ita ta s/ 'sc a b b a rd ' ( ||t e s ||, an a lio m orph
of { e ? s } 'an o b ject fo r . . . in g')
{"6 *tim } 'a rm ' + {lii*w} 'cut'
ll'^-timjl : /^§.-tim/ 'a rm '

|fe*tim lî-w ni?n|| : / â’tim ii'w n i^ n / 'G e n e r a l O . O . H ow ard'
(lite r a lly 'a r m -c u t') (||n i? n ||, an a llo m o rp h of {i? n } 'one
that is . . . ed')
The follow in g m ay be co n sid e re d an exam ple of a v erb stem c o n sistin g of

a noun root and a bound v erb ro ot.
{tiw ^ 't} 'sham an' + {tim } 'sp ea k '
||tiw e-t|| : /tiw§-t/ ' sham an'

||tiweti* tim t|| : /tiw eti-tim t/ 'd re a m e r re lig io n ' (lit e r a lly
' sh am an - sp e a k in g ')
612. C o p u lativ e v erb s te m s (cvS ). The sin g le m em b er of th is c la s s is

{w §*} 'b e ; 'p o s s e s s ; e .g .,
/hiw §-ke so*y4*po*/ 'he w as a white m an' ({h i} th ird p e rso n su b ject
p r e fix ; ||w e*k||, an a llo m o rp h of { w e -} ; || e || an a llo m o rp h of
{n e} in d ica tiv e rem o te p a st; {su -y §*} 'the w hite')
/*?ew^-ke ?iw ^’ pne/ 'he had a w ife' ({'e } th ird p e rso n o bject p re fix ;
{"iw§*p} 'w ife '; {n e } o bject c a s e su ffix 5 3 2 .).
A cop ulative v erb stem is a lw a y s m on o m orp h em ic.
620. V erb th em es (v T ).
E a c h of the above ste m c la s s e s i s defined by its o c c u rre n c e in s p e c ia l

them atic c o n stru ctio n s. T h e se co n stru ctio n s in clud e c la s s e s of v erb a ffix e s
which a re shown below . The th em atic a ffix e s o ccu r only with g e n e r a l verb
s te m s .
90 Mez Perce Gram m ar
621. T h e m a tic a ffix c la s s e s . A ll the su ffix e s have at le a s t two m o rp h o

lo g ic a lly conditioned g ro u p s o f a llo m o rp h s: an s -g ro u p and a c -g ro u p . The
verb ste m s and them atic su ffix e s m ay be la b e le d a s to the group of a ll o
m orp h s they o ccu r with, the s - c l a s s or the c - c l a s s .
C la s s S u b c la ss N um ber of M e m b e r s
< pi* > pi* (re c ip r o c a l) 1

P r e fix e s "in§* (re fle x iv e ) 5
< wi > (d istrib u tiv e) 1
< sep§* > (c au sa tiv e) 2
S u ffix es < etk > (a sp ectu al) 21
E x a m p le s of them atic p r e fix e s :
< pi- > The two s u b c la s s e s of th is c la s s a re r e c ip r o c a l and

re fle x iv e p r e fix e s . The sin gle m em b er of the fir s t
s u b c la s s is :
{pi*} (r e c ip r o c a l): ||pi- - Ilprll - ||pi|
lPi*l
{p i- te?nwe- s i k} : /pi*te?nw esix/ 'we a re talkin g to each other'
({te ? n w § ’ } 'ta lk ')
iP i'l
{pi* te y;6 *:^ ? s i k } : /pi*tay 6 *xo?six/ 'we a re w arning each other'
({t§*} 'by speech' a d v e rb ia l p re fix , {y Q * :^ ? } 'caution,' 'w ait')
!|pi II
{pi* titwjeti* u?} : /pittiw atiyo?/ 'w e 'll te ll sto ry to each other'
({titw eti*} 'te ll story,' {u ? } future in d icative)
{pi*} o cc u rrin g with a p lu ra l su ffix a s in the ex am p les above in d ic a te s that

the a cto r is an im ate, and e lse w h e re that a n atu ral phenomenon is involved,
e .g .,
/pi-w ew kunise/ 'they m eet' (of r iv e r s , m ountains)
/pi-w ew kunisix/ 'they m eet' (of people)
/pi*wyu*yce/ 'they sep a ra te' (of t r a ils )
/pi*wyu*ycix/ 'they se p a ra te ' (of people)
M orph ology 91
The fiv e m e m b e rs of the second s u b c la s s a r e :
f ir s t p e rso n sin g u lar r e fle x iv e : ||"in6 -|| ^ || ~ |li l§ - ||.
||W - ||
sepelta*k s e} : / ?in §*sepelu-kse/ '1 hide m y s e lf ({sep elî-k}
’hide')
W’in k I
{ i n 6 ‘ wepe li'k s e} : / ’ in li'p elik ce/ 'I d r e s s ' ({w ep e} 'd r e s s ';
{li- k } 'be,' 'go')
ir il 6 -||
{ in§* t§- tl^ -tw i s e} : / ?il^*ta?latw isa/ 'I am tire d fro m sp e a k in g ’
({ t 6 *} ’by sp e e c h ’ ; {'ile*tw i} ’t i r e ’ )
{ im § * } , second p e rso n sin g u la r r e fle x iv e : ||"im^*|| ~ ||im e ||.
II im6- II
{im ^ * sepelti*k s e} : / ? im § ’ sepelu*se/ ’you hide y o u r s e lf
liw ii
{ im§* wepe li*k s e} : / îm ti’p e lik ce/ ’you d r e s s ’
{ip n § * }, third p e rso n sin g u lar r e fle x iv e : l|"ipn§*|| ~ ||"ipn^|l ||"ipne||.
IIW -II
{"ipn 6 * sepelti-k s e} : / ?ipn§*sepelu*kse/ 'he h id es h im s e lf
I ’ipnfe II
{"ipn 6 * wepe li*k s e} : / îpnti-pelikce/ 'he d r e s s e s ’
Il'ipne II
{ip n § - w il§- k e ? e y k e ? i } : / ?ip n e w ileke?y ke?i/ 'c a r' ({w ile } 'm ove
q u ic k ly ’ ; {ke'êy} ’m o v e ’ ; { k } su ffix of u n certain m ean in g;
{ e ? i } agentive su ffix ; lit e r a lly ’ s e lf - f a s t - m o v e - e r ’ )
{n e m e -}, f ir s t p e rso n p lu ra l r e fle x iv e : ||nem §-|| ||n e m e ||.
II n em ^ ’ ||
{n em ^- sep eM -k s i k } : /n em ^*sep elu -ksix/ ’we hide o u r s e lv e s ’
II nem e ||
{nem e* wepe l i ’k s i k} : /n em ti'p elikcix/ ’we d r e s s ’
{'im em §-}, second and third person plural reflex iv e: || imem^- || ~ ||"imem6||
II "imeme* ||
{'imem §- sepelu-k s i k} : / ?im em e*sepelu*ksix/ 'you hide yourselves,'
'they hide them selves'
ll'im em ^ ||
{"imem^- wepe li*k s i k} : / îm em u-pelikcix/ 'you (pi.) dress,'
'they d re ss'
X < wi > The single m em ber of this c la ss is { w i} (distributive):

||w{*|| - llwfll - ||w i||.
II wi- II
{w i cilu* s e} : /wi*cilu‘ se/ 'I cook them separately' ({cilti*} 'cook')
II w i II
{ê W1 ’ heki i k} : / *?ewihekitx/ 'look each one overl' ({heki} 'se e ';
{ i } p lu ral suffix; { k } im perative)
II wi II
{'e n§*s wi* we?niki s} : / ?en6*swiwe?niks/ 'T named them one by
one' ({n§*s} p lural object prefix; {w e?niki} 'nam e')
< sepe- > The two m em bers of this c la s s are {sepe*} (singular and
collective causative), and {se*p} (distributive causative).
{s e p e - } : ||sep§*|| || sepe || ||cepe-|| ~ || cepe ||.
||sep §-||
{sepe* c§?k s e} : /sap^-ca?ksa/ 'I cause it to hang'
II sep e II
{pi* sepe- twe s i k} : /pi-sepetwecix/ 'we are m ixing it' ({tw e} 'be
together')
II cepe* II
{cep§* p^y k s e} : /capi-payksa/ 'I wring it dry' ({p^y} 'drain,'
'becom e dry')
II cepe II
{"e cepe* xe?p s e} : / ?ecep§x6?pse/ 'I put it (or them) underneath
(in single motion)' ({x^?p} 'go under')
{s6 -p }: ||se-p|| ||sep|| ~ ||c§*p|| || cep ||. Fin al p is lost before w.

M orph ology 93
| s 6 -p||
{se*p c_^?k s e} : /s^ *p ca?ksa/ 'I cau se them to hang'
|se p ||
{se*p tequ-yi-k s e} : /septequ-yi*kce/ 'I c au se them to be known'
({tequ*yi*k} 'be known')
I ce*p II
{'e s§*p x^?p s e} : / ?ec§-px e?pse/ 'I put them underneath one by
one'
I cep II
{s § -p tekl^y k s e} : /cap takl^ y ksa/ 'I exchange them by m ista k e '
({tekl_^y} 'tra d e ')
II ce II
{s^*p w il 6 * key k s e} : /c^ w lak a y k sa/ 'I am winnowing' ({w ile*} 'by
wind,' {k £ y k } 'c le an ')
The th em atic s u ffix e s , re p re se n te d by both s - and c -g ro u p a llo m o rp h s,

a re th e m se lv e s eith er of the s - or the c - c l a s s . F o r ex am p le, {e tk } 'a s an
object g o e s by' is re p re se n te d by ||etk|| a fter an s - c l a s s v erb stem and by
||netk|| after a c - c l a s s v e rb ste m , {e tk } is of the s - c l a s s .
E x a m p le s of th em atic s u ffix e s :
< etk > T h is c la s s h as 29 m e m b e r s , g e n e r a lly a sp e c tu a l in m e a n

ing. The a llo m o rp h s and c la s s a ffilia tio n s of th ese them atic
su ffix e s a r e :
T h e m atic A fter an A fte r a I

M eaning C la s s
Su ffix es s - C l a s s Stem c - C l a s s Stem
etk 'a s the o bject etk "] netk

s
p a s s e s by' -] n 6 -tk
ce 'rem o te' --- ce c
ci*m i : 'only' " ] c im i " ] c im i

s
-] ci*m i -] c i-m i
>
c_e 'over the object' --- ce s
§*ce 'on, upon' ' ] ece

--- s
-] ^*ce
ISez P erce Gram m ar
1
A fte r an A fte r a
M eaning
i s - C l a s s Stem c - C l a s s Stem
't r a il behind' eni-k ---
'into bru sh ' I '] epe

---
-] §-pe
'd ep riv e . . . of §*p rk

n 6 *p rk
som ething' e^^-pi-k
'm ove in o rd er e] y ik
ne*yik
to , m ove -V ] y e-yik
around' - C ] ^-yik
ne ?yik
-] e?y ik
be n efa ctiv e, (1 ) e] ,y ne ?y
a ffectiv e -V ] y^-y
' C ] ey
-1 §-y
(2 ) e] ’ ny ne?ny
-] e?ny
inceptive i-k nik
(uncertain)
'aw ay fro m here' kik n ikik
(uncertain) l§*w
'in vain' C ] liw_eq C] Ihv^q

V] Iweq V] Iweq
com pletive ^ ] tn£q^ neqi

-] nfe-qi^
'righ t through' ^] q_ew n^q^w

-] q 6 *w neq^*w
com petitive
'in e x c e s s ' tem ew

M orph ology 95
T h em atic A fte r an A fte r a

M eaning C la s s
Su ffixes s - C l a s s Stem c - C l a s s Stem
tey 'h a lf-h e a rte d ly ' tey tey c
t^- 'go aw ay to' n te ---

c
-] t§-
te t 6 - intentional tet§ * tete s
tuq r e v e r s a tiv e tuq tuq s
twe com itativ e twe --- c
tuyu negative --- tuyu s
tl- d ire ctio n a l ti- nti* s
ti-kini 'a s som eone' C ] ti-kini nti-kiki

s
-] yti-kini
wi 're tu rn fro m ' wi wi s
eq 'be anxious to' --- eq s
'] after a stre sse d stem .

-] elsewhere (-V] after a verb stem ending in a vowel other than
the preceding).
e], C] after a verb stem ending in e, consonant,
lacunae.
(1) before {s e }, {t^q }, {tetu}, {q_e}, { k } .
(2 ) before inflectional suffixes { e } , { u } , { s } , { t } .
{ ^ t k } 'a s an o b ject g o es by'
lletkll
{h i tem§* sitk ^ tk u*?} : /h itam ^ 'sitka tk o ?/ 'he w ill la s s o a s you
g o b y ' ({tem §*} 'th row '; { s it k } 'e n c ir c le '; {u ? } futu re)
||n^-tk II
{h i w e h ^ tk s i k} ; /hiw ahnd-tksix/ 'they b a rk e d a s we went by'
({w eh} 'b a rk ')
||netk||
{"§-ys etk s e} : / ?^*ysnatksa/ ‘I am happy to se e it p a s s ' ({"^'ys}
’be happy’ )
{c e } ’ r e m o te ’
{pe* nim tiw i’k ce u ?} : /p^-mtiwikcenu*?/ ’they w ill see them le a v e
(fro m a p la ce aw ay fro m h e r e )’ ({pe*} ’he/they . . . h im /th em ’ ;
{n im } ’ s e e ’ ; {tiw i'k } ’fo llo w ’ ) cf. /p§*m tiwixnu?/ ’ they w ill
see them le a v e (fro m h e r e )’
{c i* m i} ’ o n ly ’
II cim i II
{h i ci-q c i-m i s e} : / h ici-q c im ise / ’a ll he d oes is ta lk ’ ({ci*q } ’t a lk ’ )
II ci*m i II
{h ip i ci*m i s e} ; /h ipci*m ise/ ’ a ll I do is eat' ({h ip i} 'eat')
{c ^ } 'o v e r the object'
llcell
{pe* hti*xele c£ s e} : /p ^h ox alcasa/ 'it is ro llin g over him ' ({pe*}
3rd p e rso n su b je c t and n o n -id e n tic a l 3rd p e rso n o b ject,
{hti*xele} ’r o l l ’ ). C f. /hli*xelece/ ’I am r o llin g ’
{e *ce} ’on,’ ’upon’
II e*ce II
{w ix s i? li*k ^*ce s e} : /w ixsi*?lik 6 *cese/ ’1 am sitting on som eth in g ’
({w ix s i? } ’ s i t ’ ; {li*k } 'do,’ 'a ssu m e a p o sitio n ’ ) cf. /w ix si?li*k se /
’I am sittin g ’
llecejl
{te*?§pe li*k 6 *ce s e} *. / te ^ e p e lik e c e se / ’l put som ething down upon
som eth in g ’ ({te ? e p e } ’l i e ’ ) cf. /te*?6 p e lik se / ’I put som ething
down’
{eni*k} 't r a il behind’
{h ip i eni*k s e} : /hipeni*kse/ ’I eat a fte r o th e r s ’ ({h ip i} 'eat') cf.

/h ipise/ 'I e a t'; cf. h^*lik an independent ad v erb m eaning
'behind'
M orph ology 97
{e*pe} ’into b r u s h ’
II e p e | |
{w ti'le li-k 6 *pe s e} ; /w ti-lelikep ese/ ’I am rid in g into the b u sh es'

({wCi-le} ’r id e '; {li* k } g e n e ra l locom otion)
II II
{"ipsqi li-k §-pe s e} : / ?ip sq ilik ^ -p e se / 'I am w alkin g into the

b u sh es' ( { T p s q i} 'w alk ')
{_|*p rk } 'd ep riv e . . . of som ething'
Ili'P i'k ll
{h i n^*s we* k e ? § y k s e} : /h in asw aka?yk^*pi-ksa/ ’ she
flie s/ fle w aw ay fro m th em ’ ({h i} 3 rd p e rso n su b je c t; {n ^*s}
p lu ra l o b je ct; {w §-} 'fly '; {k e ? § y } 'g o '; { k } cf. k belo w ).
C f. k^fo? *?am citp^-sw isiqa ka- h in as w a k a^ yk ^ -p i-k sa.
'We ju st d isob ey ed h er (our m other) then she flew aw ay
fro m us.' C f. /w ^*ke?ykse/ '1 am flying.'
|le ? 6 pi-k||
{"e "^’ t ^ * p r k s e} : / â^ta^^pi-ksa/ 'I am going out aw ay fro m him '
({"e} 3rd p e rso n o b ject; {"^-t} 'go out')
II n§-pi-k||
{fo -m e y ^ - p r k s e} : /Iso m ay n i'p i'k sa/ 'm y s ic k n e s s k eep s m e
aw ay fro m ( e .g ., m y child)' ({tfl-m e y } 'be ill')
{e -y ik } 'm ove in o rd e r to . . . 'm ove arou n d '; re p e titiv e
llyik II
{h i we* le tp 6 * e*yik s e} : /hiw e*letp^*yikse/ 'he is bum ping around'
({h i} 'h e / sh e / it'; {w e*} 's w iftly '; {le t p 6 *} 'run into th in g s’ )
cf. /hiw e*letp 6 *se/ 'he ru n s into things'
)|y^-yik I!
{'e m icf* e*yik s e} : / ?am ciy4*y ik sa/ 'I cam e to h ea r it' ({'e}
'h im / h e r/ it’ ; {m £ci*} 'h e a r') cf. /?am ci*sa/ ’I h ea r i t ’
||^*yik||
{ m p i e*yik s e} : / ?inp§*yikse/ 'I go to take som ething' ({ m p i}
's e iz e ') cf. /?in p ise / 'I take som ething'
II e*?yik ||
{'e*c e*yik s e} : / ?^ *ca?y ik sa/ 'I go in fro m another,' 'I go out and
in' ({'e*c} 'go in') cf. / ‘?i*csa/ 'I go in'
|ln§-yik ||
{ e heki e-yik s e} : / ?e*xn§*yikse/ 'I go around lookin g' ({h e k i}
's e e ') cf. /?e*kice/ 'I see i t ’
llne^yik ||
{x i-c e m e*yik s e} : / x i-c e m n e ‘? yikse/ 'I go bein g angry' ({x i-c e m }
'be an g ry ') cf. / x i’ cem ce/ 'I am angry'
{^ •y } (ben efactiv e, a ffe ctiv e ) in d ic a te s an action beyond the expected

sphere of the su b je c t, and m ean s '(do som ething) for the ben efit of (s o m e
one),' 'd are (to do so m eth in g ); '(do som ething) d am aging to (som eone).'
!l ’ y II
{"e tit;d*l£ e*y s e} : / ?att 6 ’la ? y sa / ' I fo rg et h is' ({tit^ *le} 'fo rg e t')
cf. /?att 6 -lasa/ 'I fo rget it'
l|y^‘y||
{h_e*ni 6 -y s e} : /h aniy^-ysa/ 'I m ake it for som eon e' ({he*ni}
'm ak e') cf. /ha*nisa/ 'I m ake it'
II e y II
{ ’e '§ n ik §-y s e} ; / ’ a ’ ilik a y s a / 'I m ake fir e fo r him ' (('fenik}

