UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT

Module: Environmental Studies Lecture #7

USE OF LAND
There are many environmental concerns related to land use including pollution, preservation of our
biological resources, mineral and energy requirements, and food production. Globally, humans use an
estimated 36% of the Earth’s land surface for food production (12% is used to cultivate food and fibre
crops, 24% is used for grazing livestock for the production of both meat and milk) while 31% is covered
by forests which can be used for fuel, lumber, paper and other products. The remaining land (33%)
consists of deserts, mountains, tundra and other land unsuitable for agriculture
(http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/departments/global_political_economy/media/H-N_Interface.pdf).

However, land use differs between countries and regions. In the Caribbean, the main land uses have
been categorised as consumption (land that is used to generate goods and services e.g. housing and
tourism), production (e.g. agriculture, forestry, mining and industrial land uses) and conservation. In
Jamaica, it is estimated that in 2014 41% of all land is used for agriculture while 31% is covered in
forests [2015 estimate] (source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS)

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the raising of plants and animals for food. Between 1945 and the mid 1980’s, the
overriding aim of agricultural policies was to increase production resulting in mechanisation, use of
artificial chemicals, animal and plant breeding, genetic engineering and monocropping. A plant that is
cultivated is protected from natural competition with other plants and from plant- eating animals and
over time may become quite different from their ancestors. These plants are said to be domesticated.

CROP PRODUCTION PRACTICES

Crop production is accomplished using the basic steps outlined in the diagram below. The manner in
which each farmer accomplishes each step varies. However, practices may be grouped under three main
types depending on the intent of the farmer and the level of production.

http://img1.mnimgs.com/img/study_content/lp/1/8/2/80/269/631/159/21.05.08-shivangi-biology-
8.2.1.2.1_SG_html_44063206.png

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Agriculture can be divided into three main types:

Subsistence agriculture –the production of enough food to feed oneself and one’s family with left over
to sell or reserve for hard times. This type of agriculture is practised mostly by farmers in developing
countries: It requires a large input of energy but from humans rather than fossil fuels.

High input/industrialised or modern agriculture – mostly practised by developed countries and relies
on large inputs of energy in the form of fossil fuels to produce and run machinery, to irrigate crops and
produce chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides.

Modern agriculture involves the use of mechanisation i.e. the use of machinery to replace manual
labour. Productivity is increased by the use of larger, more effective equipment such as deeper cutting
ploughs. Harvesting could now be done in a fraction of the time previously taken.

Mechanisation of the agriculture sector has led to the increasing use of monoculture – large areas of
land dedicated to a single crop. Monocultures may increase the risk of pest epidemics leading to
increased use of pesticides. Chemical fertilizers are often used in higher quantities to address
deficiencies in particular soil nutrients.

Farmyard manure was replaced by inorganic fertilisers supplying nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(N, P, K). A wide array of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides were developed which has had many
benefits as well as drawbacks. Demand for higher yields in the rearing of animals also led to the use of
hormones designed to increase growth in animals, or to increase milk production. The use of antibiotics
as growth promoters and to treat diseases such as Salmonella is also a concern.

Modern agriculture also uses genetic engineering where useful genes can be transferred from one
organism to the next. Concerns are that genetically altered organisms might mutate (spontaneously
change during copying), producing altered organisms which might cause unforeseen effects.
Introduction of genetically altered organisms into an ecosystem may also disturb natural population
balances.

Sustainable agriculture – the growing of crops and livestock in an environmentally friendly way.
Sustainable agriculture uses organic fertilisers, alternatives to pesticides and employs soil conservation
methods to prevent or alleviate the problem of land degradation.

LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation is the deterioration in the quality of land, its topsoil, vegetation, and or water
resources caused by excessive or inappropriate exploitation. Land degradation reduces the fertility of
the land. One cause of land degradation is soil erosion.

Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one place to
another. The two main agents of erosion are flowing water and wind. Some soil erosion occurs
naturally. However, human activities such as farming, logging, construction etc. can speed up soil
erosion and destroy in a few decades what nature took thousands of years to generate.

Soil erosion is increased by large-scale mechanised operations causing a decline in soil fertility.
Sediments lost due to erosion may degrade water quality and is the largest source of water pollution
globally. Sediment laden water is cloudy, has an unpleasant taste and may cause the death of aquatic
organisms.

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Losing topsoil makes soil less fertile and less able to hold water. Soil, especially topsoil, is classified as a
renewable resource because natural processes continuously generate it. If topsoil erodes faster than it
forms on a piece of land, the soil then becomes a non-renewable resource. Annual erosion rates for
farmers throughout the world are 7-100 times the natural renewal rate.

Salinization
18% of the world’s cropland is now irrigated, producing about one-third of the world’s food. Irrigated
land can produce crop yields that are two to three times greater than those from rain-fed agriculture.
Irrigation water contains dissolved salts. In dry climates, much of the water evaporates, leaving its salts
in the topsoil. The excess accumulation of these salts is called salinization and it stunts crop growth,
lowers yields, eventually killing plants and ruining the land. At least 1/10 of the world’s irrigated lands
suffer from severe salinization, while 30% has been moderately salinized.

