Accepted Manuscript

Title: Interchangeable metal transfer phenomenon in gma

welding: features, mechanisms, classification

Author: Américo Scotti Vladimir Ponomarev William Lucas

PII: S0924-0136(14)00197-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.05.022
Reference: PROTEC 14009

To appear in: Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Received date: 7-8-2013

Revised date: 16-5-2014
Accepted date: 18-5-2014

Please cite this article as: Scotti, A., Ponomarev, V., Lucas, W.,Interchangeable
metal transfer phenomenon in gma welding: features, mechanisms,
classification, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.05.022

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.
*Manuscript

INTERCHANGEABLE METAL TRANSFER PHENOMENON IN GMA WELDING:

FEATURES, MECHANISMS, CLASSIFICATION

Américo Scottia, Vladimir Ponomarevb, William Lucasc

t
Federal University of Parana, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 80060-000, Curitiba,

ip
PR, Brazil, ascotti@ufu.br

cr
b
Federal University of Uberlandia, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Av. Joao Naves de

Avila, 2121, CEP: 38400-902, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil, ponomarev@mecanica.ufu.br

us
c
Independent Consultant, Cambridge, CB25 0HF, UK, bill.lucas@hotmail.com

an
Corresponding author: Vladimir Ponomarev; Federal University of Uberlandia, Faculty of

Mechanical Engineering, Av. Joao Naves de Avila, 2121, CEP: 38400-902, Uberlândia, MG,
M
Brazil; ponomarev@mecanica.ufu.br; tel.: +55 34 3239 4483, +55 34 9161 2050, fax: +55 34

3239 4482
ed

Abstract
pt

Metal transfer modes in arc welding processes have previously been classified as
ce

Natural or Controlled Metal Transfer. Modern laboratory techniques have helped to establish

a new transfer classification mode in GMAW of carbon steels, which has been termed
Ac

Interchangeable Metal Transfer. In order to characterise the new mode, a series of

specimens was welded at different combinations of welding current (wire feed speed), arc

voltage and gas composition. Laser backlighting techniques and high speed filming were

employed to study metal transfer. The video was synchronized with the welding current and

arc voltage signals to aid the understanding of the transfer behaviour. The results showed

that this new Interchangeable Metal Transfer class is distinguished from the Natural or

Controlled Metal Transfer class because of its unique characteristic of periodical changes in

1
Page 1 of 32
the transfer mode induced by changes in welding parameters (a self-sustained behaviour).

The characteristic feature of the Interchangeable Metal Transfer class was shown to

comprise of two or more natural transfer modes occurring in a regular repetitive sequence.

The metal transfer sequence occurs without interference from the operator or the adaptive

control system of the power source. Phenomenological explanations based on arc physics

are given to justify the main governing factors for the particular metal transfer characteristics.

t
ip
Key words: Welding; GMAW; Metal Transfer.

cr
us
1 – Introduction

an
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a widely used process in the metal fabrication

industry. Welds are produced by using an arc to melt a wire electrode. Metal from the melting
M
wire is transferred to the joint in the form of droplets that detach from the electrode tip. The

performance of this process is governed by the metal transfer mode that is the way in which
ed

the metal droplets are detached from the wire electrode and transferred to the weld pool.

Mode (a short for metal transfer mode) defines the characteristic behaviour of the
pt

droplets transferring from the wire to the weld pool. For example, the “globular” mode

describes large drops being detached from the wire and transferring under gravity to the weld
ce

pool whilst the “spray” mode describes small droplets being projected from the wire tip to the
Ac

weld pool. Group of modes refers to a number of modes that have similar characteristics.