'kindle f ir e ') cf. / ?a?§,liksa/ 'I m a k e fir e '
I I 6 - y II
{Tnpi §*y s e} : / ?inp§*yse/ 'I buy (fro m som eon e)' ({ m p i} 's e iz e ')
cf. / ‘I’in p ise/ 'I take'
l|n e’ y||
{h ite-m e e-y s e} : /hit§*m ene?yse/ 'I am rea d in g for som eone'
({h it§ -m e } 're a d ') cf. /h ite-m ece/ 'I am read in g '
II ’ n y | |
{tit;Q-le e*y e} : /tit 6 -la?nya/ 'I fo rg ot h is' ( { e } in d ica tiv e in d efinite

past) cf. /tit 6 *laya/ 'I forgot'
l|e ’ ny||
{pe* "iniki e*y e} : /pe'*?nike?nye/ 'he put (som eon e e ls e 's )'
({ t n ik i} 'p la c e ; 'put') cf. / ? in ik ise / 'I put'
{i*k} in d ic a te s that the actio n is about to begin.
I|i-kll
{p in im i-k s e} : /p in m i-kse/ 'I am going to slee p ' ({p in im } 's le e p ')
cf. /p in im se/ 'I am a sle e p '
M orph ology 99
II II
{te ? w ye i-k s e} : /t^?wyenikse/ 'I a m settling down to live'
({t§ ?w y e} 'live') cf. /t§?wyece/ 'I a m living'
{ k } of un certain m eaning o c c u r s after a ste m when one of the following

a d v e rb ia l p r e f ix e s is found a s one of the ste m -c o n s titu e n ts : { H e } , { m e k } ,
{tp e*} 'with f i s t ; 'due to s m o k e ; { ' i p s q i } , { T s } , { ' i s e } , {cti*ye},
{k ^ *}, {m tix c }, {n ik ^ - }, {n ik t§ h }, {quqti*}, { s i w i } , {te *}, {t6 * l}, { s H i m } ,
{ t e x } , { t i ? w e l e } , {tiy § * }, {tuk''^}, { t u k ^ e l e } , {ttikw^-p}, { t u l§ - } , { w e } ,
{ w e ? l§ * } , { w e * le } , {w e*p}, {w ep § *}, { w e q i } , {w ^ -tx }, { w 6 - w }, {w ey § *},
{w ile * }, { w i s } , { w it i- } , {wti‘1}, e .g .,
{h i 'lie teh 6 m k s e} : /h i?lete h em kse/ 'it is d ark fro m sm oke'

( { l i e } 'in the f i r e '; {te h ^ m } 'be d a rk ') cf. /hiteh^m ce/ 'it
is d ark'
{ m e k p^y k s e} : / ?in^hpayksa/ 'I am bringing it' ({"inek} 'c a r r y ' ;

{p §y } 'com e') cf. /p^yca/ 'I a m coming'
{s il^ -w xi*cem k s e} : / s il§ w x ic e m k s e / 'I am an g ry to see it'

({ sil^ - w } 's e e '; {x i*c em } 'be a ngry ') cf. /x i-cem ce / 'I am
angry'
{k ik } in d ic a tes r e m o te n e s s of the starting point of an action, or continuity

of an action (u su a lly away fr o m the spea ke r).
Ilkikii
{h i kti- k ik e} : /hikti-kike/ 'he went fro m a point aw ay fro m here'
( { k 1a*} 'go') cf. /hikliye/ 'he went fro m h ere'
II nikik II
{"e t iw i’k kik e} : / ?etwixnikike/ 'I follow ed it on' ( { t i w i ’k} 'follow')
cf. /?etwi*xne/ 'I followed it'
{ l ^ ’w} of u n certain m eaning i s found in the following ex am ple:
{p i ? im l^*w neqi^ t } : /p i?im l^w laq it/ 'adult' (pi?im i s a v erb stem
m eaning 'grow.' F o r neq^ cf. entry a fter liw eq .) T h e r e is a
p o s s ib ilit y that the vowel i s e and not e.
{nw_eq} 'in vain'
I! Hweq II
{"^•ys I w e q s e} : / ?^ ysliw a q sa / 'I w as happy for nothing' ({'§-ys}
'rejoice,' 'be happy')
||lw eq||
{kti- lnv_eq} : /k 6 -lwaqa/ 'I went in vain' ({kti-} 'g o '; { e } cf. 638.3
in d icative in definite past)
{n ^ q O in d ic a te s that an action is com pleted .
Iltneqill
{w is l§hs_e neq^ e } : /w is^h satn aq iya/ 'I fin ish e d tra v e lin g up'
({w is 't r a v e l'; {l§hs_e} 'up') cf. /w is^h say a/ 'I tra v e le d up'
I|n6 -qil|
{h ip i neq^ s } : /hipn^-qis/ 'I am through eating' ({ h ip i} 'ea t')
llneqill
{pi* we-p ci?y ew neq^ e } : / pi*w apci?yaw naqiya/ 'they a re through
with fighting' ({w e-p } 'with hand or paw '; {c i? y e w 'k ill'; {p i-}
r e c ip r o c a l p re fix ) cf. /pi-w apci?yaw n a/ 'they w ere fighting'
{q^w } in d ic a te s an actio n p e rfo rm e d without in terru p tio n s.
II qew II
{h i "ise sti^p q^w s e } : / h ic a s 6 ?pqawca/ 'he cuts it with a knife in
a h u rry ' ({"ise} 'with k n ife '; {sti?p } 'cu t') cf. /h i?cesti?p se /
'he cuts'
II q l'w II
{ m pi qew s e } : / *?inpq^-wca/ 'I g ra b a s I go' ({ m p i} 's e iz e ') cf.
/ ?inpise/ 'I g rab'
II neqe w ||
{l£?_^m q_ew s e } : /la?^m n aq aw ca/ 'I em pty it rig h t through'
({le?_^m } 'ex h au st') c f. /la ? ^ m c a/ 'I fin ish it'
II neq_6 -w ||
{"e heki q_ew s } : / ?a-xnaqd-wn/ 'I se e it a s 1 go by' ({h e k i} 's e e ')
/h ekice/ 'I se e it'
{s u ? } in d ic a te s that an actio n is p e rfo rm e d in com petition with som eone

e ls e , e .g .,
{'e WIS tuk le h s e su? s e } : / ?a w sto k a h s 6 ?sa/ 'I shoot up a ga in st

(som eon e)' { w is } 'tr a v e l'; {tu k} 'sh o o t'; {l^ h s e } 'up') cf.
/ w isto k ^ h sasa/ 'I shoot upw ard'
M orph ology 101
{tem § w } in d ic a te s an actio n in e x c e s s .
{kti* t^m ^w s e } : /kotamdtwca/ 'I tr a v e l too m uch' ({kta*} ’g o')
{h i w §-qi t£m_^w s e } : /hiw aqitam ^w ca/ ’it is r a in s too m uch'

({h i} 3 rd p e rso n su b je c t p re fix ; {w §*qi} 'ra in ')
{t£ y } 'h a lf-h e arte d ly ,' 'c a r e le s s ly '
{h it^ ’m e t^y s e } : /hitam at§.yca/ 'I am studying h a lf-h e a rte d ly '

({h it 6 *me} 'study,' 're a d ') cf. /hite*m ece/ 'I am studying'
{wefe* m u?tk t^y s e } : /w afam o?tkt^yca/ 'I am tying m y h a ir

c a r e le s s ly ' ({w ef§*} 'in knots,' {m u ?tk } 'tie (h a ir) into a
p onytail') cf. /w ef§*m u‘?tkse/ 'I am tying m y h a ir'
{t^*} in d ic a te s that one m o v es to another lo ca tio n fo r an actio n .
I te II
{ ’ip 6 -te t § ’ s e } ; / ’ ipfe-tetese/ 'I go to s c ra p e ' ({'ipfe-te} 's c r a p e ')
cf. /?ipe*tese/ 'I s c ra p e '
I|t6-||
{ m p i t 6 - s e } : /?in pt§-se/ 'I go to take' ( { m p i} 's e iz e ') cf. /?in p ise/
'I take'
{te te -} in d ic a te s an action w hich is to take p la ce in the im m ed ia te futu re,

or the intention of the su b ject to p e rfo rm an actio n .
II tete II ^
{p i- £ m k tet§* s i k } : /p i?am k tata si-x / 'we a re going to be gath ered '
({pi*} r e c ip r o c a l p r e fix ; {'e m k } 'g ath e r') cf. /pi'âm kcix/ 'we
a re gath ered '
||tet 6 *||
{t i? k i te t 6 - s e } : /ti?nkitet^*se/ 'I m ay die any m inute' ({ ti? n k i}
'd ie ') cf. /ti?n kice/ 'I die'
{tu q } in d ic a te s a m ovem ent b a c k tow ard the o rig in a l point of re fe r e n c e .
II tuq II
{w e -y ik tuq s e } : /w d*yiktoqsa/ 'I am c r o s s in g back' ({w ^ ’y ik } 'go
a c r o s s ') cf. /w 6 -yikse/ 'I am c r o s s in g o ver'
{c ik li* tuq s e } : / c ik li’ toqsa/ 'I am turning back' ({c ik li* } 'turn')
cf. /cik li*ce/ 'I am turning around'
102 ]Sez Perce Gram m ar
{tw e} in d ic a te s that an actio n ta k e s p la ce in a ss o c ia tio n with another p e rso n .
{h i tti*qi twe s e } : /hitti’qitw ece/ ’he sm o k e s with som eone'

({t 1i-q i} 'sm o k e (pip e)') cf. /hitti*qise/ 'he sm o k e s'
{tuyu} in d ic a te s negation.
{h i ci*q tuyu s e } : /h ici-qtu yu se/ 'he i s not speakin g' ({ci*q }

'sp e a k ') cf. /hici*qce/ 'he sp e a k s'
{u*} in d ic a te s that an actio n is d ire cte d tow ard an o bject or g o a l.
l|6 - [
{"iniki u* s e } : / ?inikti*se/ 'I put som ething for . . . ' ({T n ik i}
'put') cf. / ? in ik ise / 'I put som ething'
||nti- II
{h i p^y ti’ s e } : /hipayn 6 *sa/ 'he c o m es to se e som eon e' ({p ^ y }
'co m e') cf. /hip^-yca/ 'he c o m es'
{ti-kin i} in d ic a te s that an actio n ta k e s p la ce a s an o b ject a p p ro ach es

the su b ject.
||ti-kini ||
{"e "inpi ti-kini s e } : / ?enpu*kinise/ 'I take it a s it com es' ({"in p i}
's e iz e ') cf. /?en pise/ '1 take it'
||yti-kini ||
{h i mi* -Q-kini s e } : /hi?ny 6 *kinise/ 'he is givin g it to m e a s I go
up to him ' ({h i} 3 rd p e rso n su b ject p r e fix ; {m i* } 'g iv e ') cf.
/hi?ni*se/ 'he i s givin g it to m e'
||nti*kini ||
{pe* we*p c^*?yew <i*kini s e } : /po*pci?yaw n 6 *kinisa/ 'he k ills him
as he co m es' cf. /p 6 *pci?yaw ca/ 'he k ills him '
{w i} in d ic a te s that an actio n is com pleted and the su b je c t is retu rn in g to

the point of o rig in .
{"im i w i s e } : / ? im iw ise / 'I am retu rning fro m digging ro ots'

({"im i} 'cam p to dig ro o ts ') cf. / ‘îm icix/ 'we a re cam ping
for digging ro o ts'
{w i} m ay o ccu r a fte r { t 6 *}, e .g .,
{ e heki t§* w i s e } : / ?e*kt§*w ise/ 'I am retu rn in g a fter going to

see it' ({ h e k i} 's e e ') cf. /?e*kt^*se/ 'I go to see it'; / ?e*kice/
'T f=!PP it'
M orph ology 103
{êq} d e sid e ra tiv e
{w iy§* w ey êq s e } : /w iyli-yeqse/ 'I am dying to go' ({w iy§*} ’ as

one g o e s '; {w e y } 'se p a ra te ') cf. /wiyti*yce/ 'I am going away'
622. C o n stru c tio n of v erb th em es. The v aryin g in tern al s tr u c tu re s of

the verb them e (vT) a re d e sc rib e d in the fo llo w in g se c tio n s. The elem en ts
surroun ding the s t e m - c la s s m a r k e r s a re r e fe r e n c e s to the p reced in g ch art
of a ffix e s .
6 2 2 .1 . G e n e r a l v erb them e (g v T ). The two types of g e n e ra l v erb them es

are: ( 1 ) those with g e n e ra l v erb stem (gvS) a s a con stituen t, and ( 2 ) those
with su bstan tiv e ste m s (sS) a s a constituent. The fir s t type is a s fo llo w s.
gvT: pi- wi sep§* gvS £ tk
1.
2.
3.
E x a m p le s :
1. {w i sepe- x^?p} m / ? e n e 'sw icep ex e?p sen e/ 'I put them underneath
se p a ra te ly ' ({"e} th ird p e rso n o bject p re fix ; {n e*s} p lu ra l
o bject p re fix ; {x ^ ? p } 'go u n d er'; { s } c la s s m a r k e r ; { e } sin g u
la r su b ject p r e fix ; {n e } in d ica tiv e rem o te past)
2. {"im em ^- wi tek l^y } m / ?im am a*w itkal^yna/ 'they changed clo th es'
({te k le y } 'exch an ge')
3. {p i- ci-q u*} m /picixnti*six/ 'we a re arguin g over it' ({ci*q } 'ta lk ')
The second type of g e n e ra l v erb them es is d enom inative. The follow in g

c la s s of s p e c ia l su ffix e s en te rs into such verb them e con stru ctio n :
< hi- >. The s ix m e m b e rs of this c la s s a r e :
{h i-} 'put o n ; 'go up to (?)' : ||hi-|| ~ ||hi||
llh £-|i
{t^hun hi- s e } : /tohoni*sa/ 'I put on tr o u s e r s ' ({t^hun} 'tr o u s e r s ')
II hi II
{k£p^- hi- s e } : /kap 6 -hisa/ 'I put on coat' ({k£p u -} 'c o a t')
{ m ek t;Q-yein hi* s e } : / ?inaxtoy4*m isa/ 'I c a r r y it to the top'

({t;Q-yem} 'su m m it')
{{•n e k } is found in one ex am p le.
{h_e*me i-nek s e } : /h am f-naksa/ 'I am going to h u sb an d 's p lace'

({h6*m_e} 'm an/ 'husband')
{n ^-nek} 'becom e'
{l_§w tiwe* n§*nek s e } : /law tiw a-n^*naksa/ 'I beco m e a frien d'
({l§ w } {tiw e -} 'to g eth er'; l^w tiw a- 'frien d ')
{y^*k} 'go to get'
{c6*qet y ^ ’k s e } ; /ceq ety ^ 'k se/ 'I go to get b la c k b e r r ie s '

({c§*q et} 'b la c k b e rry ')
{^ •w } 'beco m e c h a ra c te r iz e d by'
{t_esq 6*w s } : / ta s q i'w s / 'I b e ca m e fat' ({te s q } 'g re a se ,' 'fa t')
{w i} 'act as,' 'do' : ||w i-|| ~ || wi ||
II w i - II
{'iy e q is wi s e } : / ?iy eq isw i*se/ 'I fight' ({'iy ^ 4 is } 'hot')
II II
{q e p s f? s wi s e } : / q e p si? isw is e / 'I do e v il'; '1 sin' ({qepsi*?s} 'bad ')
Som e su bstan tiv e ste m s b e fo re {w i} have s p e c ia l fo r m s ending in ne*

or uy;
/ ?ipnu'w epcuxn^-w ise/ 'he preten d s to be sm a rt' ({ ipnu*} 3rd

p e rso n r e fle x iv e p re fix ; {w e p c u ’k} 'in te llig e n t')
/ îpnu'w epcukuyw i'se/ 'he preten d s to be sm a rt'
The g e n e ra l verb th em es containing a su bstan tiv e stem m ay be su m m a rize d

a s fo llo w s:
gvT: nS/aS < hi* >
A ll fiv e m e m b e rs of < hi* > c la s s o ccu r with g e n e r a l noun ste m s (nS), and
{w i} m ay a ls o o ccur with a d je c tiv e ste m s (aS).
M orph ology 105
62 2 .2 . C o p u lativ e verb them e (c v T ). C op u lativ e th em es a re a lw a y s c o

term in o u s with cop ulative v e rb ste m s (cvS):
cvT: cvS
E x a m p le :
{w ^*} m /hiw^-ke/ ’he w as' ({h i} third p e rso n su b ject p r e fix ; ||e ||,
an a llo m o rp h of {n e } in d icative rem o te p ast 63 8.5)
630. V erb in flectio n .
The fo llo w in g four c la s s e s of p r e fix e s and four c la s s e s of su ffix e s o cc u r

a s in flectio n a l elem en ts in con stituen cy with v erb th em es.
P r e fix e s
C la s s N um ber of M e m b e r s
< hi > (su b je c t/ o b je ct p r e fix e s ) 2
< pe* > (su b ject and o b ject p refix ) 1
< pe'\^> (p lu ra l su b ject p refix ) 1
< ne*s > (p lu ra l o b ject p refix ) 1
S u ffixes
< s > (c la s s m a rk e r suffix) 1
< e > (num ber su ffix e s) 2
< m > (lo ca tiv e su ffix e s) 2
< k > (te n se -m o d a l s u ffix e s) 14
631. < hi > c la s s . The two m e m b e rs of th is c la s s a re {h i} and { e } .
{h i} (third p e rso n su b ject p re fix ) : ||hi* || b e fo re {w § ’} 'be' follow ed by { s }

and { + } ; ||hi|| e lse w h e re , e .g .,
IIhi-II
{h i w§- s } : /hi*wes/ 'he is '
106 fSez Perce Gram m ar
II hi II
{h i titw eti- s e } : /hittiw ati*sa/ 'he te lls a sto ry ' ({titw eti-} 'te ll
a sto ry ')
{h i "efwi s e } : /he*?efwice/ 'he spends w inter' ({"efwi} 'spend

w in te r')
{'e} third p e rso n o b je ct p re fix
W ith a sim p le tra n s itiv e v erb ( i.e ., without a b e n efa ctiv e su ffix ), e
in d ic a te s that the su b ject is eith er f ir s t or second p e rso n and that the
d ire ct o b ject is in the n o n -p o ss e ss e d third p e rso n , o r , m o re s p e c ifi
c a lly , that the o b ject is neither c lo s e ly re la te d to the sp e a k e r nor
p o s s e s s e d b y the s p e a k e r. When an independent su bstan tiv e is in the
sentence a s the o b je ct, it is follow ed by {n e } (532).
{'e m £ c r s e m ^ 6 ?c ne } : / ^ a m c i-sa m iy a ^ ^ sn a/ 'I h ear a child'