Salts can be flushed out of soil by applying much more irrigation water than is needed for crop growth.
This practice increases pumping and crop-production costs, and wastes enormous amounts of water.
Heavily salinized soil can be renewed by taking land out of production for two to five years, installing an
underground network of perforated drainage pipes, and flushing the soil with large quantities of low-salt
water.

Waterlogging
Flood irrigation may cause waterlogging. Farmers often apply large amounts of irrigation water to leach
salts deeper into the soil. Without adequate drainage however, water accumulates underground,
gradually raising the water table. Saline water then envelops the roots of plants and kills them. 10% of
all irrigated land, worldwide, suffers from waterlogging. Alternatively, drip irrigation can be used that
allows water to drip slowly to the roots of the plants either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root
zone through a network of narrow pipes.

Desertification
This describes the conversion of once fertile rangeland into desert-like conditions. When overgrazing
occurs in combination with an extended period of drought, desertification may result. Mechanisation,
overuse of inorganic fertilisers, salinization, soil erosion by wind or water as well as solidification of iron
and aluminium rich tropical soils when exposed to wind and rain may also result in land degradation or
desertification. Some consequences of desertification include: worsening drought, famine, economic
losses, lower living standards and environmental refugees.

Solutions – Soil Conservation

Soil conservation involves practices / techniques for reducing soil erosion and preventing and restoring
soil fertility.

Conservation-tillage farming
To reduce erosion, many farmers are trying conservation- tillage farming (also called minimum tillage or
no-till farming). Unlike conventional tillage where large scale soil turnover is done, the soil is disturbed
as little as possible while planting crops. Special tillers break up and loosen the subsurface soil without
turning over the topsoil, previous crop residues or any cover vegetation. Special planting machines
inject seeds, fertilizers and weed killers into slits made in the unploughed soil. This saves fuel, cuts
costs, holds more water in the soil, prevents compaction of the soil, and allows more crops to be grown
during a season (multiple cropping).

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http://whyfiles.org/199_soil/images/conservation_tillage.gif
Terracing can be used to reduce soil erosion on steep
slopes, each of which is converted into a series of
broad, nearly level terraces that run across the land
contour. Terracing retains water for crops at each
level and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff.
http:www.philippines.hvu.nl
Contour farming reduces soil erosion by 30-50%
on gently sloping land. Rows are planted along
the contour of the land thus helping to hold and
slow the runoff of water.
Photo courtesy of Raymond Martin
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Strip cropping is where a row
crop such as corn is alternated
in strips with another crop
such as grass that completely
covers the soil, thus reducing
erosion. The strips of cover
trap soil that erodes from the
row crop, catch and reduce
water runoff, and help prevent
the spread of pests and plant
diseases. This may help to
restore soil fertility if nitrogen-
fixing legumes such as
soybeans are planted in some
of the strips.
http://www.takdangaralin.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/StripCropping.jpg
Alley cropping (a type of
agroforestry) is a form of
intercropping in which arable
crops are planted in alleys
between trees and shrubs that
can provide fruit or fuel wood.
The relationship between the
crops and trees is mutually
beneficial as the trees provide
shade and reduces water loss
for the crops. The crops in
return help to retain nutrients http://forest.mtu.edu/pcforestry/resources/stud
and moisture in the soil for the entprojects/ac1.jpg
tree roots .Tree and shrub
trimmings can be used as
mulch for the crops or fodder
http://www.forestry.ky.gov/forestfa
for livestock.
rmingexample.jpg

Windbreaks or shelterbelts
can reduce wind erosion
where long rows of trees are
planted so that they partially
block the wind.

http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/trees/whatnew/windbreak/fw31.jpg

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MAINTAINING AND RESTORING SOIL FERTILITY
Fertilisers partially restore plant nutrients lost by erosion, crop harvesting and leaching. Farmers can
use either organic fertiliser from plant and animal materials or commercial inorganic fertiliser produced
from various minerals. Three basic types of organic fertiliser are animal manure, green manure and
compost.

Animal manure includes the dung and urine of cattle, horses, poultry and other farm animals. It
improves soil structure, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates beneficial soil bacteria and fungi.

Green manure is fresh or growing green vegetation ploughed into the soil to increase the organic matter
and humus available to the next crop.

Compost is a rich natural fertiliser and soil conditioner that aerates soil, improves its ability to hold
water and nutrients, helps prevent soil erosion and prevents nutrients from being wasted in landfills.
Farmers and landowners can produce compost by piling alternate layers of nitrogen rich wastes (such as
grass clippings, weeds and vegetable kitchen wastes), carbon rich wastes (dead leaves, straw, sawdust)
and topsoil.

Crop rotation is another method for conserving soil nutrients. Crops such as corn deplete the soil of
nitrogen while legumes add nitrogen to the soil. Farmers can rotate these crops on a yearly basis.

Today, many farmers rely on the use of commercial inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium (N, P, K). Other plant nutrients may be present in trace amounts. Commercial inorganic
fertilizers are responsible for a 40% increase in food production worldwide.