Several characteristic transfer modes have been described in current literature. The first

classification, established more than 30 years ago by the International Institute of Welding

(IIW), as seen in the IIW Doc. XII-636-76 (1976), is still used by several researchers. Despite

its merit, this classification is applicable to natural transfer modes only and neither

encompasses recent controlled transfer types nor the metal transfer modes recognizable

only when using sophisticated measurement techniques. Natural modes are defined here as

a mode with transfers not forced by additional electrical parameter or wire feeding control, in

2
Page 2 of 32
contrast to controlled transfer modes, as explained by Scotti et al. (2012) in another

publication. Scotti et al. (2012), when using a laser shadograph system with synchronized

electrical signals and high speed filming, observed some new modes and described their

particular characteristics. These authors proposed a revised classification for metal transfer

specifically for use by scientific personnel (researchers, scholars and students). However,

there is no one best mode covering all applications as there is a preferred mode for a specific

t
ip
application. As a consequence, a better understanding of the metal transfer phenomenon is

important for improvements in the quality and productivity of GMA welding.

cr
Heald et al. (1994) showed that the groups of modes, and respective transfer modes,

us
are related to welding process parameters and shielding gas types, usually represented

through diagrams, which are often referred to as “transfer mode maps”. Scotti (2000)
an
presented different versions for them, having similar content, yet using different approaches,

as illustrated in Fig. 1. Arc voltage (Ua) plotted against welding current (Iw) is the most
M
conventional way of representing a transfer map. A second version would use “arc length”

(La), or, more precisely, the “arc gap extension”, instead of arc voltage, since arc gap is
ed

considered to describe the influence on transfer behaviour more realistically. It is important to

point out that the arc voltage and the arc length are in some cases incorrectly used as
pt

synonyms. A direct relationship between the arc length and the arc voltage is widely known

(the higher the arc length, the higher the arc voltage), but it is valid only for a given current.
ce

When the correlations are established as a function of the current, as the present case, the
Ac

arc length can be maintained constant for different current values, because they are

independent of each other. On the other hand, the voltage will increase as the current is

augmented for any arc length, since the voltage is dependent of the current for a given arc

length (static characteristics of arcs). As a result, the two drawings can take slight differences

in shape.

3
Page 3 of 32
 t
ip
cr
us
Fig. 1. Schematic maps of the main natural metal transfer modes occurring in GMA welding

as a function of the welding current (Iw), represented by either the welding voltage setting, on

an
the left, or the arc length, on the right (after Scotti et al., 2012).
M
It is also important to mention the transition zones between adjacent transfer mode

fields. In the transition zones, droplet detachment becomes intermediate between, for
ed

example, larger droplets of globular transfer and the smaller droplets of the spray transfer

modes. This phenomenon can be explained by using a model proposed by Watkins et al.
pt

(1992), based on the Shaw’s model for water droplet growth and detachment. Shaw had

observed that droplets flowing from a faucet detached at periodic intervals for low flow rates.
ce

As the flow rate increased, the flow rate changed from periodic and predictable to an

aperiodic quasi-random pattern of behaviour. Haidar & Lowke (1996) used a theoretical
Ac

approach for the prediction of the droplet formation. A two-dimensional time-dependent

model, accounting for the effects of surface tension, gravity, inertia and magnetic pinch

forces in the droplet, was used. The wire feed speed and gas flow rate were also

incorporated into the predictions. They also predicted the presence of both small and large

droplets (alternately) at the transition zone between globular and spray modes, in agreement

with the above-mentioned work.

Similar droplet flow characteristics obtained by the above models were experimentally

4
Page 4 of 32
detected by Clark et al. (1989) and Johnson et al. (1992) in similar conditions (GMAW, Ar-

2%O2, 0.89 mm electrode wire). Johnson et al. observed an electrode extension increase

during the detachment of large droplets, justified by a slower melting rate than expected.

After a series of small droplet detachments, the electrode extension decreased, since these

small droplets melted off faster than the average rate. According to this author, this cycle

sometimes repeated itself several times. For example, one or two large droplets may be

t
ip
followed by a series of small droplets but then followed by other one or two large droplets.