({m ^ c r } 'h e a r '; { m ^ ^ ? c } 'c h ild ') C f. / m ic i-s a miy^'^c/ 'I
h ea r (m y) child'
W ith a tra n sitiv e v e rb with a b e n efa ctiv e su ffix , "e in d ic a te s that the
su b ject is either f ir s t or second p e rso n and that the b e n e fic ia r y (or
v ictim ) is in the n o n -p o ss e ss e d th ird p e rso n . When th ere a re two
independent su b stan tiv es in the sen ten ce, one a s the d ir e c t o bject and
the other a s the b e n e fic ia r y , the fo rm e r is without any c a s e su ffix and
the la tte r is follow ed by {n e } (53 2).
W ith an in tra n sitiv e v e rb , 'e in d ic a te s that the su b ject is in eith er the

f ir s t or secon d p e rso n and the in d ire c t o b ject is in the n o n -p o ss e ss e d
third p e rso n .
{"e hi s e } : /?e w ise/ 'I sp eak to him ' ({h i} 'sp e a k ')
W ith an in tra n sitiv e v e rb , 'e a ls o in d ic a te s that the su b ject is in the

third p e rso n and that the su b ject is p o s s e s s e d by som eon e e ls e .
{h im e -q is quqe*lq "e teqe "i s e } : /h im §-q is qoq^-lx ?etq e?ice/

'his huge bu ffalo w as lyin g dead' (lit. h is huge bu ffalo w as
suddenly lying) ({h im § *q is} 'h u ge'; {q u q ^ ’ lq} 'b u ffa lo '; {te q e }
'su d d en ly '; { '{ } 'lie ')
{ ' e } : ll'ewll b e fo re || V || o r ||h V ||; ||'e|| e lse w h e re .
Ilewll
{"e m i- s e } : / ?ew ni-se/ ' I am givin g it' ({ m i* } 'g iv e ')
{'e hi s e } : /?ew ice/ '1 sp eak to him ' ( { h i} 'sp e a k ')
M orph ology 107
Hell
{"e wepe li-k s e } : / ?u*peli-kce/ ’I d r e s s up som eon e not c lo se ly
re la te d to m e ’ ({w ep e} 'd r e s s ’ ; { l i ’k } ’b e ,’ ’go/ ’a ssu m e a
p o sitio n ’ ) cf. /w epeli-kce/ ’I d r e s s up (som eon e c lo se to m e,
e .g ., w ife, ch ild , h o r s e )’
E x ce p tio n a lly , ||'e|| o c c u rs b e fo re {*ewi*} ’ shoot (a r r o w )’ and b e fo re { h e k i}

’ s e e .’
{"e "ewi' s e } : / ‘ê^w i'se/ ’I shoot at i t ’
{'e h eki s e } : /?e*kice/ ’I see i t ’
632. < pe- > c la s s . The sin g le m em b er of th is c la s s is {p e -} in d icatin g

that the su b ject and the o bject a r e in n o n -id e n tica l third p e rso n .
{p e-} : ||p 6 -||, ||pe-|| or ||pe||
IIp ^-II
{pe* wewluq s e } : /pe*w ew luqse/ 'he w ants it' ({w ew lu q } 'want')
cf. /?ew 6 w luqse/ 'I want it'
l|pe-||
{pe* titw £ti- u*?} : /pa*ttiw atiyo?/ 'he w ill te ll h im a sto ry ' cf.
/ âttiw atiyo?/ 'I w ill te ll him a sto ry '
II pe II
{pe- Tnpi s e } : /pe?§n pse/ 'he s e iz e s him ' ({T n p i} 's e iz e ')
633. < pe > c la s s . The sin g le m em b e r of th is c la s s is {p e } in d icatin g

the p lu ra lity of the su b ject.
{p e } ; ||pe|| ~ ||p 6 -|| ~ ||p 6 ||
II pe II
{p e titw eti- u ?} : /pattiw atiyo?/ 'we w ill te ll a s to r y ’ cf.
/pa-ttiw atiyo?/ ’he w ill te ll h im a sto ry '
II p^- II
{h i pe ku- s } : /hip 6 *kus/ 'they ju st left' ({ku*} 'go')
llpejl
{"e pe we*p ci?y £w k k i } : / ?ap 6 *pci?yaw nki/ 'we k ille d him '
({w e-p } 'with hand or paw '; {c i? y e w } 'k ill'; { k } in d ica tiv e
p resen t; { k i } 'aw ay fro m the s p e a k e r')
634. < ne*s > c la s s . The sin gle m em b er of th is c la s s is {n e -s} in d icatin g

the p lu ra lity of the o b ject.
{n e -s} : ||n 6 -c|| ~ ||nec|| b e fo re | | ' | | ; ||n 6 *s|| ||n es|| e lse w h e re .
||nfe-c||
{"e n e’ S "inpi s e } : /?en^*cinpse/ '1 s e iz e them '
II I!
{e ne*s 'ecti? s e } : / ?a n a ca c 6 ‘?sa/ 'I go into them* ( { 'ecti?} ’go in')
cf. / ? a c 6 ?sa/ 'I go in'
||n§'S II
{'e n e-s m fci* s e } : / ?an d *sm icisa/ '1 h ear them ' ({m ^ ci-} 'h e a r')
II nes||
{h i ne-s titw eti- u ? } : /h in astitw atiyo?/ 'he w ill te ll u s a sto ry '
{ e n e-s titw_eti- u ? } : / ?an astitw atiyo?/ 'I w ill te ll them a sto ry '
635. < s > c la s s . The sin gle m em b er of th is c la s s is { s } (c la s s

m a r k e r ), { s } does not o ccu r with the follow in g te n se -m o d a l su ffix e s :
freq u en tativ e p re se n t, im p e ra tiv e (without lo c a tiv e su ffix e s ), { s } h as
the follow in g a llo m o rp h s:
E n v iro n m e n ts A fte r s - C l a s s V erb T h em e A fte r c - C l a s s V erb Them e
B e fo r e I || s || || c ||
B e fo r e II || s || C] ||in ||, -] ||n||
B e fo r e III || 1 1| ||n||
B e fo r e IV ||n||
B e fo r e V 0 C] j| ne ||, -] ||n||
B e fo r e V I 0 C] || ni ||, -] ||n||
En v iro n m e n ts (a ra b ic n u m e ra ls r e fe r to the te n se -m o d a l su ffix e s in 6 3 8 .):

I. T e n s e -m o d a ls 1, 4, 5, 8
II. T e n se -m o d a l 2 (without lo c a tiv e su ffix e s)
III. T e n se -m o d a l 7
IV . T e n s e -m o d a ls 2 (with lo c a tiv e 1), 3 (without lo c a tiv e s , or with lo c a tiv e 1),
6, 9, 11, 12 (with p lu ra l), 13 (with p lu ra l), 14 (with lo c a tiv e 1)
V. T e n s e -m o d a ls 12 (with sin g u la r), 13 (with sin g u lar)
VI. T e n se -m o d a ls 2 (lo ca tiv e 2), 3 (with lo c a tiv e 2)
M orph ology 109
E x a m p le s :
II s II (b efore I )
{h ip i s e } : /h ipise/ ' l e a f ({h ip i} 'ea t')
II c II (b e fore I )
{h e k i s e } : /h ekice/ 'I see' ({h e k i} 's e e ')
II s II (before I I )
{ h i p e - k ^ i - s } : /hipe*kus/ 'they ju st left' ({kti-} 'go')
II in II (before I I )
{w ti'y s} : /wti*yin/ 'I ju st escap ed ' ({wti*y} 'r u n a w a y ')
||n|| (before I I)
{h i hi s } : /hihin/ 'he ju st said ' ({h i} 's a y ')
||t|| (b efore I I I )
{'e Tpt§- s e q } : / ?a?pt^-tax/ 'I could hit him ' ({T pt^-} 'hit')
||n|| (before I I I )
{"e tiw i’k s ^ q } : / ?atwi-xnax/ 'I would have gone with him '
({tiw i'k } 'acco m p an y , fo llo w ')
||n II (b efore IV )
{h i pe pey s m } : /hipap^ynim / 'they have com e' ({p § y } 'a r r iv e ')
II ne II (b e fore V )
{'e h eki s qeqe} : /?^*xnaqaqa/ 'm an y tim e s you m ay have seen it'
({q e q e } freq u en tativ e past)
||n|| (b e fo re V )
{'ip sq i le- s qeqe} : / ?ipsqil4-n q aqa/ 'I w alked around' ( { I p s q i }
'on fo ot'; {l^*} 'm ove,' 'm ove around')
II ni II (b efore V I )
{p e cik li- s k i } ; /p eck ili-n ik i/ 'we went on hom e' ({p e } p lu ra l
su b je c t p r e fix ; {c ik lf* } 're tu rn '; { k i} 'aw ay fro m the s p e a k e r')
||n|| (before V I)
{"e pe we-p ci*?y£w s k i } : / ?ap 6 -pci?yaw nki/ 'we k ille d it' ({"e}
th ird p e rso n o b ject p r e fix ; {w e-p } 'with hand or paw ';
{c i? y £ w } 'k ill')
636. < e > c la s s . The two m e m b e rs of th is c la s s a re { e } and { i } .
{ e } (sin g u la r) does not o ccu r with te n se -m o d a l su ffix e s 2, 3, 6 , 7, or 9,

and show s the follow in g allo m o rp h y :
W ith te n se -m o d a l 1 (without l o c a t iv e s ) ......................................................... ||e||

W ith te n se -m o d a l 1 (with lo c a tiv e s ), 4, or 5 and
afte r a s t r e s s e d ste m ......................................................................................... || e ||
W ith te n se -m o d a l 1 (with lo c a tiv e s ), 4, or 5 and
a fter an u n s tr e s s e d ste m ................................................................................ ||^-||
W ith te n se -m o d a l 1 0 .................................................................................................. ||tu||
W ith te n s e -m o d a ls 11, 12, 13, 1 4 ....................................................................... 0
E x a m p le s :
lie II
{h ip i s e } : /h ipise/ 'I eat'
{tiw i*k s e m } : /tiw i'k cem / 'you a re fo llo w in g m e ’ ({tiw i'k }
’follow ,' ’ accom p an y ')
II6-1!
{ e hipi s e n e } : / ? e -p s 6 *ne/ 'I had eaten it'
lltull
{%'t te t u } : /?^*ttato/ 'I go in and out' ({'e*t} 'go out'; {te } fre q u e n
tative p resen t)
{ i } (p lu ral) does not o ccu r with te n se -m o d a l su ffix e s 2, 3, 6 , 7, or 9, and

show s the follow in g allo m o rp h y :
W ith te n s e -m o d a ls 1, 4, 5, 8 and a fte r a s t r e s s e d s t e m ....................... ||i||

W ith te n s e -m o d a ls 1, 4, 5, 8 and after an u n str e ss e d ste m ............... ||i* ||
W ith 1 0 .................................................................................................................................. II ?nik ||
W ith 14 (without lo c a tiv e s ) after a vow el, or with 14 (with
lo c a tiv e s ) ...................................................................................................................... ijtk ||
W ith 14 (without lo c a tiv e s ) after a c o n so n a n t............................................ ||itk||
W ith 11, 12, or 1 3 ........................................................................................................................ 0
E x a m p le s :
{h i t§*?wye s i k } : /h it^’ ^w yecix/ 'they dw ell' ({t^*?w ye} 'd w ell')
{h ip i s i k } : /hipsi*x/ 'we e a t’ ({ h ip i} ’ e a t’ )
II “^nik II
{ê h eki e*yik te i } :/ ?e'xn§-yikte*nix/ ’we go to se e h im m any
t im e s ’ ({h e k i ’ s e e ’ ; {e -y ik } ’m ove in o rd e r to . . . ’ 620;
{te } freq u en tativ e p resen t)
M orph ology 111
l|tk|l
{w e p t^ ’ i } : /wept^-tx/ 'put feath er onl' (to p i.) (e .g ., on a rro w s)
({w ept§-} 'put feath er on')
i|itk||
{'_e-c i } : /?^*citx/ 'go in'.' (to p i.) ({'^-c) 'go in')
637. < m > c la s s . The two m e m b e rs of th is c la s s a re {m } and { k i } .

{m } (lo ca tiv e 1 ) in d ic a te s an actio n tow ard the sp e a k e r (with secon d or third
p e rso n su b je c t), o r an actio n tow ard the secon d p e rso n (with f ir s t p e rso n
su b ject). The a llo m o rp h s a r e :
W ith te n s e -m o d a ls 1, 3 (after a v o w e l-fin a l s - c l a s s them e),

4 (with s in g u la r), 10 (with sin g u la r), 14 (after a v o w e l-fin a l
s - c l a s s them e) ........................................................................................................ ||m||
With te n se -m o d a l 4(with p l u r a l ) ............................................................................ II II
With te n se -m o d a l 6 .................................................................................................. ||kum ||

With te n s e -m o d a ls 2 (after a c o n so n an t-fin a l s - c l a s s them e,
or a fter a c - c l a s s them e), 3 (after a c o n so n an t-fin a l s - c l a s s
them e, or a fte r a c - c l a s s th em e), 14 (a fter a co n so n an t-fin al
s - c l a s s or a fte r a c - c l a s s them e) ............................................................... I I ™ II
E x a m p le s :
l|m||
{ t iw i’k s e m } : /tiw i-kcem / 'you a re follow in g m e' ({tiw i*k}
' ac com pany,' ' fo llo w ')
I ran II
{"e w iy § ’ heki s i m q_e} : / ?aw y^-kcinm qa/ 'we w ere lookin g at it
a s we cam e' ({w iy 6 *} 'a s one m o v e s '; {h e k i} 's e e '; {q e } in d i
cative recen t p ast)
jjkum II
{h i '^^tu ? m } : /ha?^to?kom / 'he w ill com e out' ({u ? } in d icative
fu tu re; 'm ove out')
II im II
{h i pe p 6 -y s m e } : /hipap4*ynim a/ 'they a r r iv e d h ere' ({p 6 -y}
'a r r iv e ')
{ k i} (lo c a tiv e 2) in d ic a te s a m otion aw ay fro m the sp e a k e r. The allo m o rp h s

are:
112 Jêz Perce Gram m ar
With te n se -m o d a l 1 or 2 ........................................................................................ ||ki||

W ith te n se -m o d a l 3 .................................................................................................... ||kik||
W ith te n se -m o d a l 4 .................................................................................................... II^QÎI
W ith te n se -m o d a l 5 ....................................................................................................
E x a m p le s :
llkill
{p e w^*yik k i} : /pew ^-yixki/ ’we c r o s s e d over (to the other sid e)'
({w ^*yik} 'c r o s s ’ )
llkikll
{h i cikli* tuq k ik e} : /h ick ili-to x k ika/ 'he went on back' ({ c ik li- }
'turn '; {tu q } 'b a c k '; { e } in d ica tiv e in d efin ite past)
||nqe||
{ e h ek i s e ki qe} : / ?a*kc4*nqaqa/ 'I have been to see him ' ({q e }
in d icative recen t past)
l|nqiq||
{"e h eki s i k i e} : / ?a*kci*nqiqa/ 'we have been to see him (long
ago)' ( { e } in d ica tiv e indefinite past)
638. < k > c la s s . T h is c la s s h a s 14 m e m b e rs g e n e r a lly ind icatin g tense

and m o d e s.
6 3 8 .1 . { k } (in d icative p resen t) c o v e rs actu al events of the p resen t:
A fte r { i } (p lu ral) and with a lo c a tiv e (637) ............................................... ||n||

E ls e w h e r e a fte r { i } (p lu ral) ................................................................................ ||k||
E ls e w h e r e ......................................................................................................................... 0
E x a m p le s :
l|n||
{h i t§ -‘?m ik s i k m } : /hite*^m iksinm / 'they cam e down’ ({t^ -^ m ik }
’go down’ )
likll
{h i t§*‘? m ik s i k } : /h ite*?m iksix/ ’ they m ove down’
II011
{h i te*?m ik s e } : /hit§* ?m ikse/ ’he m o v es dow n’
6 3 8 .2 . {in d ic a tiv e p e rfe c t} (to be a b b re v ia te d a s { I P } ) is m orphopho-

n e m ica lly z e ro .
{wti-y s I P } : /wti-yin/ ’I ju st e s c a p e d ’
M orph ology 113
{ I P } is u sed to d e sc rib e an actio n ju st com pleted , or to con stitute a h o rtatory

con stru ctio n with { k e } , e .g .,
/kex ?eh§kin/ 'le t m e see'
638.3 { e } (in d icative in d efinite past) i s u sed to d e sc r ib e an actio n that

w as com pleted at any tim e in the p a st, { e } : ||ye|| after a v ow el; || e || e l s e
w h ere.
IIye II
{titw eti- e } : /titw atiya/ 'I told a sto ry '
ll^ll
{pe- hipi e } : /pehipe/ 'he ate it' ( { h ip i} 'ea t')
6 3 8.4 {q e } (in d icative re c e n t past) is u sed (1) to d e sc r ib e an actio n that

w as com pleted e a r lie r on the sam e day or within a few d ay s p rio r to the
tim e of sp eech , ( 2 ) to d e sc rib e an in com plete actio n , o r ( 3 ) to d e s c r ib e an
action com pleted and subsequent retention or reg a in in g of the o r ig in a l state.
{t^tw_etr s e q_e} : /titw atis^-qa/ 'I told a sto ry (this m orn in g,

y e ste rd a y , a few d ays ago)' {ti^twetr 'te ll a sto ry ')
{m i* s e q ^ } : / înis^L-qa/ 'I w as giving it to you (but you did not

take it)' ( { Tni*} 'g iv e ')
{kti- s e qe} : /kos^-qa/ 'I went (and cam e b ack)' ({kti*} 'go') cf.
/kuse-ne/ 'I went (la st y ea r)'
6 3 8 .5 . {n e } (in d icative rem o te p ast) is u sed to d e sc r ib e an action c o m

pleted in a tim e that p re ce d e s the a r e a cov ere d by {q ^ } (6 3 8 .4 ), e s p e c ia lly
to te ll m yth s.
{te q e p§y s i ne } : /taqap§.ycina/ 'we dropped in (la st y e a r)'