However, there are disadvantages:

• They do not add humus to the soil, therefore, the ability to hold water will decrease leading to soil
compaction.
• They decrease the soil porosity thus lowering the oxygen content of the soil
• Most provide the plant with only three of the 20-odd nutrients needed by plants
• Producing, transporting and applying inorganic fertilizers require large amounts of energy in the
form of fossil fuels.
• They cause eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of water bodies when they are washed away.

PESTICIDES
Pesticides kill insects and include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and nematicides. A pest is any
organism that occurs where it is not wanted or in populations that are large enough to cause damage.

Problems Associated With Pesticides:

Persistence – They do not break down rapidly in the environment. When they are no longer being used,
they still remain in the environment, become dispersed and less concentrated but more widespread.

Mobility in the Environment – when sprayed, the pesticide may drift in the wind and be inhaled or
ingested if they remain on food. Pesticides may enter streams, rivers or ground water supplies. They do
not remain where they are sprayed but disperse quickly, moving through the soil, water and air.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification in organisms – if the pesticide is not broken down or excreted by
an organism, it becomes stored, usually in fatty tissues. Over time, the organism may accumulate high
concentrations of pesticide – this is referred to as bioaccumulation. Organisms at higher trophic levels

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on the food web tend to have greater concentrations of bioaccumulated pesticides stored in their
bodies than those lower on the food webs as they feed on numerous individuals of the lower trophic
level over their lifespan – biomagnification / bioamplification.

Kills Non-target Species – they often kill useful insects and sometimes birds and mammals as well as the
target pest. Killing the natural predator of the pest may cause huge outbreaks. New pests can be
created as a result.

Development of Genetic Resistance – they often have to be sprayed at the right time in the pest’s life
span if they are to be effective. Pests that are not killed when the pesticide is applied may have genes
that allow them to withstand the effects of the pesticide. They are then able to pass those genes on to
the next generation. This occurs each time an application is made, eventually creating a population
resistant to that pesticide. Pests invariably become resistant to any pesticide that is used on them
frequently and in large quantities. This often occurs rapidly, making the pesticide useless.

Risk to Human Health – Short-term exposure to high levels of pesticides can result in harm to organs
and even death. Long-term exposure can lead to cancer. Exposure to trace amounts can disrupt the
human hormone system. e.g. male infertility

Alternatives to pesticides
i) Agricultural Methods - tillage of land making the pest more visible to predators such as birds; proper
timing of planting, fertilising and irrigating which promotes healthy plants that are able to resist
pests.
ii) Biological control – this involves the use of naturally occurring disease organisms, parasites or
predators to control the pest.
iii) Genetic control – this involves sterilising some members of the pest population or to breed crop
plants and domesticated animals so that they can resist pests.
iv) Use of hormones and pheromones – using natural substances produced by organisms to trap and kill
the pest. Hormones can be used to disrupt the life cycle of the pest while pheromones can be used
to lure and trap the pest.
v) Quarantine – Governments attempt to prevent the importation of foreign pests and disease by
practising quarantine, or restriction of exotic plant and animal material that might harbour pests.
Infected crop or animals may be burned.

Integrated Pest Management

Many pests cannot be controlled effectively with a single technique: a combination of methods is often
more effective. Integrated pest management (IPM) combines the use of biological, cultural and
chemical controls that are tailored to the conditions and crops of an individual farm. Non-chemical
controls are used as much as possible and pesticides are used sparingly and only when other methods
fail. IPM allows control of pests with a minimum of environmental disturbance. It involves proper
management of pests and education of farmers.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the main competing uses of land?

2. Differentiate between subsistence and commercial agriculture.

3. Discuss how subsistence and commercial agriculture affect the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere.

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4. Propose sustainable solutions to practices in subsistence and commercial agriculture.

5. What is soil erosion? How have humans increased the rate of soil erosion globally?

6. What are the environmental implications of soil erosion?

7. What are the benefits of organic matter to the soil?

8. Describe soil conservation methods that may be practiced on agricultural land to reduce soil
erosion.

9. Outline the benefits of using organic fertilizers over synthetic inorganic fertilizers.

10. What is monocropping and what are its implications on the environment?

11. Despite an increase in agricultural production, the world continues to have hunger. Why?

12.
a. Explain the terms salinization and desertification?
b. Describe the processes that may result in desertification.

13. Describe the possible environmental impacts of agricultural systems on the world’s water.

14. Discuss the possible mechanisms which can be used to increase soil fertility.

15. Define the term “integrated pest management”.

16. Name and describe various alternatives to pesticides used to control pests.

17. Genetic engineering is being promoted as the solution to world food security. However, some argue
that we should proceed with caution. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of genetic
engineering.

Originally Compiled By: Raymond Martin

First Revision Done By: Nikki Bramwell, Raymond Martin and Damian Nesbeth
Second Revision Done By: Raymond Martin, May 2012
Third Revision Done By: Raymond Martin, December 2014
Updated By: Adonna Jardine-Comrie, August 2017