Madigan et al. (1992) also observed electrode extension changes during metal transfer.

cr
Working in the droplet – spray transition zone, with a constant current power source, they

us
observed an electrode extension increase (arc length decrease) just before droplet

detachment. These authors considered the electrode extension to be the sum of the solid

cylinder and the droplet diameter.

an
Despite the evidence that there might be some distinctive metal transfer modes
M
happening in the transition zone between two adjacent transfer mode fields, most

researchers describe them as transfer mode instability of a chaotic character. However,

ed

Scotti (2000) reported that, under certain welding conditions, two or more natural-like transfer

modes can happen in a periodic sequence (without any interference of the operator and/or a
pt

control system). He also showed in his results that this periodic pattern of changes in the

metal transfer mode is not restricted to the transition zones between adjacent fields but may
ce

also occur in different combinations. For example, Short-circuiting - Projected Spray, Short-
Ac

circuiting - Streaming Spray, Globular-Projected Spray, Globular-Streaming Spray, Globular-

Short-circuiting - Streaming, Spray-Globular, etc. were observed. These patterns of transfer

have not been widely commented on in the literature, most likely because the related

transfers are difficult to identify using ordinary laboratory techniques. Moreover, they are

easily confused with temporary transfer instability which may occur for example when

operating within a transition operational envelope between two adjacent natural transfer

modes.

Despite the above mentioned reports, there is little published information on multi-

5
Page 5 of 32
mode metal transfer. Thus, the objective of this work was to study more consistently the

existence of the above mentioned metal transfer class of modes, hereafter referred as

“Interchangeable metal transfer”.

2 -Experimental Procedure

A series of experiments was carried out with the aim of reproducing welding

t
ip
conditions that would lead to differing modes of interchangeable metal transfer in GMA

welding. Bead-on-plate welds were carried out on carbon steel plates using a 1.0-mm-

cr
diameter wire of the AWS ER70S-6 class with DCEP. The approach was to select a different

us
shielding gas (Ar + 2% or 5%O2) and then set a combination of inductance, welding current

and arc voltage to produce the desired droplet transfer mode. An electronic constant voltage
an
output characteristic power source was used in these experiments.

The main methodological approach applied was based on a system for metal transfer
M
visualization as used by Lin et al. (2001) and Bálsamo et al. (2000), among others. The

experimental rig was set up as shown in Fig. 2. A shadow of the non-transparent

ed

components (contact tube, electrode, metal drops, weld pool and plate) of the arc region was

projected onto the lens of a camera, a technique known as backlighting. A high-speed digital
pt

camera working at 2,000 fps and a 632.2 nm He-Ne laser were used. To enable the arc to be

seen also, optical filters of different intensity were employed. The electric signals were
ce

synchronised with the film frames to correlate the variations in arc voltage and welding
Ac

current with the formation and detachment of the droplets. Synchronization was carried out

using a dedicated program built in a LabView® platform.

6
Page 6 of 32
 8
7

6
5

5 9
Synchronization

t
4 signal
Ua

ip
3
2 A
400

300 Iw

cr
200

100

1 V
0

20
Ua
11 0
0 10 20 30 40 t, ms

Iw

us
10

Fig. 2. Details of the optical laser system used for metal transfer visualization. 1, light source
an
(laser); 2, neutral filters; 3, divergent lens; 4, convergent lens; 5, protection glass; 6, band-

pass and neutral filters; 7, high-speed video camera; 8, monitor; 9, image recording unit; 10,
M
computer; 11, current hall probe (after Scotti et al., 2012).
ed

3 - Analysis of Results
pt

Different types of interchangeable metal transfer modes (two or more transfer natural-
ce

like modes happening in a periodic sequence) were generated. The characteristics and the

reason for the occurrence of each interchangeable metal transfer mode are described and
Ac

discussed as follows.

3.1 - Interchangeable “short-circuiting – spray” mode

The two natural transfer modes during this type of the interchangeable metal transfer

are the short-circuiting mode and the streaming/projected spray one, as illustrated in Fig. 3.

The welding conditions (arc voltage and welding current instant values) initially favour the

natural short-circuiting transfer which includes the droplet growth and short-circuit stages.