({te q e } 'suddenly,' 'b r ie fly '; {p ^ y } 'c o m e')
6 3 8 .6 . {u ? } (in d icative future) is used to d e sc rib e an actio n in future tim e ,

and future con dition s.
/ c a law i hiwekti? t^*?c 16*heyn w ati*sx, ka* ?i*n kiy u ?./ 'If it is fine
to m o rro w , I w ill go.' ( { c e le w i} ' i f ; {h i} third p e rso n su b ject
p r e fix ; {w e*} 'b e '; 9hi w§* u ?} : /hiw ekti?/; {t^ ? c } 'goo d';
{le*heyn} 'd a y '; {w eti* sk } 'tom orrow ,' 'y e ste rd a y '; {'i*n} 'I';
{kti* u ?} : /kiyti?/, {kti*} 'go')
{u'?} : llyu^ll after a vow el; ||ti?|| e lse w h e re after an u n s tr e s s e d them e;

||u?|| e lse w h e re .
II II
{heni* u ?} : /hani-yo?/ 'I w ill m ake' ({h en i-} 'm ak e')
I l l ’ ll
{'e hipiu*?} : /?e*p 1i? / '1 w ill eat it' ({ h ip i} 'ea t')
llu’ l
{p e te-?w ye i^k u ? } : /pet 6 ?w yeniku?/ 'we a re going to settle down
to liv e ' ({p e } p lu ra l su b je c t p re fix 633; { t 6 *?wye} 'd w e ll';
{{•k } in cep tiv e suffix 620)
63 8 .7 . T h re e m o rp h em es d e sc r ib e con ditions c o n trary to fa c t: {^ q } co n

dition al p re se n t, {n eq } con ditional p e rfe c t, {u ? q e } con ditional p a st, {n eq
o c c u rs v e ry in frequ en tly, {^ q } and {u?q_e} a re u sed in terch a n g ea b ly , a s
noted in the four ex am p le s belo w . T h e se te r m s , such a s con ditional p re se n t,
a re u sed for id e n tifica tio n of the m orp h em e s ra th e r than for a c c u r a te d e s c r ip
tion of th eir u s e s . A ll four sen ten ces below m ean 'if he cam e y e ste r d a y , I
would have se en him .' Sentence 2 w as given a s the "best."
1. / c a la w i h ip i-y n o ?q a ?ipi w a ti-sx , ka* ?a-xn 6 ‘?qa./

2. / c a law i h ip ^ ’yno^qa îpi w ati*sx, ka* ?a*kinax./
3. / c a law i hip^-ynax ?ipi w ati*sx, ka* ?a-xn 6 ?qa./
4. /ca law i hip4-ynax ?ipi w a ti-sx , ka- â-kinax./
({ c e le w i} ' i f ; {p_|*y} 'c o m e '; { 'ip i) 'h e / sh e / it'; {w eti*se k }

'tom orrow ,' 'y e ste rd a y '; {k^*} 'and,' 'then '; { h e k i} 's e e ')
{e q } : ||'^*q|| or ||'eq || a fte r an u n str e ss e d ste m ; ||eq|| e lse w h e re .
iri'q il
{h i w§* s _eq} : /hiwat^*x/ 'it would have been'
11 eq II
{"e h eki s _eq} : / ?a*kinax/ 'I would have seen him '
II II
{ e Tpte* s eq} : / ?a?pt^*tax/ 'I could hit him '
{n eq } : || neq || after an u n stre ss e d ste m ; ||neq|l e lse w h e re .
II I!
{kti* s e neq} ; /kos4-?n ax/ 'I would be doing' ({kta-} 'do')
M orph ology 115
IlneqII
{ e kti* ti* s e neq} : / ?a kiy 6 *sanax/ 'you would have been advancing
tow ard it' ({'e} third p e rso n o b ject p r e fix ; {kti-} 'g o '; {ti*}
d ire ctio n a l suffix)
{u ?q ^ } is a ls o u sed to d e s c r ib e the cap ab ility or p o ten tiality of an action

on the p art of the su b ject, and to d e sc rib e an actio n in in te rro g a tiv e and
negative sta tem en ts, e .g .,
/?i*n ?a-xn 6 ?qa./ 'I can see.' ({"i*n} 'I'; {h e k i} 's e e '; {'e h eki s
u ?q e} : /?a*xn 6 ?qa/)
/we*t ? a ’ xn 6 ?qa./ 'can you see it?' ({w e-t} question p a rtic le )
/we-tu ?a*xn 6 ?qa./ 'I c a n n o t see it.' ({w e-tu } 'no,' 'not')
{u ?q e } : ||yu?qe|| after a v ow el; ||li‘^qe|| e lse w h e re a fte r an u n str e ss e d ste m ;

llu'^q^ll e lse w h e re . T h is m ay be fu rth er a n a ly se d in {u ? } and { q ^ } .
I|yu’ qe||
{"e "ipt^* s u^q^} : / ?a ?p ti-y o ?q a / 'I could hit him ' ({"ipt§*} 'hit')
{"e heki s u?q e} : / ?a*xn 6 ‘?qa/ 'I would have seen him '
||u’ qe||
{p e w is leyle*k u ?q e} : /paw sayn^-ko?qa/ 'we could go in' ({p e }
p lu ra l su b ject p r e fix ; {w is } 'trav el,' 'c a m p '; {le y le -k } 'into')
6 3 8 .8 . The four m orp h em es d e sc rib in g freq u en tativ e or c u sto m a ry actio n s

are: {te } freq u en tativ e p re se n t, {q } freq u en tative in d efinite p a st, {q e q e } f r e
quentative re c e n t p a st, and {q_ene} freq u en tativ e rem o te p ast.
{te } : ||t§*|| a fter an u n str e ss e d stem ; ||te|l else w h e re .
{ e h eki te e } : /?e-kt§-tu/ 'I see him a lw a y s'
Ite I
{ V t te e } : /*?^-ttato/ 'I go in and out' ({'e*t} 'go out')
{q } : ||e?n ik|| a fte r { i } (p lu ral su ffix ); ||q|| e lse w h e re .
||e?nik||
{c e p e ? 16- s i q } : /cepe?16*ne?nix/ 'we u sed to w ork' ({c e p e ? }
m eaning u n certain ; {l^ *} 'm ove,' 'm ove around')
{h i quqtl* 1^* s e q } : /hiqqold-nx/ 'he w as in the habit of gallo p in g

around' ({quqti*} 'g a llo p '; { le - } 'm ove arou n d ')
{q ^ q ^} show s the follow in g allo m o rp h y :
W ith { e } sin g u la r) ............................................................................................ I|q£‘^ e||

W ith { i } (p lu ral)
A fte r a s t r e s s e d v o w e l-fin a l s t e m .................................................. ||ye?niqel|
A fte r an u n s tr e s s e d con so n a n t-fin a l s t e m .................................. ||e?ni*qe||
E ls e w h e r e .......................................................................................................... He^niqeH
E x a m p le s :
||qeqe||
{ ip sq i 1§- s e qeqe} : / ?ipsqil^*nqaqa/ 'I u sed to w alk around'
( { T p s q i} 'w alk ')
| |y e ? n i q e II
{qini* s i qeqe} : /q in iya?n iqa/ 'we u sed to dig' ({qini*} 'd ig')
II e ? n i - q e II
{h i kCi- s i q^q^} : /hikya?ni*qa/ 'they u sed to go' ({h i} third p e rso n
su b je ct p r e fix ; {kti*} 'go')
II e ? n i q e II
{h i wti*y s i qeqe} : /hiw 6 *yna?niqa/ 'they u sed to run away' ({wti*y}
'run aw ay')
{q ^ n e} show s the follow ing a llo m o rp h y :
W ith { e } (sin g u lar) ........................................................................................... llên^H

With { i } (p lu ral)
A fte r a s t r e s s e d v o w e l-fin a l ste m ..................................................... ||yenixne||
A fte r an u n str e ss e d con so n an t-fin al stem .................................... ||eni-xne||
E ls e w h e r e ........................................................................................................ || enixne ||
E x a m p le s :
llqene II
{p ^-xw i s e qene} : /p^*xwiqana/ 'I used to s te a l (but not any m ore)'
({p§*xw i} 's te a l')
llyenixne ||
{te*l w ew i-ti s i qene} : /telw ew itiyenixne/ 'we u sed to run down
s tre a m ' ({t§ -l} 'run,' 'g a llo p '; {w ew i*ti} 'd o w n stream ')
M orph ology 117
II eni-xne ||
{h ip i s i qene} : /hipeni*xne/ 'we u sed to eat'
II enixne ||
{h i h 6 -me nik n^-wi s i qen^} : /ha-m anixn4-w yanixna/ 'they used
to act b rav e ' ({h^*m e} 'm an '; {m k } 'v e ry ')
6 3 8 .9 . { k } (im p era tiv e) is used to m ake d ir e c tiv e sta tem en ts, { k } show s
the follow in g a llo m o rp h s:
With { e } (sin g u la r) and without lo c a tiv e s :

A fter an s - c l a s s them e ending in | | i | | .......................................................... ||k||
A fte r an s - c l a s s them e ending in other v ow els .................................... ||y||
A fte r an s - c l a s s them e ending in a c o n so n a n t........................................ 0
A fte r a c - c l a s s them e ending in {t^ -} ( 6 2 0 ) ............................................. 0
A fte r a c - c l a s s them e ending in a vow el, ||y||, ||w ||, or | | l | | ....... ||n||
E ls e w h e r e ..................................................................................................................... ||in||
E ls e w h e r e ............................................................................................................................... 0
E x a m p le s :
l|k||
{titw eti* e k } : /titw atix/ 'te ll a sto ry !' (to one p e rso n ) ({titw e ti-}
'te ll a s to ry !')
Ily||
{'e titu-le e k } : / ?att 6 *lay/ 'fo rg et it!' (to one person ) ({tit;Q*le}
'fo rg et')
0 (a fter an s - c l a s s them e)
{w ile* ke*?§yk e k } : / w il 6 *ke?yx/ 'run'.' ({w il§ *} 'ru n '; { k e ? 6 yk}
'go')
0 (a fte r a c - c l a s s them e)
{T p sq i lehne e k } : / ?ipsqilehn e/ 'w alk downl' (to one p erso n )
({l^ h n e} 'down')
l|n|| ^
{h i e k } : /hin/ 'sp e a k !' (to one p erso n ) ( { h i } 'sp e a k ')
II II
{"e h eki e k } : / ?eh§kin/ 'look it o v er!' (to one p e rso n ) ({ h e k i} 's e e ')
0 (with { i } p lu ral)
{*e wi heki i k } : / êwihekitx/ 'look over each one of them !' (to
m o re than one p erso n ) ({w i} d istrib u tiv e p refix )
0 (with lo c a tiv e)
{kti- s m e } : /kti-m/ ’ cornel' (to one p erso n ) ({k li-} 'g o '; { m }
tow ard the sp e a k e r)
{kti* s m i } : /kti-mtx/ ' cornel' (to m o re than one p e rso n )
639. In flec tio n a l su ffix com plex and v erb c o n stru ctio n s.
6 3 9 .1 . In fle c tio n a l su ffix com p lex (is c ). O f the four c la s s e s of in fle c

tion al su ffix e s < m > c la s s (lo ca tiv e) is optional, and the r e s t a re o b lig a
tory. The o rd e r of the four su ffix c la s s e s v a r ie s depending on the te n s e -
m odal elem ent involved.
T e n se -M o d a ls R e fe r e n c e s k m e m k m
1. In d ica tiv e p resen t 638.1 X X X [X]

2. In d icativ e p e rfec t 6 3 8 .2 X 0 X [X]
3. In d ica tiv e indef. p a st 638.3 X 0 [X] X
4. In d ica tiv e recen t past 6 3 8.4 X X [X] X
5. In d ica tiv e rem o te past 638.5 X X [X] X
6. In d ica tiv e future 638.6 X 0 X [X]

7. Con d itio n al p resen t 638.7 X 0 X
8. Con d itio n al p e rfe c t 638.7 X X X
9. Con d itio n al past 638.7 X 0 X
10. Fre q u e n ta tiv e p resen t 638.8 0 X X [X]

11. Freq u en ta tiv e indef. p ast 638.8 X X X
12. Freq u en ta tiv e re c e n t p ast 6 3 8 .8 X X X
13. Freq u en ta tiv e re m o te past 638.8 X X X
X X X
14. Im p e ra tiv e 639.9
0 X X X
0 non-occurrence
[ ] optional
F o r te n s e -m o d a ls 6 , 10, and 14 the p o sition of the optional c la s s of lo c a

tiv e s is b a se d on lo c a tiv e 1 (637) alo n e; fo r the te n se -m o d a l 5 it is b a se d on
lo c a tiv e 2 (637) alon e. L o c a tiv e s , p a r tic u la r ly lo c a tiv e 2, o ccu r in frequ en tly.
O f the fourteen te n se -m o d a l s u ffix e s , fiv e (2, 3, 6 , 7, 9) o cc u r without
s in g u la r -p lu r a l d istin ctio n . F o r th ese fiv e te n s e s , the num ber d istin ctio n is
indicated by the p re se n c e or a b se n c e o f the p lu ra l su b ject p re fix (633). A c
co rd in g ly , if the p a ra d ig m is co m p letely fille d out, the th e o re tic a lly p o ssib le
in flectio n a l su ffix com bin ation s a re 2 (num ber of m e m b e rs of < e > c la s s )
X 3 (p o s s ib ilit ie s o f lo c a tiv e s : lo c a tiv e 1, lo c a tiv e 2, no lo c a tiv e s ) x ( 1 4 - 5 )
M orph ology 119
+ 3 X 5 = 69. In the p resen t c o rp u s, only 43 com bin ation s a r e found p o ss ib ly

b e ca u se of in freq u en cy of c e rta in com bin ation s or skew ed p a ra d ig m .
The d istrib u tio n of the 43 com bin ation s is shown in the follow in g ch art.
A r a b ic n u m e ra ls in the chart r e fe r to the subsequen t lis t of ex a m p le s.
No L o c a tiv e L o c a tiv e
T e n se -M o d a ls L o c a tiv e s 1: {m } 2: { k i}
sg pi sg pi sg pi
1. In d icativ e p re se n t 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. In d ica tiv e p e rfe c t 7 8 9
3. In d ica tiv e indef. p a st 10 11 12
4. In d ica tiv e recen t past 13 14 15 16 17 18

1
5. In d ica tiv e rem o te past 19 20 21 22 23 24
1 1
6. In d icativ e future 25 26
7. C on d itio n al p resen t 27
8. C on d ition al p e rfe c t 28 29
9. C on d ition al p ast 30
10. F req u en ta tiv e p rese n t 31 32 33
11. Fre q u en ta tiv e indef. p ast 34 35
12. F req u en ta tiv e recen t past 36 37
13. F re q u en ta tiv e rem o te past 38 39
14. Im p e ra tiv e 40 41 42 43
The follow in g ex am p les of in flectio n a l su ffix com bin ation s a re num bered
a cco rd in g to the p rece d in g ch art, su ffixed by ^ or £ to in d icate those that
follow s - c l a s s th em es and c - c l a s s th em es r e s p e c tiv e ly . A p o stro p h es in d i
cate that the in fle c tio n a l su ffix com plex is s tr e s s e d .
Is se /h ipise/ '1 eat' (hipi 'ea t')

Ic ce /h ekice/ '1 see' (heki 's e e ')
2s s ik / ?isa liiw k six / 'we cut with knife' (Tse 'with knife'
'cu t')
2s' s i'k /hipsi-x/ 'we eat'
2c c ik /hit§*w yecix/ 'they liv e ' (hi 3rd p e rso n su b ject

p r e fix ; t e - w y e 'liv e ')
2 c' ci*k /hekci-x/ 'we see'
3s se m /papayn 6 'sam / 'they cam e upon h er' (pe* 632; pey

'c o m e '; u- d ir e c tio n a l suffix)
3S' s^-m /kus§-m / 'I am com ing' (kti* 'go')
3c cem /tiw i-kcem / 'you a re follow in g m e' (tiw i-k 'fo llo w ')
3c' c^-m /?ewc^*m / 'he te lls m e' (e 3rd p e rso n o b ject p re fix
631, this is an exam ple of the u sa g e 3b; hi 't e ll;
's a y ')
4s sin m /h it^T n ik sin m / 'they com e down' (hi 3rd p e rso n

su b je ct p r e fix , 631; t^ ’m ik 'go down')
4s’ si*nm /hikusi-nm / 'they a re co m in g ’ (hi 631; kti* 'go')
4c cin m /h i?npt§’ cinm / 'they a re com ing a fte r m e' (hi 631;
înpi 'c a p tu re '; t^* 'm ove aw ay to')
5s sen k i /h itiy 6 *xna?yiksanki/ 'he went around shouting' (hi

631; tiy t-k 'sh o u t'; e*yik 'm ove around')
5s' s^*nki /h ik u s 6 -nki/ 'it g o e s aw ay' (hi 631; kti* 'go')
5c cen ki /hiy^w necenki/ 'it (tra il) g o e s over (a h ill)' (hi 631;
y 6 wne 'go o v e r')
6s sin k i /teq ete-m iksin k i/ 'we a ll of a sudden went down'

(teqe 'su d d en ly '; t§*m ik 'go down')
6s ’ si-n k i /hikusi*nki/ 'they go away,' 'they a re s till away'
7s s /hip^-kus/ 'they ju st left' (hi 631; pe p lu ra l su b ject

p r e fix ; ku* 'go')
7c (after V) n /hihin/ 'he ju st said ' (hi 631; hi 's a y ')
7c (a fter C ) in /wti-yin/ 'I ju st esca p ed ' (w<i*y 'e sca p e ,' 'ru n')
8s im /h ip ew steq i’kim / 'they ju st cam e down' (hi 631;

pe p lu ra l su b je ct p r e fix ; w is 'tr a v e l'; teqi*k
'd e sc e n d ')
8c nim /hipap^ynim / 'they ju st cam e' (hi 631, pe p lu ra l
su b jec t p r e fix ; p 6 y 'c o m e ')
9s ki /pew 6 *yixki/ 'we c r o s s e d o ver' (pe p lu ra l su b je c t;

w§*yik 'c r o s s ')
9c nki / ?ap 6 *pci?yaw nki/ 'we k ille d it' ( ê 3rd p e rso n o b ject;
pe p lu ral su b je c t; w 6 -p 'w ith a r m '; ci?y £w 'k ill')
M orph ology 121
10s (after C ) e /?^-ta/ 'I went out' ( V t 'go out')

10s (after V) ye /titw atiya/ 'I told a sto ry ' (tltw etr 'te ll a sto ry ')
10c ne /p 6 *xne/ 'he saw it' (pe* 632; heki 's e e ')
11s me /hipew ew i*tim e/ 'they cam e d ow n stream ' (hi 631;

pe p lu ra l su b je c t; w ew i'ti 'go d o w n stream ')
11c nim e /hiquyim nim e/ 'he cam e up' (hi 63 1; quyim 'go up')
12s k ike / h ick ili-to x k ik a / 'he went on back' (hi 6 3 1 ; cikli*

'tu rn '; tuq 'b a ck ')
12c (after C ) n ikike /hipapdynikika/ 'they cam e to a p la ce aw ay fro m
h ere)' (hi 631; pe p lu ra l su b je c t; p^y 'c o m e ')
12c (after V) nkike /?ew y§-nkike/ 'she sa id it a s she tr a v e lle d (aw ay
fro m h ere)' (*e 631; wiy§* 'a s one g o e s '; h i 's a y ')
13s saq a / ^ isaliiw k saq a/ 'I cut with knife (y e ste rd a y )' (T s e
'with k n ife '; 'c u t'; k 621)
13s' s^*qa /hips^-qa/ 'I ate (recen tly )' (hipi 'ea t')
13c caqa /hip^ycaqa/ 'he cam e (but left)' (hi 631; p§y 'co m e')
13c' ci* q a /?a*kc^*qa/ 'I saw it (recen tly )' ( "e 631, h eki 's e e ')
14s siq a /h a?^tsiq a/ 'they went out (recen tly )' (hi 63 1; 'e*t
'go out')
14s' si-q a /kosi*qa/ 'we went re c e n tly ' (kui* 'go')
14c ciq a /p^yciqa/ 'we cam e (recen tly )' (p^y 'c o m e ')
14c' ci*qa / ?a*kci*qa/ 'we saw it (recen tly )' (ê 631; h eki 's e e ')
15s' sd-m qa /hi*ps§.*mqa/ 'he ate re c e n tly and cam e' (hi 631;
h ip i 'e a t')
15c cam q a /hani*tacam qa/ 'I cam e to m ake' (h en r 'm a k e '; te-
'm ove aw ay to')
15c' c4*m qa /ha-kc^-m qa/ 'he saw fro m there re c e n tly ' (hi 631;
heki 's e e ')
16s sin m q a /cap to ktak a?y k fip d -cw isin m q a/ 'we wanted re c e n tly
to com e craw lin g' (ceptukte 'in c r a w lin g '; k e?y k
'g o '; tip ec d e sid e ra tiv e su ffix ; wi 'act a s . . . ')
16s’ s i ’nm qa /h ikosi-nm qa/ 'he cam e rec en tly ' (hi 631; kti* 'go')
16c cin m qa / âw y^’kcin m qa/ 'we w ere lookin g at it a s we cam e'
("e 631; wiy^* 'a s one g o e s '; heki 's e e ')
17s' s^-nqaqa /hi-psd*nqaqa/ 'he went and ate re c e n tly ' (hi 631;
hipi ' e a t ')
17c' c d ’nqaqa /?a*kc^*nqaqa/ 'I went to see him re c e n tly ' ( "e 631;
heki 's e e ')
18s' si*nqiqa /hi*psi*nqiqa/ 'they w ere aw ay eating rec en tly ' (hi
631; hipi 'eat')
18c' ci*nqiqa /hakci-nqiqa/ 'we went to see recen tly ' (heki 's e e ')
19s sene /p 6 *liiwksana/ 'he cut it down long ago' (pe* 632;
liiw 'cu t'; k 621)
19s' se*ne /?e-pse-ne/ 'I had eaten it' ( 'e 631; hipi 'e a t')
19c cene /li6 *m aycana/ 'I w as s ic k som e tim e ago' (li;Q*mey
'be s ic k ')
19c' c§*ne / ? e -k c 6 *ne/ 'I saw him ' ( 'e 631; h eki 's e e ')
20s sine /sitti-yiksin e/ 'we looked a c r o s s long ago' (sit§*

'lo o k '; w §-yik 'a c r o s s ')
2 0 s' si*ne /pittiw atisf-na/ 'they told s to r ie s to each other' (pi-
r e c ip r o c a l p r e fix ; titweti* 'te ll a sto ry ')
20c cine /taqap^ycina/ 'we dropped in for a b r ie f w hile' (teqe
'suddenly,' 'b r ie fly '; p^y 'c o m e ')
2 0 c' ci*ne /hici-ne/ 'we sa id long ago' (hi 's a y ')
2 1 c' c^*me /hekc^*m e/ '1 saw fro m there long ago' (heki 's e e ')
2 2 c' ci*nm e /hekci*nm e/ 'we saw fro m th ere long ago'
23s' s§*nkike /hips§-nkike/ 'I w as aw ay eating long ago' (hipi 'e a t')
23c' ce-nkike / ?e*kc^*nkike/ 'I went to see it long ago' ( "e 631;
h eki 's e e ')
24s' si*nkike /h ipsi-nkike/ 'we w ere aw ay eating long ago' (hipi

'e a t ')
24c' c i ’nkike /hekci-nkike/ 'we went to see long ago' (heki 's e e ')
25s (after C ) u? /pet^w yeniku?/ 'you (p i.) a re going to settle (to live)'
(pe p lu ra l su b je c t; t§-wye 'liv e '; i*k inceptive
suffix)
25s (after V) yu*? /hani-yo?/ 'I w ill m ake it' (h en r 'm ak e ')
25s' ti? / ?e*pti?/ 'I w ill eat it' ( "e 631; hipi ' e a t ')
25c nu? /p^yno?/ 'I w ill com e' (p^y 'co m e')
25c' nti? /ê-xnli?/ '1 w ill see' ( "e 631; heki 's e e ')
26s (after C ) u?kum /ha'?§.to?kom/ 'he w ill com e out' (hi 631; %'t 'go out')
26s (after V) yu?kum /n ^-w siyam ciyo^kom / 'you w ill h ear u s a s you com e'
(ne-s p lu ra l o b ject; wiy§* 'a s one g o e s '; m ici*
'h e a r')
26s' u?kum /hikiyti^kum / 'he w ill com e' (hi 63 1; kti- 'go')
M orph ology 123
26c nu ?kum /pep§'xw itenu?kuin/ 'we w ill be b a c k to ste a l' (pe

p lu ra l su b jec t; p§*xwi 's t e a l'; t§* 'go aw ay to')
26c' n t ?kum /hexnti?kuin/ 'I w ill see th is way' (heki 's e e ')
27s teq /?a?pt^-tax/ 'I could hit him ' ( e 631; Tpt§* 'hit')
27s' t^*q /hiwt4-x/ 'it would have been' (hi 631; w^* 'be')
27c neq / âtw i’xnax/ 'I would have gone with him ' ( 'e 631;
tiw i-k 'follow ,' 'accom p an y ')
28s seneq / ?a k iy 6 *sanax/ 'you would have been advancing

tow ard it' ( "e 631; kti* 'go')
28s' s§*neq /kos^*nax/ 'I would be doing it' (kli* 'do')
28c ceneq /pa*l§.ycanax/ 'you w ould be getting lo st' (pe-l§y 'be
lo st')
29c cineq /p^?w yatw ikcinax/ 'they would have been shooting
w hile chasing' (pe* 632; ewi 'sh o o t'; tiw i’k 'c h a se ')
30s (after C ) u?q £ /paw sayn^*ko?qa/ 'we could go in' (pe p lu ra l su b jec t;
w is 'tr a v e l'; leyn§*k 'into')
30 s (after V) yu*?q£ / ‘?a'?pt^-yo‘?qa/ 'I could hit him ' ( "e 631; Tpt^* 'hit')
30s' ti?qe /p ak iy 6 ?qa/ 'we can go' (pe p lu ra l s u b je c t; kti- 'go')
30c nu?qe /hipatw i-xno?qa/ 'they can accom p an y him ' (hi 631;
pe p lu ra l su b ject; tiwi*k 'follow ,' 'acco m p an y ')
30c' nti‘?qe / ?a-xn 6 ?qa/ 'I could have seen him ' ( 'e 631; heki
' s e e ')
3 1 s, 31c tetu /?§.*ttato/ 'I go in and out' ("^-t 'go out')

3 1 s ', 31c' t^*tu /?e*kt^*tu/ '1 see him a lw a y s' ("e 631; heki 's e e ')
3 2 s, 32c t e ’nik /ê-xn^-^yikte-nix/ 'we go to see him m any tim e s'

( e 631; heki 's e e '; e*yik 'm ove in o rd e r to')
3 2 s ', 32c' t§*nik /hi*t§*nix/ 'they say con tin ually and rep eated ly ' (hi
's a y ')
3 3 s, 33c tetum /h i?l^ 'setetu m / 'it r in g s a ll the tim e' (hi 631; "ile-se
'm ake n o ise ')
3 3 s ', 33c' t§tum /?e*kt 6 tum/ 'you se e fro m there a ll the tim e' ( 'e 631;
h eki 's e e ')
3 4 s , 34c nq /capal^*nx/ '1 am w orkin g a ll the tim e' (cep§- c a u s a

tive p r e fix ; le* 'm ove')
3 5 s, 3 5c nenik /cepel§*nenix/ 'we a re w orkin g a ll the tim e'

124 /Vez Perce Gram m ar
36s qeqe / ?aiw inixqaqa/ *I u sed to spend w inter (th e re )’

('efw i 'spend w in te r'; i-k in cep tiv e suffix)
36c nqeqe / ?ipsqil^*nqaqa/ 'I w alk ed around' ( 'ip sqi 'on fo ot';
le- 'm ove,' 'm ove around')
37s (after C ) e?niqe /ha^^lika^niqa/ 'they u sed to m ake fir e ' (hi 631;
'^ •lik 'build fir e ')
3 7 s (a fter V) ye^niqe /qiniya?n iqa/ 'we u sed to dig (ro o ts)' (qi?ni* 'dig
[r o o ts]')
37 s' e?m *q£ /hikya?ni*qa/ 'they u se d to go' (hi 631; kti- 'go')
37c n e?n iq£ /hiw 6 *yna?niqa/ 'they u sed to go' (wta*y 'run')
37c' n e ? n i’q^ / ?a-xna?ni*qa/ 'we u se d to see it' ( "e 631; heki 's e e ')
38 s qene /p^-xw iqana/ 'I u sed to ste a l (but not any m ore)'
(p^'xw i 's te a l')
38c (after C) n^q^n^ /hiqoyim naqana/ 'he u sed to go up' (hi 631; quyim
'c lim b ; 'go up')
38c (a fter V) nqene /îm inqana/ 'I u sed to go to dig som e tim e ago'
( "imini 'go to d ig')
39s (a fter C ) e?nixne /hiwsp^Lyka?nixna/ 'they would cam p' (hi 631; w is
'tr a v e l'; p§y 'c o m e ')
39s (after V) ye?n ixn e /te-lw ew itiye?nixn e/ 'we u sed to g allo p dow n stream '
(t§*l 'g a llo p '; w e w i’ti 'go d o w n stream ')
39s' e?ni*xne /hipe?ni*xne/ 'we u sed to eat' (hipi 'ea t')
39c ne'^nixne /hiquyim ne^nixne/ 'they u sed to clim b' (hi 631;
quyim 'c lim b ')
4 0 s (after C ) 0 /w ile-k e?y s/ 'ru nl' (to one p erso n ) (wile* 'g o '; k e?y k
'g e n e ra l m ovem ent')
40s (a fter i) k /titw atix/ 'te ll a sto ry l' (to one p e rso n ) (tftw £tr 'te ll
a sto ry ')
40s (after y /'?att6 ‘lay/ 'fo rg et itl' (to one p erso n ) ( "e 631; t£t^-l£
other V s) 'fo rg et')
40c (a fter e) 0 / ?ipsqil^h ne/ 'w alk down'.' (to one p erso n ) ( T p sqi 'on
fo o t'; l^hne 'down')
40c (e lse w h e re ) n /hin/ 'te lll' (to one p erso n ) (hi 'te ll')
41s (after C ) itk /?^*citx/ 'go in'.' (to m o re than one p erso n ) ( V c
'go in')
41s (a fter V ),
tk /wept§*tx/ 'put fea th er on (arro w s)'.' (to m o re than
41c
one p erso n ) (wepte- 'put feath er on')
M orph ology 125
42 s (after C ) im / ?^-cim / 'com e ini' (to one p erso n ) ("^-c 'go in ')
42 s (after V) m /ktJi-m/ 'cornel' (to one p e rso n ) (kti* 'go')
42c nim /se p e -lk ili-n im / 'p a s s it o ver h e re l' (to one p erso n )
(sep§* cau sa tiv e p r e fix ; likli* 'turn')
4 3 s (after C ) im tk /w ^’yikim tx/ 'c r o s s over th is w ayl' (to m o re than

one p erso n ) (w ^-yik 'go a c r o s s ')
43 s (after V) m tk /kti*mtx/ 'com el' (to m o re than one p erso n )
43 c nim tk /sep e-lk ili-n im tx / 'p a s s it o ver h e re l' (to m o re than
one p erso n )
6 3 9 .2 . The v erb c o n stru ctio n s in which the in flec tio n a l a ffix c la s s e s

liste d above p a rtic ip a te a r e :
Vg = g e n e ra l v erb
Vg : [hi] [pe] [ne*s] g v T is c

(isc = in fle c tio n a l su ffix com plex 63 9.1)
E x a m p le : < hi > < <ne*s

pe > > gvT < s> < e > < k >
{ hi pe ne-s qe?6 n s e }
IIhi pe ne*s qe?§n n e II
/ h ipana-sqa?^nn a /
they re sp e c te d u s
Vg : [pe-] gvT is c
E x a m p le : < pe* > gvT < s > < e > < k >
gvS < etk >
{ pe s i ne }
kiy ti- s i ne II
ll pe
/ pekiyti'sin e /
they went to them
Vg : [hi] sT
E x a m p le : < hi > sT
{ hi t§ ?c }
II hi t^ ?c 11
/ hit§,?c /
it is good
126 JSez Perce Grammar
Vc = copulative v erb
Vc : [hi] cv T is c
E x a m p le : < hi > cv T < s > < e > < k >

{ hi w^* s }
II we s II
/ h i-w es /
he is
700. P A R T IC L E S
710. P a r t ic le s te m s .
T h e re a r e fifteen ste m c la s s e s .
E x a m p le s
C la s s of M eaning
M em bers
710.1 A d v e rb ia l m o d ifie r s {q u } 'aw fully,' 'te rr ib ly '

{u } 'very'
710.2 C o m p a ra tiv e s {qfetu} 'm ore'

{tu 's k } 'm o re'
710.3 R e la tiv e {k e } 'which,' 'that,' etc.
710.4 Indefinite {k ti’ } 'm aybe,' 'p o ssib ly '
710.5 N eg ativ es {ce?y e} 'not' (to p o s s e s s )

{w e-tu} 'no,' 'not'
{w e-cu } 'no lon ger'
{ m i- ’ s } 'not'
710.6 C oo rdin atin g con n ectiv es {k e -} 'and'

{mfetu} 'but'
{e-tu} 'then'
{kewfe} 'then'
{w eq } 'and'
M orph ology 127
E x a m p le s
C la s s of M eaning
M e m b e rs
710.7 Subordinating con n ectiv es { m e k i'k } 'although'

{'etke} 'b e ca u se'
{ cele w i } 'if
{q u ?c} 'a s soon as'
{q e c e } 'i f ; 'even when'
7 1 0.8 Q u e stio n p a rtic le (Q) {w e*t} (question m a r k e r )
71 0.9 In te rr o g a tiv e s {m in e } 'w here'

{m_ec} 'how m uch'
7 1 0.10 F in a l p a rtic le {n e ? § } 'isn 't it?'
7 1 0.11 H o rta to ry (H) {k e } 'let m e/u s'
710.12 P re n o m in a l {'is k e } 'like'
710.13 In te rje c to ry {e -h ^ } 'y es'
7 1 0.14 A d v e r b ia l p a r t ic le s {w e ti-sk } 'y este rd ay ,' 'tom orrow '

{w ^-qu} 'now'
{6 e 9 § } 'ex actly'
{k ^ ? le } 'just'
{q e c e } 'even'
{ktinliu} 'a lw a y s'
{k u ? 1as} 'thus'
7 1 0.15 P ro n o m in a l { ’6 -} 'you' (s g .)
720. S u ffix e s.
S u ffix es o ccu r with the follow in g ste in s: r e la tiv e { k e } , in d efin ite {k ti? },
n egative { m i ^ s } , question p a rtic le {w e -t }, in te rr o g a tiv e s {m in e } and {m ec}^
a d v e rb ia l p a r tic le { q e c e } , and p ron o m in al {"e*}. The two kin d s of su ffix e s
a re p ron o m in al and p lu ra l su ffix e s . The la tte r i s found with {'e-} 'you ( s g .) ’
and the fo rm e r with the r e s t .
721. P ro n o m in a l su ffix e s. The p ron o m in al s u ffix e s of p a r tic le s a re in

two m a jo r s e t s : ( 1 ) one in d icatin g only the su b je c t, and ( 2 ) the other in d i
cating both su b je c t and o b ject.
7 2 1 .1 . The su b ject su ffix set has the fo llo w in g m e m b e rsh ip and a llo m o rp h s:
Type l a Type lb T ype 2a Type 2b
{k } 1 st p e rso n sg . e*k kek *k k
{m } 2 nd p e rso n sg . m m
{n m } 1 st p e rso n pi. e*nm ke*nm -nm nenm
{ p e m } 2 nd p e rso n p i. pem pem
Set l a o c c u r s with {m i*?s} 'not' and {w e*t} q uestion p a r tic le .

Set lb o c c u r s with {m in e } 'w here' and {m e c } 'how much.'
Set 2a o c c u r s with {q e c e } 'even, even when' and {k e } r e la tiv e .
Set 2b o c c u r s with {kti?} 'm ay be, p o ssib ly ,' and {hu*kli?} 'or,' or else.'
{ k } m ay o ccu r with a p lu ra l su b ject m orp h em e in the sam e sen ten ce, e .g .,

/w§-te*x ku si-x / 'do we go?' ({w e*t} q uestion p a r tic le ; /kusf-x/ 'we g o '). In
such a c a s e , the second p e rso n is not in clud ed in the 'we.' When the second
p e rso n is in clud ed, {n m } is u se d .
E x a m p le s of type la :
l|e-k||^
/m i?se*x î-n manma*?! kiyti*?./ 'I cannot go' ({ m i? s } 'not'; {'i-n}
'not'; {'i*n} T ; {m e n m £ ? i} 'how,' 'in any w a y '; {kti*} 'g o ';
{u ? } futu re 6 3 8 . 6 )
|le-nm ||
/m i?se*n m nti*n m an m a ?i p ekiy li?./ 'we cannot go in any w ay.'
({nla-n} 'w e '; {p e } p lu ra l su b jec t p refix )
The type l a does not o ccu r with second or third p e rso n su b je c t:
/ m i? s ?i*m m an m a ?i kiyti?./ 'you (s g .) cannot go in any way'

/ m i? s ?ipi m an m a ?i h ikiyli?./ 'he cannot go in any way'
/ m i? s ?im ^ m an m a ?i pekiyti?./ 'you (pi.) cannot go in any way'
/ m i? s ?im 6 m an m a ?i h ipekiyti?./ 'they cannot go in any way'
E x a m p le s of type lb :
llkekll
/m inekex w § -s./ 'w here am I?' ({m in e } 'w h e re')
||ke*nm ||
/m ineke-nm w isi*x./ 'w here a re w e?'
M orph ology 129
In the follow in g ex a m p le s, { k } is re p re se n te d by fr e e ly alte rn atin g ||kek||

and ||e -k ||:
/m ack ex we k icu y ./ ’how m uch m oney do I h a v e ? ’ ({m e c } ’how

m uch ’ ; ||we|| an allo m o rp h of {w 6 *} ’b e ’ ; {k ic u y } ’m e ta l,’
’m on ey ’ )
/m ace*x we k icu y ./ ’how m uch m oney do I have?'
E x a m p le s of type 2a:
l|-k||
/qece-x ?i-n kta-se./ ’ even I am g o in g ’ ({q e c e } ’ ev en ’ )
l|m||
/q ecem ?i*m kti-se./ ’ even you (s g .) a r e g o in g ’
||-nm||
/qece-nm nCi*n k u si-x ./ ’ even we a re g o in g ’
llpem II
/q ecep em ?im ^ k u s i’ x./ ’ even you (pi.) a re going'
E x a m p le s of type 2b:
l|k||
/kti?x we-t kiyti?./ ’I m ight g o ’ ({kti?} in d efin ite; {w e*t} m eaning
u n ce rtain ; { k li’ } ’g o ’ ; {u ? } future 6 3 8 . 6 )
l|m||
/kti?m we-t kiyti?./ ’you (s g .) m ight g o ’
II nenm j|
/kti?nenm we*t pekiyCi?./ ’we (including you) might g o ’
llpem II
/k 6 ?pem we*t pekiyti?./ ’you (p i.) m ight g o ’
7 2 1 .2 . The su b je c t-o b je c t su ffix set h as the follow in g m e m b e rsh ip and

a llo m o rp h s:
Type 3 a Type 3b
{k } 1 st p e rso n sg . e*k k
{m } 2 nd p e rso n sg. m
{n m } 1 st p e rso n pi. e-nm nm
{p e m } 2 nd p e rso n p i. epe pe (b e fo re {m e k })
pem (e lse w h e re )
{m e k } 1 st p e rso n subj. m ek (after {p e m }) m ek
and 2 nd p e rso n obj. em ek (e lse w h e re )
{p em } in 3a is found only b e fo re { m e k } . { k } , { m } , { n m } and {p e m } a re

found either as the su b je ct or the o b ject, {m e k } in d ic a te s that the su b ject
is in the fir s t p e rso n and the o bject in the second p e rso n .
The su b je c t-o b je c t pron o m in al su ffix e s a re u sed to e x p r e s s the follow in g
com bin ation s of su b ject and o b ject. In the follow in g notation 2 s - I p , fo r e x
am p le, in d ic a te s that the m orphem e is u sed when the su b ject is second p e r
son sin g u lar and the o bject is fir s t p e rso n p lu ra l.
{k }: ls - 3 s , ls -3 p , 3 s - ls , 3 p -ls
{m }: 2 s - ls , 2 s - lp , 2 s -3 p , 3 s - 2 s , 3 p -2 s , 2 s - 3 s
{n m }: 3 s - lp , l p - 3 s , lp -3 p , 3 p - lp
{p e m }: 3 s -2 p , 2 p - l s , 2 p -3 s , 2 p - lp , 2p -3p , 3p -2 p
{m e k }: l s - 2 s, lp - 2 s
{p e m } {m e k }: l s - 2 p, l p - 2 p
The set 3a o c c u rs with {w e*t} question p a rtic le and 3b with {k e } r e la tiv e

p a rtic le .
E x a m p le s of type 3a:
||e-k||
/we*te*x ?etw i-kce./ 's h a ll I go with h im ?' ({'e} third p e rso n o bject
p refix 631; { t iw i’k} 'accom pany,' 'fo llo w ')
/we*te*x ^ en ^'Stiw ikce./ 's h a ll I go with them ?' ({n e*s} p lu ra l o b ject
p refix 634)
/we*te*x h itw i’k ce ./ 'would he go with m e?' {{h i} th ird p e rso n su b
je c t p re fix 631)
/w e-te-x h itw i-kcix ./ 'would they go with m e?'
||e-nin||
/we*te*nm h itw i'k c e ./ 'would he go with u s?'
/we-te*nm êtw i’k c ix ./ 's h a ll we go with h im ?'
/w e-te-nm ?en §*stiw ikcix./ 's h a ll we go with them ?'
/we*te*nm h in §*stiw ik cix./ 'would they go with u s? '
II em ek ||
/w e-tem ex tiw i*kce./ 's h a ll 1 go with you (s g .)? '
/w e-tem ex tiw i*kcix./ 's h a ll we go with you (s g .)? '
II epe m ek ||
/w e-tepem ex tiw i’ k ce ./ 'sh a ll I go with you (s g .)? '
/w e-tepem ex tiw i*kcix./ 's h a ll we go with you (p i.)?'
M orph ology 131
E x a m p le s of 3b:
l|k||
/kex ka* êwniye ti*?m es/ 'when I gave him the book . . . ’ ({k ^ -}
*and' and m ean s 'when' with { k e } ; {'ini*} 'g iv e '; {ti* ? m e s }
'book')
/kex ka- ?en§-cniye ti*?m es/ 'when I g av e them the book . . . '
({n e*s} p lu ra l o b je ct p refix 634)
l|m||
/kem ka* ?ini*m e ti*?m es/ 'when you (s g .) gave m e the book . . . '
( { m } lo c a tiv e 1, 637)
/kem ka* n^-cnim e ti-^ m es/ 'when you (s g .) g av e u s the book . . . '
II II
/kenm ka- hin^-cn iye ti-? m e s/ 'when he gav e us the book . . . '
/kenm ka* ?epe?niye ti*?m es/ 'when we gav e him the book . . . '
({p e } p lu ra l su b ject p re fix 633)
I pernII
/kepem ka* pe?n iye ti*?m es/ 'when you (p i.) gave m e the book . . . '
/kepem ka* ?epe?niye ti-^ m es/ 'when you (pi.) gave h im /them the
book . . . '
||m ek II
/kem ex ka* ?iniye ti*?m es/ 'when I gave you (s g .) the book . . . '
/kem ex ka* pe?n iye ti*?m es/ 'when we gave you (s g .) the book . . . '
I pe mek||
/kepem ex ka* înfye ti*?m es/ 'when 1 gav e you (p i.) the book . . . '
/kepem ex ka* pe?n iye ti*?m es/ 'when we gav e you (p i.) the book . . .
722. P lu r a l su ffix . The sin g le p lu ra l su ffix {tk } o c c u rs a fter {'§*} 'you

(s in g u la r ); e .g .,
/?im § ?§*tx pa?n4hpayko?/ 'you (p i.) w ill b rin g it'
730. P a r t ic le c o n stru ctio n s.
The q uestion w ord (QW ) and h o rta to ry w ord (HW ) have the fo llow in g con
stru c tio n s:
QW : Q PS (Q is question p a r tic le , H h o rtato ry
HW : H PS p a r tic le , P S p ron o m in al s u ffix e s .)
E x a m p le s a r e g iv en in 821.
C hapter IV
SYNTAX
810. The ta ctic un its of the sentence a r e :
I in te rje c tio n s
c con n ectives
At attrib u tiv es
S su b je c ts
o o b je cts
L lo c a tiv e s
Vc copula
vg g e n e r a l v e rb s
Vp p o s s e s s iv e v e rb s
T h e se a r e d e sc rib e d in o rd e r in the se ctio n s which fo llo w .
811. In te rje c tio n s ( I ) . The follow in g a r e m e m b e rs o f in te rje c tio n s :
1. In te rje c to ry p a rtic le (7 1 0 .1 3 ).
2. A co n stru ctio n involving the c la s s of v o ca tiv e s u ffix e s , < e >
(5 35): I : sT e (536).
812. C o n n ectiv es (C ). The two su b d iv isio n s of this unit a re (1) c o o r d i

nating and ( 2 ) subordin ating co n n ectiv es.
8 1 2 .1 . The coordin ating con n ectives (C c) a re co term in o u s with the c la s s

lis te d in 710.6 a s coord in atin g connective p a r t ic le s .
8 1 2 .2 . The subord in atin g con n ectiv es (C s ) a re :
1. Subordinating con nective p a r t ic le s in 7 1 0 .7 .

2. A co n stru ctio n involving a re la tiv e p a rtic le (7 1 0 .3 ) with ap p ro p riate
pron om in al su ffix e s (721), e .g .,
{k e ke*} 'when'
{k e ku pe} 'w here,' 'at w hich p lace '
{k e m in e} 'w here,' 'at w hich p lace'
[ 132 1
Syntax 133
{k e m i k} 'w h e re ; 'to w hich p la ce '

{k e ku'?tis} 'a s'
{k e k i w ^yl} 'a s long a s'
813. A ttrib u tiv e s (A t). The follow in g a re found a s con stituen ts of a ttrib u
tiv e s:
1. Substantive th em es (s T ) in w hich g e n e ra l noun ste m s (nS), n u m eral

ste m s (nuS), d em o n strativ e ste m s (dS), or a d je c tiv e ste m s (aS) o ccu r
a s con stitu en ts. T h e se su bstan tiv e th em es a re A t l , A t2 , A t3 , and At4
r e s p e c tiv e ly .
2. A su bstan tiv e them e follow ed by < nim > (531) (A t5).
3. A su bstan tiv e them e with < '^yn > (5 34), or < k > (533) (A t 6 ).
4. A su b stan tiv e them e in which a v erb them e (vT) and < 'e*t > o ccu r
a s con stituen ts (A t7 ).
5. An a d v e rb ia l m o d ifie r (7 1 0 .1 ) (A t 8 ).
6. A con stru ctio n of a su bstan tiv e them e and a co m p a ra tiv e p a rtic le
(7 1 0 .2 ) (A t9).
7. A co n stru ctio n with an indefinite p a rtic le (7 1 0 .4 ) (At 1 0 ).
8. A con stru ctio n with a p ren o m in al p a r tic le (7 1 0 .1 2 ) ( A t l l ) .
9. An a d v e rb ia l p a rtic le {k u ?tis} 'thus' (A t l2 ).
814. Expanded su bstan tive th em es (e s T ). T h is sectio n i s devoted to co n

stru c tio n s involving su bstan tiv e th em es (s T ) (520) a s h ead s and extending
o ver m o re than one m o rp h o lo g ic a l w ord, n a m ely , expanded su bstan tiv e them es
(e s T ).
W hile a ll six s u b c la s s e s of substan tive s t e m s —g e n e r a l noun s te m s (nS),
n u m eral ste m s (nuS), k in sh ip te rm ste m s (kS), p e rso n a l pronoun ste m s (ppS),
d em o n strativ e ste m s (dS), and a d je c tiv e ste m s (a S )— o ccu r a s h ead s in s u b
stantive th e m e s, in an expanded su bstan tiv e them e a dS or an aS does not
o ccu r a s head of con stru ctio n .
8 1 4 .1 . Expanded g e n e ra l noun th em es seld o m involve m o re than s ix m o r

p h olo gical w o rd s. The expansion is m o stly r e g r e s s iv e ; h o w ev er, freq u en tly
in p e rso n a l n am es (with A t4 or A t7 , see 813) a head m ay p re c e d e , e .g .,
esT : s T At4
/?icey ^ -y e âpsf-n/ 'C oy ote w ith -F lin t' ( / *?^ps/ 'flin t')
esT : sT At7
/w iyeten e’t ?ilpilp / 'R ed Sun' (/ ?ilp ilp / 're d ')
F o r other expan sion s to the rig h t, see ex am p les with A t 6 , A t l l , and At 12

below . In som e c a s e s the o rd e r is not r ig id , e .g .,
esT : A tl At5 sT L A tl sT At5

/yox ?ipnim ?ini-t/ £ /yox ?ini-t îpnim/ 'that house of h is'
(/?ipnim / 'h is '; /?ini-t/ 'h o u se')
Other ex am p les a r e :
esT : A tl sT
/tit 6 *qan ?iw^-pne/ 'Indian w ife'
esT : A t2 sT
/p^-xlo' h^ham / 'five men'
esT : A t3 sT
/ki- ?isk it/ 'th is road '
esT : A t4 sT
/ ?ilxni-w e tit 6 -qan/ 'm any Indians'
esT : At5 sT
/?ip n im m iy d ?c/ 'his child'
esT ; sT A t6
/w apayata?w ^*t Angusx/ 'a s s is ta n t to A ngu s'
esT : A t7 sT
/qeq§*w ites kti-s/ 'w hiskey' ({qeq^*w i} 'be d run k'; { k 1i* s} 'w a te r')
esT : A t8 sT
/qo qi*wnix/ 'v e ry old m an' ({qi*w n} 'old m an')
esT : A t9 sT
/q^tu him §*qis w§*tes/ 'b ig g e r land' ({h im e -q is } 'b ig ')
esT : A tlO sT
/kta*? m ac ?ini*t/ 'so m e house'
esT : sT A tll
/n^-qc hekipe ? isk e cic^m ox/ 'one looking lik e negro' ({n§*qc} 'o n e';
{h e k ip e } 's e e m '; {'is k e } 'a s , lik e '; {c ic ^ m u k } 'n egro')
esT : At5 A t4 sT
/ ?ipnim ktackuc m iy 4 ?c/ 'h is s m a ll child' ({kîckuc} 's m a ll')
esT : At2 A tl sT
/naqc hf'liay 141x/ 'a cup of coffee' ({hi-fi;ey} 'cu p '; {l^ lk } 'c o ffe e ')
Syntax 135
esT : A t8 A t9 sT
/qo q^tu t^?c tiw 6 -t/ 'm uch b ette r m ed icin em an ' ({t^ ? c } 'goo d';
{tiw 6 *t} 'm ed icin em an ')
esT : At3 A t4 A t? sT
/ k i’ ta'^sm x sa-p i-k i?n w ^lc/ 'th is aw fu lly sh arp kn ife' ( { S£*pi-ki?n}
'sh a rp ')
esT : A t4 A t? A t5 sT
/ ? il 6 xni qiy^*w is ?im §*snim ntikt/ 'm uch dry deer m eat'
esT : A tlO A t8 A t4 sT A 12
/ku? m ac qo ta ? sn ix cti*yem ku? 1is/ 'so m e v e ry good fish lik e that'
8 1 4 .2 . Ex panded n u m e ral th em e s. The n u m e ral sy ste m of the lan guage

is m u ltip lic a tiv e and q u in a ry -d e c im a l. The m u ltip lic a tiv e and q u in ary s y s te m s
a re in d icated by a ffix e s within m o rp h o lo g ica l w ord b o u n d a ries and a re dealt
with in 520 (p. 5 5 f.) . T h e re fo re , a ll the d ig its, 20, 300, 5 ,0 0 0 , etc. a re
co v ere d under s T with nuS a s the head. The o th e rs, such a s 21, 310, 5 ,4 3 2 ,
a re e x p re s s e d by expanded n u m eral th em es. A con nective p a rtic le {w eq }
(? 1 0 . 6 ) p a rtic ip a te s in th is con stru ctio n .
esT : nuT {w £q } nuT

/pti’tim t w ax nî*qcwa/ 'elev en (m en)'
Along with the expanded n u m e ral them e, a co n stru ctio n al doublet
/pli*timwe wax n^-qcwa/ 'elev en (m en)'
with c la s s if ie r s o c c u rs with each w ord in con cord .
8 1 4 .3 . Ex panded kin sh ip te rm th em es involve only p e rso n a l pronoun ste m s

with {n im } , e .g .,
esT : A t5 kT
/ ?ipnim pist/ 'h is fath er'
T h is con stru ctio n p ro v id es the lan guage with the p o s s ib ility of d ou b lets, e .g .,
/n a?t 6 -t/ 'm y fath er' and / ?i-nim pist/ 'm y father.' The la tte r p e rip h r a s tic
fo rm is m o re freq u en tly u sed in a fig u ra tiv e , ra th e r than fa ctu a l fa th e r -so n
re la tio n sh ip , e .g ., in r e lig io u s u s a g e .
8 1 4 .4 . Expanded p e rso n a l pronoun th em es o ccu r only in the follow in g fo rm :
esT : ppT At2

/nti-n lepti?/ 'we two'
815. Su bject (S) and object (O ). The sim p le or unexpanded su b ject h as

an optional {n im } (531) and the sim p le o bject h as an optional {n e} (532) a s
one of the con stitu en ts, the other being a su bstan tiv e them e (s T ), i .e .,
S: sT [nim ]
O: sT [ne]
The su b jec t with {n im } is found when the v erb o c c u r s with {h i} (631) or

with {p e -} (632). E ls e w h e r e , the su b ject is without {n im } . The o bject with
{n e} i s found when the v erb o c c u rs with {'e} (631) or {pe*} (632). E ls e w h e r e ,
the o b ject is without {n e }.
The expanded su b ject and o bject a r e :
S: esT [nim ]
O: esT [ne]
The o b ject m ay a ls o be expanded in the follow in g way.
O ': O Vf
/ ?ipn§ h iw e?n p ise/ 'him sin gin g' (lit e r a lly 'him h e - s in g s ') as
in / ?i*n âm ciya ?ipn§ h iw e?n pise/ '1 h ear him singing'
816. L o c a tiv e s ( L ). The follow in g o ccu r a s m e m b e rs of the lo c a tiv e

c la s s .
1. A d v e rb ia l p a r t ic le s (7 1 0 .1 4 ), e .g .,
/w ati’ sx/ 'tom orrow ,' 'y e ste rd a y '

/w^*qo?/ 'now'
/k41a/ 'ju st'
2. A su b stan tiv e them e (s T ) or an expanded su bstan tive them e (e s T )

with < '§yn > (534) or < k > (5 33), e .g .,
/pik§*pe/ 'at m o th e r's' (/pike/ 'm oth er')

/ m a tn i? sk i kti-ski/ 'with b o ilin g w ater' ({m § t} 'b o il'; {ku *s} 'w a te r';
{k i} 533)
3. A v erb them e with < ?e*t > c la s s of su ffix e s (5 2 3 .2 ), e .g .,
/?ti-yit/ 'at fir s t ' ({'ti-yi} 'b egin ')
4. A co n stru ctio n involving a pron om in al p a rtic le a s one of the c o n sti

tuents (7 1 0 .1 2 ), e .g .,
/ ? isk e ?^*la/ 'lik e fir e ' ( { V i e } 'fir e ')

/k ^ ?la ? isk e w§*qit/ 'ju st lik e rain ' ({k § ? le } 'ju st' 7 1 0 .1 4 ; {w e*qi}
'ra in (v b .)')
Syntax 137
5. A co n stru ctio n involving an indefinite p a r tic le {k ti?} (7 1 0 .4 ), e.g.,
/kta*? m a sl/ 'I don't know how long' ( { m e s l} ’how lo n g ’ ) a s in /kti*?

m a s l kti’ se/ 'I am going aw ay fo r in d efinite length of tim e ’
6. A n u m eral them e with {§ h em } 't im e s ’ (5 2 1 .2 ), e .g .,
/m it^ham / ’ three tim e s'
7. A co n stru ctio n involving a r e la tiv e p a rtic le (7 1 0 .3 ), and {ku^tas}

’thus,' e .g .,
/ke ku?tis t§hes/ 'lik e ice ' ({t^ h e s} ' i c e ’ )
8. A co n stru ctio n with a d v e rb ia l m o d ifie r {"qu} (7 1 0 .1 ) and a d je c tiv e

th em es, e .g .,
/qo ?ilxninix/ ’ v e ry m u ch ’ ({'il§ x n i} 'm uch,' ’m an y ’ ; {n ik }

in te n sifie r 5 2 1 .2 )
9. A negative p a r tic le (7 1 0 .5 ) or a con stru ctio n involving a n egative

p a r tic le , e .g .,
/we-tu/ ’ not'
/we-tu m an m a?i/ ’not in any w a y ’
10. A pron o m in al p a r tic le with optional p lu ra l su ffix (7 22), e .g .,
/?^*/ ’y o u ’ (sg .) in /w i*ce ?e*/ 'you a re c r y in g ’
11. A v erb them e with one of the follow ing two su ffix e s : { ' } (lo ca tiv e
form an t 1 ), { “^ yi} (lo ca tiv e form ant 2 ), e .g .,
/hipstti-y/ 'enough' ({hipstta*y} ’be sa tia te d ')

/w ece^yi/ 'on h o rse b a ck ' ({w ^*ce} 'rid e a h o rse ')
817. F in ite v e rb s (V f). The fin ite v e rb s m ay be divided into g e n e r a l

v e rb s (V g), cop u las (V c), and p o s s e s s iv e v e r b s (Vp).
8 1 7 .1 . G e n e r a l v e rb s (V g). The sim p le or unexpanded v e rb s a re found

in th ree types of con stru ctio n (6 3 9 .2 ):
Vg : [hi] [pe]
Vg : [pe-] gv T
Vg : [hi] ^T
An expanded g e n e ra l v erb (V g') in clu d es one o b lig a to ry g e n e r a l v e rb , an

optional g e n e r a l v erb in the sam e p e rso n , num ber, and te n s e -m o d e s, and
optional o b je c ts .
Vg' : Vg Vg
/ h i?p sil§h n ecem hik 1i*tecem / 'he cam e down to get w ater'
(lit e r a lly 'h e -c a m e -d o w n h e - c a m e - a ft e r - w a t e r ')
/k 1i*tx w ileli-k itx / 'run aw ayl' (to m o re than one p erso n )
(lit e r a lly 'go', run'.')
Vg' : Vg Vg O
/ ?ip sq ili-k c en e w iye?^n psene kap 6 */ 'I w alk ed c a rry in g coat'
(lit e r a lly 'I-w a lk e d 1 - c a r r ie d coat')
Vg' : Vg O Vg
/h icap ^ .iaq y aw ya hti-kux hihinaqiya/ 'he fin ish ed dryin g h a ir'
( lit e r a lly 'h e -d rie d h air h e -fin is h e d ')
Vg' : Vg O
/?in 6 *ku*ye kony^/ 'I drank that'
Vg' : Vg O O
/hi?niye ?i*ne le ? § p tit wax nd*qc w a^w ^’lam / 'he gave m e
tw enty-one trout' ({le ? ^ p tit w^q n_^*qc} 'tw enty-one,'
{w<e?w^-i^m } 'trout')
Vg' : O Vg
/m it^w na hind-sw alaw qaqa/ 'he hanged th ree'
Vg' : O O Vg
/siliem tit 6 -qana hinî-spaxoyqana/ 'he sto le h o r s e s fro m Indians'
(lit e r a lly 'h o rse fro m -In d ia n h e -s to le ')
Vg' : Oi Vg O2 (O^ and O 2 constituting an expanded o bject)

/konman^. hin ^-sw alaw q aqa yti?cm ene/ 'he hanged those poor ones'
( lit e r a lly 'those he-hanged poor (p. o b j.)')
8 1 7 .2 . C op u la (V c). The copulative v erb con stru ctio n i s :
Vc : [hi] [pe] vcT is c
A copula is not expanded.
81 7 .3 . P o s s e s s iv e v erb (Vp). A p o s s e s s iv e v erb (Vp) h as a copula and

an o bject without {n e } a s con stituen ts.
Vp : Vc O
/? 1a-s lepit mam^*?yac/ 'he has two children'
Syntax 139
820. The c la u se ( C L ) . A c la u se is p reced ed by s ile n c e , { , } , or { . } and

follow ed by eith er of the la tte r two; it con tains one o b lig a to ry v e rb (V g, V c,
or Vp) and optional su b ject and lo c a tiv e s .
The types of c la u s e s a r e :
1. G e n e ra l c la u se (C L g ) CLg : [S] Vg [L]
2. C opu lative c la u se ( C L c ) CLc : [S] Vc S [L]
3. P o s s e s s iv e c la u se (C L p ) CLp : [S] Vp o [L]
A su b ject in a cop ulative c la u s e a lw a y s o c c u rs without {n im } (531), and a

su b ject in a p o s s e s s iv e c la u se a lw a y s o c c u rs with {n im } .
CL CLg + CLc + CLp
E x a m p le s :
CLg : Vg
/hiwi-ne/ 'he c r ie d ’
CLg : S Vg
/?i*nw i*n e/ 'I cried '
CLg : Vg S
/ha-niya Chapm an/ 'C h ap m an m ade'
CLg : S Vg L
/ ?i* n ie ?ehipe la^îm/ 'I too ate a ll'
CLg : S Vg L L
/kti*s h iw ^-lece ? il 6 xni w §-qitkinix/ 'w ater ru n s high fro m rain '
CLg : Vg L
/ ? a m c i-sa ci-qipx/ 'I h eard the talk'
CLg : L Vg
/kii-m tx w isk e?§ y n im tx kin§-px/ 'com e here'.' (Vg : Vg Vg)
CLg : L L Vg
/ki* kul§-w it taxc pf?am xno?/ 'w e 'll soon have a m eeting this
evening'
CLc : Vc S
/hi*w es qi-wn/ 'he is an old man'
CLc : S Vc S
/h^L*ma h i-w es qi-wn/ 'the m an is an old m an'
CLc : Vc S S
/h i-w es h^-m a qi*wn/ 'the m an is an old m an'
CLc : Vc S L L
/hi-w es ?icw § y s ke ku? 1i s t^hes qo ta y a m i’nax/ 'it is cold lik e
ic e even in su m m er'
CLc : S L Vc S
/C hapm an k§,?lo hiw §-ke so-y^-po*/ 'Chapm an w as ju st a white
man'
CLp : Vp
/?ti-s lep it mam^L?yac/ 'he h as two ch ildren '
CLp : S Vp
/?i-n im we*s ki* w§*tes/ 'th is is m y land'
821. The d e riv a tiv e c la u s e . The two ty p es of d e riv a tiv e c la u s e s a r e :
1. In te rro g a tiv e c la u se ( C L i) CLi : QW CL
E x a m p le s :
/w 6 *te*x k 6 *se/ 'can 1 go?'

/w^*tem ex l§.lliini*se/ 's h a ll I g ive you coffee?'
(2) H o rta to ry c la u se (C L h ) CLh : HW CL
E x a m p le s :
/kex kti*s/ 'let m e go'

/ke*m ex ?i*n ?in is/ 'let m e g ive you'
In a h o rta to ry c la u s e , the v erb is m ost freq u en tly in the in d ica tiv e p e rfe c t
(6 3 8 .2 ).
822. The dependent c la u se (C L d ). In a dependent c la u se (C L d ), any of

the c la u s e s m ay o ccu r in con stituen cy with a subordin ating connective (C s )
(7 1 0 .7 ).
CLd : Cs CL
/q^ce ?im t 6 *tap m a?i p 6 -p c i‘?yawna/ 'even when they k ille d your
fa th e rs'
/•êtke we*s w aqi-m a/ 'b e ca u se I am old'
/ka k^- hintixne/ 'when he died'
/ke m ipx pekiyti?/ 'w h e rev er we w ill go'
/ke kti?tis ‘?ipeli*kt h i? l§ -se c e / 'a s a thunder r o lls '
/ke kiw ^y l ki- t§*mux hiwekta?/ 'a s long a s th is footprint w ill be
h ere'
Syntax 141
830. The p h ra se (P h ). The follow in g co n stru ctio n types a re p h r a se s .
831. In te rje c to ry p h ra se (IP h ). 1 (8 1 1 ) fo llo w ed by { , } or { . } .

/?e*he./ 'y e s ’
/ q a l^ c a ? ./ 'grandfather'.'
832. G e n e r a l p h ra se (G P h ). S, O , or L follow ed by { , } or { . } .
/w §-tu./ 'no'
/p ^-?ys w^-tu ne?^./ 'p erh ap s not, huh?'
840. The sentence (S E N ).
One of the two im m ed iate con stituen ts of a sentence is {. }(which in turn

m ay be in 1C with a fin a l p a r tic le , 7 1 0 .1 0 ), the other bein g one of the follow in g.
841. The m in or sen ten ce. A ny p h ra se noted above.
SEN : IP h
/ ?e*h^./ 'y es'
SEN : GPh
/ îm ^-cte^qeni-n./ '(m a n 's nam e)'
842. The m a jo r sen ten ce. A ny con stru ctio n with an o b lig a to ry c la u se
( C L ) , or a d e riv a tiv e c la u s e , and optional dependent c la u se (C L d ) and p h ra se s
(Ph). F o r e x am p les of m a jo r sen ten ces with d e riv a tiv e c la u s e s see 821.
SEN : CL
/hiwi*ne./ 'he c rie d '
/hin^*sw alaw qaqa m it^-w na ?etke./ 'he hanged th ree a lre a d y '
SEN : IP h CL
/?e-h §, qo?c ?in ^ *ta?latw isa./ 'y e s, I am a lr e a d y tire d fro m
talking'
SEN : GPh CL
/w^*qo, h in ^ -steq e k iy u -six ./ 'now, they a re after us'
SEN : CL CLd
/?i-n ?esl§*w qitw ece h ^ -cw ala, k a k^- ? im 6 hi?nalâksix hipt./
'I watch the ch ild , w hile they a re g ath erin g food.' C L and
C L d in this sen ten ce a re r e v e r s ib le .
SEN : CLd CL.

/•îneki-x ?ipi hiw ^-ke w ile k e ‘? yke?w^*t, m ^tu caw i-n w§*tu ?ipnim
h i? p 6 -twixne ?i*ne./ 'even though he w as a ru n n er, he w as
un able to o v ertak e m e'
When m o re than one C L o c c u rs in a sen ten ce, one of the con stituen ts m ay
be a coord in ating connective (C c 7 1 0 .6 ).
SEN : Cc CL Cc CL.
/k^L- w^-qo pu-qii*pe pip isn e ka* ?ipi hi?nek^hte t 6 -pul./ ’he b ro k e
the bone and took out the m a r r o w ’
850. C o n co rd and agreem en t.
851. C o n co rd . When m o rp h o lo g ic a lly ap p ro p riate, a ffix a l elem en ts o ccur

d istrib u tiv e ly with ev e ry m em b er in a su bstan tive expansion, with the e x c e p
tions noted in expanded su bstan tiv e them es (e s T ).
With {k in ik } ’fr o m ’ (533)

/kon i’ x ?in i-ttalam kin ix/ 'fro m the r o o f of that house' (lite r a lly
’fro m -th a t fr o m -h o u s e -r o o f’ )
W ith {n im } (p o sse ssiv e -n o m in a tiv e ) (531)

/ktickucnim m a m a y a ? 4 sn im li6 -maynin/ 'c h ild re n 's d is e a se '
(lit e r a lly 's m a ll's c h ild re n 's d is e a s e ’ )
With {n e } (o bjectiv e) (532)

/ ?^*yatona sili^*m ne/ ’m a re (o bject c a s e )’ (lit e r a lly 'fe m ale
(o bject c a se ) h o rse (o bject c a se )'
With {p e } ’ at' (534)

/kony^ ya?w i*cp a kti'spe/ 'in that cold w ater' (lit e r a lly 'in -th at
in -c o ld in -w a te r')
852. A g re e m e n t. When th ere is an o b jectiv e p re fix { e} (631), or su b je c t-

object p re fix {p e-} (632) in the finite v e rb , the o bject in the sentence o c c u rs
with an o b ject su ffix {n e} (5 32), e .g .,
/ tiw i'k ce ki* ? isk it./ '1 am follow in g this ro ad '
/ ? e tw i’k ce kinye ? isk in e ./ 'I am follow in g th is road '
/ sa y q ic a m iy ^ ? c./ '1 a d m ire a child (m ine)'
/ ? a sa y q ic a m iy a ? 4 sn a ./ 'I a d m ire a child (h is )’
When three p e rso n s a r e in v olv ed , e x p re s s e d by an a ffe ctiv e or b en efactiv e

su ffix { 6 *y} (620) in the finite v e rb , the fo llo w in g ag reem en t is o b se rv e d .
/ki-m et ka- p 6 -pci?yaw can a m iy a ? ^ sn a ktiksnim ./ 'then they k ille d
C o o k ’ s so n ’
/ki-m et ka- p 6 *pci?yaw na‘? ysana k<iksne m iy ^ ? c ./ ’then they k ille d
C o o k 's son' (they d ared to, they went so fa r a s to, they k ille d
h is son cau sin g him to su ffer)
Syntax 143
900. T E X T W IT H A N A L Y S IS
The fo llo w in g i s the opening sectio n of a long text on the N ez P e r c e W ar

of 1877, a s told by M r s . A g n e s M o s e s (1 8 6 8 ? -1 9 6 0 ). M r s . M o s e s w as one of
the la s t m on olin gual s p e a k e rs of th is lan gu age. H er text is se le c te d a s in d i
cative of the sta te of the lan guage r e la tiv e ly little in fluen ced by E n g lish .
The a n a ly s is w as m ade posth u m ou sly with the a s s is t a n c e of M r s . E l i z a
beth W ilso n .
910. P h o n em ic tra n sc rip tio n .
1. ‘?u*yitiwce*ye pi*w apci?yaw n ha*niya cepm in. 2. m it^*wna h in ^ ’ sw alaw -

qaqa h im i*sn im h1i-s u s ka* ? ic e y 6 *ye âp sf-sn a ka* n^-qc ‘?att 6 -la ? y sa .
3. c§pm in k ^ ?lo h iw ^'ke so*y4*po*. 4. cepm in konm an^ h in ^ -sw alaw q aqa
k ^ ?lo lilliljix yti^cm ene. 5. ?iw^*pneki h in ^ -ssiy aw n a. 6. k§.?la tit 6 *qan
?iwe*pne ?ewe*ke, cepm in w e?n iki-n so*y^*po*. 7. t^*m naqahtqinm h ^ ‘m a
?ew §'ke h im i-sn im hti-sus.
920. F r e e tra n sla tio n .
1. A t f ir s t the w ar sta rte d and C hap m an sta rte d it.^ 2. He hanged three
m en; W o lf's H ead, C oyote W ith -F lin t, and the third I have forgotten .
3. C h ap m an w as ju st a white m an. 4. Chapm an hanged those poor ones
for no re a s o n . 5. B e c a u se of h is w ife he w as s u sp ic io u s. 6. T h is white
m an nam ed C hap m an had an Indian w ife. 7. W o lf's H ead w as T^* ^m naqah tqit's
husband.
930. A n a ly s is .
The text is g iven in ph on em ic, m orphophonem ic, and m o rp h em ic notations.

T a c tic a l c la s s e s and th eir c o n stru ctio n s a re in d icated with r e fe re n c e to p e r
tinent se ctio n s by n u m b ers in p a re n th e se s.
^This is probably Arthur I. Chapman, who fired at the Indians with the flag of truce
(M cW horter, 1940:56) and was the interpreter at Ch ief Jo se p h 's surrender (Howard and
M cGrath, 1941:282).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The pu blish ed s o u r c e s on the N ez P e r c e Indians m ay be divided into

sc h o la r ly and popular w o rk s. F o r the fo rm e r th is b ib lio g rap h y attem pts to
be exhaustive with re s p e c t to p u blication s d ealin g with the lan g u age. A s e le c
tion of other s o u r c e s is cited, including those r e fe r r e d to in the Introduction.
L in g u is t ic p u b licatio n s include two p r im e r s by Spalding (1839, 1840), a
g r a m m a tic a l sketch by H a le (1846) b a se d on A . B . S m ith 's fie ld w ork, another
g r a m m a tic a l sketch by A in s lie (1876 a), a g ra m m a r and an E n g lis h -N e z P e r c e
d ic tio n ary by "a m is s io n a r y of the S o ciety of J e s u s in the R o c k y Mountains,"^
a c o lle c tio n of texts by Phin ney (1934), and a study of v erb a ffix e s by V elten
(1 943 ). T h e re a re at le a s t th ree tra n sla tio n s of v a rio u s s e c tio n s of the B ib le :
Spalding (1 845 ), A in s lie (1876b, I876d ) and C a ta ld o (1914).
In m a n u sc rip t a re a g ra m m a r by A . B . Sm ith (ca. 1841), g ra m m a tic a l
notes and an E n g lis h -N e z P e r c e d ictio n ary by Sue L . M c B e th (ca. 1 8 7 3 -9 3 ),
and three d ic tio n a r ie s ; one p r e su m a b ly by M o rv illo (ca. 1890), another by
W illia m W h eeler (ca. 1900), and a third by C o rb e tt L a w y e r (1 9 5 5 -6 1 ). Ja m e s
C o rn e liso n tra n sla te d M o r v illo 's G ra m m a tic a L in g u a e N um ipu around 1896.
A ls o in m a n u sc rip t a re tex ts, g ra m m a tic a l n o tes, and a le x ic a l file by M o r r is
Sw adesh (ca. 1 9 3 0 )/ and g r a m m a tic a l and le x ic a l notes by Phin ney (ca. 1930).
V e lte n 's notes catalogued a s " B r ie f C o m p a ra tiv e A n a ly s is of N ez P e r c §
G ra m m a r" i s a d raft of h is study of v erb a ffix e s (1943).
One of the m o st ex ten siv e c o lle c tio n s of N ez P e r c e tra d itio n s is P h in n ey 's
texts (1934). C o lle c tio n s in E n g lish include w o rk s by Spinden (B o a s , 1917;
Spinden, 1908b, 1917). Stud ies in the content and sty le of the N ez P e r c e o ra l
lite ra tu re include S k e e ls (1 954 a , 1954b, M S) and C la r k . E th n o g rap h ica l stu d ies
e x c lu s iv e ly con cern ed with N ez P e r c e a re re p re se n te d by Spinden's a r tic le
(1908a) b a se d on h is fie ld w o rk, and C o a le 's re sta te m e n t (1956) of v a rio u s
n in eteen th -cen tury a ccou n ts including that of L e w is and C la r k . An ex cellen t
h isto ry of the N ez P e r c e s is by H ain e s (1955).
F u rth e r b ib lio g r a p h ic a l in fo rm ation is found in the fo llo w in g:
B e a l, 1 9 6 3 :3 4 3 -3 5 7
B ro sn a n , 1 9 3 2 :3 3 1 -3 3 4
D r u r y , 1 9 3 5 :4 2 9 -4 3 1
^Schoenberg identifies Anthony M orvillo as the author (Schoenberg, 1957:66).

Êven though these are catalogued as "Cayuse," the language studied is a dialect
of Nez P erce .
[ 152 ]
Bibliograph y 153
D r u r y , 1 9 4 9 :1 9 2 -1 9 3
D r u r y , 1 9 5 8 :3 6 7 -3 6 8
F e e , 1 9 3 6 :3 1 3 -3 1 8
H a in e s, 1 9 3 9 :3 4 3 -3 4 9
H ain e s, 1 9 5 5 :3 1 1 -3 1 8
H a in e s, M S :3 7 2 -3 8 0
H ow ard and M c G ra th , 1 9 4 1 :3 4 9 -3 5 7
Jo se p h y , 1 9 6 5 :6 7 7 -6 9 0
M c W h o rte r, 1 9 4 0 :3 1 3 -3 1 5
M c W h o rte r, 1 9 5 2 :6 2 7 -6 3 2
Patton, M S :1 3 1 -1 4 1
Spinden, 1 9 0 8 a :2 7 2 -2 7 4
W hite, 1 9 5 0 :2 5 7 -2 9 4
The b ib lio g rap h y is a s fo llo w s:
A in s lie , G e o rg e
1876a. N otes on the G r a m m a r of the N ez P e r c § s L an g u ag e . B u lle tin
of the United S tates G e o lo g ic a l and G e o g r a p h ic a l S u rv ey of
the T e r r it o r ie s , 2 :2 7 1 -2 7 7 .
1876b. Joh n n im ta a isk t. G o sp e l A c co rd in g to Jo h n , T r a n s la te d into
the N ez P e r c e s L a n g u a g e . P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia : P r e s
b y te ria n B o a rd of P u b lic a tio n s.
1876£. C a te c h ism fo r Young C h ild re n , T r a n s la te d into the N ez P e r c e
L an g u ag e . P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia : P r e s b y te r ia n B o a rd of
P u b lic a tio n .
I8 7 6 d . F i r s t E p is t le G e n e r a l of Joh n , T ra n s la te d into the N ez P e r c e
L a n g u ag e. P h ila d e lp h ia , P e n n sy lv a n ia : P r e s b y te r ia n B o a rd of
P u b lic a tio n .
A lv o rd , B en ja m in
1 8 5 5 -1 8 6 0 . C on cern in g the M a n n e rs and C u sto m s , the S u p e rstitio n s, etc.
of the Indians of O re g o n . ^ In form ation R e sp e c tin g the H is to r y ,
C on d ition , and P r o sp e c t of the Indian T r ib e s of the U nited
S ta te s, ed. by H en ry R ow e S ch o o lcra ft, 5 :6 5 1 -6 5 7 . P h ila d e lp h ia ,
P e n n sy lv an ia : J . B . Lip p in co tt.
A o k i, H aruo
1962. N ez P e r c e and N orth ern Sahaptin: A B in a r y C o m p a riso n .
In tern atio n al Jo u r n a l of A m e r ic a n L in g u is t ic s , 2 8 :1 7 2 -1 8 2 .
1963a. R e d u p lic a tio n s in N ez P e r c e . In tern atio n al Jo u r n a l of A m e r i
can L in g u is t ic s , 2 9 :4 2 -4 4 .
1963b. On S a h ap tia n -K lam a th L in g u is tic A ffilia tio n s . In tern atio n al
Jo u r n a l o f A m e r ic a n L in g u is t ic s , 2 9 :1 0 7 -1 1 2 .
196 6 a. N ez P e r c e and P ro to -S a h a p tia n K in sh ip T e r m s . In tern atio n al

Jo u r n a l of A m e r ic a n L in g u is t ic s , 3 2 :3 5 7 -3 6 8 .
1966b. N ez P e r c e V ow el H arm ony and P ro to -S a h a p tia n V o w els.
L an g u a g e , 4 2 :7 5 9 -7 6 7 .
1967. "Chopunnish" and "G re e n W ood In d ia n s": A Note on N ez P e r c e
T r ib a l Synonym y. A m e r ic a n A n th ro p o lo g ist, 6 9 :5 0 5 -5 0 6 .
K -------- . A Note on G lo tta liz e d C o n so n an ts. P h o n etica. (In p r e s s ).
. A Note on L in g u is tic M o d ifica tio n . In Syn ch ronic Stud ies in
North A m e r ic a n L in g u is t ic s , ed. by W. F . Sh ipley and J . O.
Saw yer. (In p r e s s .)
. U sag e of R e fe r e n tia l K in T e r m s in N ez P e r c e . ^ P a p e r s in
Honor of Sven L ilje b la d , Idaho State U n iv e rsity , P ic a t e llo ,
Idaho, ed. by E a r l H. Sw anson. (In p r e s s .)
B a ile y , R o b e rt G .
1 9 3 5 -1 9 4 7 . R iv e r of No R etu rn , a C en tu ry of C e n tra l Idaho and E a s te r n
W ashington H is to r y and D ev elop m en t; T o geth er with the W a r s,
C u sto m s, M y th s and L e g e n d s of the N ez P e r c e In d ian s. L e w i s
ton, Idaho: R . G . B a ile y P rin tin g C o .
B e a l, M e r r ill D .
1963. I W ill Fig h t No M o re F o r e v e r : C h ie f Jo s e p h and the N ez P e r c e
W a r. S e attle, W ashington: U n iv e rsity of W ashington P r e s s .
B e r r e m a n , J o e l Van M eter
1937. T r ib a l D is trib u tio n in O re g o n . M e m o ir s o f A m e r ic a n A n th ro
p o lo g ica l A s s o c ia tio n , 4 7 :1 - 6 7 .
B oas, Fran z
1917. F o lk - T a le s of S alish a n and Sahaptin T r ib e s . M e m o ir s of the
A m e ric a n F o lk - L o r e S o ciety , 1 1 :1 8 0 -2 0 1 .
B ra d y , C y r u s Tow nsend
1907. N orth w estern F ig h ts and F ig h t e r s . V o l. 5 :1 - 2 2 6 . New Y o rk :
D ou bled ay , P a g e and C o .
B ro sn a n , C o rn e liu s J .
1918. H isto r y of the State of Idaho. New Y o r k : C h a r le s S c r ib n e r s .
1929. Ja s o n L e e : A M is s io n a r y 's P a r t in the Founding of the C o m
m onw ealth o f O re g o n . U npublish ed Ph. D . d is se rta tio n . U n i
v e r s ity of C a lifo r n ia , B e r k e le y .
1932. Ja s o n L e e , P ro p h et of the New O rego n . New Y o r k : M a c m illa n .
B row n , M a r k H.
1967. The F lig h t of the N ez P e r c e . New Y o r k : Putn am .
B u r n s, R o b e rt Ign atius
1951. The J e s u it s , the N orth ern In d ia n s, and the N ez P e r c e W ar of
1877. P a c if ic N orthw est Q u a r te r ly , 4 2 :4 0 -7 6 .
Bibliograph y 155
B u r n s , R o b e rt Ign atiu s
1966. The J e s u it s and the Indian W a rs of the N orth w est. New H aven,
C on n ecticut: Y a le U n iv e rsity P r e s s .
B u tle r , B . R o b e rt
1959. L o w e r C o lu m b ia V a lle y A rc h a e o lo g y : A S u rv ey and A p p r a is a l
of Som e M a jo r A r c h a e o lo g ic a l R e s o u r c e s . T eb iw a, 2 :6 - 2 4 .
1961. The O ld C o r d ille r a n C u ltu re in the P a c ific N orth w est. O c c a
sio n a l P a p e r s of the Idaho State C o lle g e M u seu m , no. 5.
1962. C on trib u tion s to the P r e h is t o r y of the C o lu m b ia P la te a u .
O c c a sio n a l P a p e r s of the Idaho State C o lle g e M u se u m , no. 9.
B u tte rfie ld , G .
1942. R o m a n tic H is t o r ic a l T a le of the N ez P e r c e s . O re g o n H is t o r i
c a l Q u a r te r ly , 4 3 :1 5 0 -1 5 7 .
C ata ld o , Jo s e p h M a ry
[1891] P r e c e s et C a te c h is m u s D o ctrin a e C h r istia n a e L in g n a [s ic ]
N um ipa [s ic ] A d u su m M is s io n is San cti Jo s e p h , S. J . , N ez
P e r c e County, Idaho, U .S .A . D e sm e t, Idaho.
1914. J e s u s C h r is t - n im kinne v e ta s -p a kut k a - k a la tim e -n in i-u e s
p ile p -e z a -p a ta z -p a ta m ta i-p a n u m ip u -tim t-k i. P o rtla n d ,
O reg o n : Schwab printing C o.
C a tlin , G e o rg e
1841. L e t t e r s and N otes on the M a n n e rs, C u sto m s , and C ondition
of N orth A m e r ic a n In d ian s. 2 v o ls . Lon don : T o s s w ill and
M yers.
C h a lm e r s , H a rv e y II
1962. The L a s t Stand of the N ez P e r c e : D e stru c tio n of a P e o p le .
New Y o r k : Tw ayne P u b lis h e r s .
Chittenden, H ir a m M a rtin
1902. The A m e r ic a n F u r T ra d e in the F a r W est. New Y o rk .
F . P . H a r p e r. (? )
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1882. H is to r y of Indian M is s io n s on the P a c ific C o a s t, O re g o n ,
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1 9 5 8 -9 . The O ld N ez P e r c e R e s e r v a tio n . Idaho Y e s te r d a y s , 2 (4): 1 6 -1 9 .
196 3. A p p a lo o sa : the Spotted H o rs e in A r t and H isto r y . A u stin , T e x a s :
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1846. Eth nograph y and P h ilo lo g y . In. United S tates E x p lo rin g E x p e d i
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1881. N ez P e r c ^ Jo s e p h : A n A cco un t of H is A n c e s t o r s , H is L a n d s ,
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1964. E v id e n ce for P en utian in L e x ic a l S ets with In itia l * C - and * S - .
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1955. The N am ing of the N ez P e r c e s . M ontana, 5 (4): 1 -1 8 .
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1940. Y ellow W o lf: H is Own S tory . C a ld w e ll, Idaho: The Caxton
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1952. H ear M e , M y C h ie fs : C a ld w e ll, Idaho: The C axton P r in t e r s ,
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M e r k , F r e d e r ic k , ed.
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1891a. G ra m m a tic a L in g u a e N um ipu. D e sm e t, Idaho: Indian B o y s'
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[1 89 1b .] A C a te c h is m of C h r is tia n D o c trin e in the N ez P e r c e L an g u ag e
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of the C o lu m b ia R iv e r , M ade during the Y e a r s 1845 and 1846.
Bibliograph y 163
In E a r ly W estern T r a v e ls , v ol. 30 (ed. by R eu b en G o ld T h w aites).

[N ez P e r c e v o c a b u la ry , pp. 2 7 1 -2 7 6 .] C le v e la n d , O h io : The
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P a r k e r , S am u el
183 8 . Jo u r n a l o f an E x p lo rin g T o ur beyond the R o c k y M ountains
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1942. The N ez P e r e a s In d ian s in the N orthw est T e r r it o r y . U npublished
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M S no. 49 7.3 B 6 3 c P s l a 4.
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Nez Perce

T im e is running sh ort fo r the N ez P e r c e lan g u ag e. O f the 2 ,0 9 7 tr ib a l m e m ­

^Karl V. T eeter, The Wiyot Language, University of C aliforn ia Publications in

M r s . E liz a b e th P . W ilso n , w hose w a rm h o sp ita lity and rew ard in g fr ie n d ­

S ym b o ls and A b b r e v ia tio n s .......................................................................................................xi

III. M o rph ology

522. T h e m a tic c o n s t r u c t io n s ............................................................. 60

639. In flectio n a l suffix com plex and v erb

phonetic b r a c k e ts (C h ap ter One)

aS a d je c tiv e stem dT d em o n stra tiv e them e

S p e c ia l sy m b o ls fo r the se ctio n on kin sh ip te rm ste m s (513)

(m) m an speakin g Mo m oth er, m o th e r's

The N ez P e r c e s c a lle d th e m se lv e s /nim i-pu-/- The neighboring Indians

their fa v o rite fo o d s. A c c o rd in g to L ilje b la d , s iid u k a ^ a in O re g o n P a iu te

flatten ing o f h ead s L e w is r e m a r k s ; " . . . it is fro m th is p e c u lia r fo rm of

C r e s s m a n notes that the tim e of the im p act of the fir s t Shoshonean-

petktihtu? petk^^h tu? 'we w ill be shooting'

konwac^*n k o n w aci-t ’fo r that r e a s o n ’

The L o w e r d ia le c t s e e m s to have at le a s t one add itio n al phonem e / k ^ / ,

‘?icey^*ye nis§-?w eynu* ’c o y o te ’

The w ords u sed only by o ld e r people include /nicu/ ’younger k in sm a n ,’

sp e a k s with utm ost c la r ity and d ir e c tn e s s . B e a r s lu r s con sonan ts into I,

L ab ial Dental A lveolar Velar P o st-v ela r Glottal

Front Central Back

Suprasegm entals Junctures

Length: Phonological word juncture

110. Consonants.^ T h e re a re at le a s t two d ire c tio n s in w hich g e n e ra l

u n a sp ira te d with in itia l c lo su r e else w h e re b e fo re a v ow el, e .g .,

M o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re a consonant other than /p/, e .g .,

and stro n g ly a sp ir a te d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

/t/ (apiCO -dental) is u n a sp ira te d and p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /u/,^ e .g .,

^The allophony d escrib es M rs. W heeler's ideolect.

u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and without in itia l c lo su re a fte r /t/ and b e fo re

u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re v o w e ls

m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re consonants other than /t/, e .g .,

and stro n g ly a sp ir a te d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

/c/ (a p ic o -a lv e o la r ) is u n a sp ira te d , p a la ta liz e d , and without c lo su re after

u n a sp ira te d , p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re / i/ , e .g .,

u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and without in itia l c lo su re a fter / c/ and b e fo re

u n a sp ira te d , u n p a la ta liz e d , and with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re vow els

m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re consonants other than /c/ , e .g .,

and stro n g ly a sp ir a te d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

/k/ (d o r s o -v e la r ) is u n a sp ira te d and slig h tly la b ia liz e d b e fo re / i/ , e .g .,

u n a sp ira te d and u n p a la ta lize d b e fo re vow els other than /i/ , e .g .,

and m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re con so n an ts, e .g .,

/k/ does not o ccu r b e fo re /k/ or a ju n ctu re.

/q/ (d o r s o -p o s tv e la r ) has a sp ira n ta l o ff-g lid e without in itia l c lo su re

h a s a sp ira n ta l o ff-g lid e with in itia l c lo su re e lse w h e re b e fo re a v ow el, e .g .,

and m o d e ra te ly a sp ir a te d b e fo re a consonant other than /q/, e .g .,

With one exception noted in 2 0 0 , /q/ does not o cc u r b e fo re a ju n ctu re.

mta^pc 'o n e -y e a r old fawn'

The sp ira n ts a re re p re se n te d by the follow in g alloph on es:

/1 / (a p iC O -a lv eo lar la te r a l) a lte rn a te s fr e e ly with a h o m o rgan ic a ffric a te

/s/ (la m in o -a lv e o la r) is p a la ta liz e d b e fo re /i/, e .g .,

and u n p a la ta lize d e lse w h e re , e .g .,

/x/ (d o r s o -v e la r ) is b acke d b e fo re /q/ or /x/, e .g .,

/x/ (d o rs o -p o s tv e la r) is a fo r tis t r ill betw een con son an ts, e .g .,

and is a l e s s fo rtis sp iran t e lse w h e re , e .g .,

T im e is running sh ort fo r the N ez P e r c e lan g u ag e. O f the 2 ,0 9 7 tr ib a l m e m

M r s . E liz a b e th P . W ilso n , w hose w a rm h o sp ita lity and rew ard in g fr ie n d

‘?icey^ye nis§-?w eynu ’c o y o te ’

/h/ (fa u c a l), a fter a vow el and b e fo re a consonant, is a v o ic e le s s , non

The g lo tta liz e d con sonan ts a re d istin g u ish ed by sim u lta n eo u s c o a r t ic u la