7
Page 7 of 32
However, during the post short-circuit period, a higher mean current level leads to a high

post short-circuit current, which remains temporarily above the transition current level. Due to

this augmented current, the electrode melting rate becomes momentarily higher than the wire

feed speed (WFS) and the arc length progressively increases. This has the effect of

preventing short-circuiting transfer as the process has sufficient time to enable more than

one tiny droplet to detach sequentially. With a constant voltage power source, as a longer arc

t
ip
makes the welding current decrease, the electrode melting rate also falls gradually. As

electrode melting rate becomes less than the WFS, the wire tip returns to approaching the

cr
weld pool. The combination of a low current and a short arc reinstates the conditions

us
required for short-circuiting to occur. Normally only one drop is transferred before a new

cycle is initiated.
an
Short-circuiting Streaming spray Short-circuiting
M
ed

(A)
400
300
pt

200 Transition current

100
0 Ua Iw
20
ce

(V) 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 t (ms)

Short-circuiting Projected Spray

Ac

(A)
400
300 Iw
200
100
Ua
0
20
(V) 0
0 10 20 30 t (ms)

8
Page 8 of 32
Fig. 3. Examples of an Interchangeable Metal Transfer mode of the type “short-circuiting –

spray” (above “streaming” and below “projected” spray) and the correspondent arc voltage

(Ua) and welding current (Iw) traces: mean Ua = 23.5 V; mean Iw = 170 A; set WFS = 7 m/min;

travel speed = 36 cm/min; contact-tube to work distance (CTWD) = 18 mm; shielding gas =

Ar + 5%O2.

t
ip
As can also be seen in Fig. 3, switching of the natural metal transfer modes is cyclical

cr
which mainly depends on the inductance of the power source (dynamic response of the

us
current, i.e., current rising and falling rates), arc length and the combination of the electrode

and the shielding gas which influences the surface tension. The latter determines the
an
transition current level and the others act together to determine the short-circuit duration and

indirectly, the short-circuiting current level. These preconditions substantiate the reason for
M
occurrence of the "short-circuiting - spray" interchangeable metal transfer mode.
ed

3.2 - Interchangeable “globular - spray” mode

As seen in Fig.4, globular and spray natural transfer modes are interchanging giving
pt

rise to an interchangeable transfer mode. It is considered that the reason for this mode is that

when using shielding gas mixtures with less than 12% CO2 and a carbon steel wire, the
ce

electrical resistivity of the droplet becomes higher than that of the arc column. During a
Ac

globular transfer under such conditions in which the droplet resistivity is greater than the arc

column resistivity, the growth of the droplet overcomes the effect of the shortening of the arc

regarding the resistance variation. The increase in the summation of the electric resistances

consequently reduces progressively the welding current and resulting in a reduction of the

wire melting rate. Thus, even though the arc length became shorter, the voltage measured

between the contact tip and the work piece increases, as illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6.

Due to a progressive reduction of the electrode melting rate, the electrode tip with a

globular droplet attached approaches the weld pool, sometimes causing incipient short-

9
Page 9 of 32
circuits, as shown in Fig. 7. Together with an increase in the electrode extension, the total

electric resistance starts to reduce so that the lower resistivity of the wire dominates the

resistivity of the arc column and the welding current starts to increase again. Thus, the

welding current can reach values above the transition current which is low for these low CO2

Ar based gas mixtures. This results in a projected (see Fig. 4) or even streaming spray

transfer (see Fig. 7). The resulting high electrode melting rate coincident with this high

t
ip
current causes the arc length to increase and the current to reduce. The conditions are now

re-established for the globular transfer and a new cycle sets in.

cr
us
Range of the electrode tip oscillation
Globular Projected spray Globular

an
M
620 700 726 751 752 760 781 783 794 804 805 812 843 852 950 1035 1058 1059 1082 1090

Transition current (A)

ed

200
180
160
Iw 140
(V) 120
pt

29

27
Ua
ce

25
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 t (s)
(Ohm)
0.22
0.20
Ac

0.18 Ra
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 t (s)

Fig. 4. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “globular – spray” type

and the correspondent Ua, Iw and instantaneous arc resistance (Ra) traces: mean Ua = 27.9

V; mean Iw = 166 A; WFS = 6.3 m/min; travel speed = 30 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding

gas = Ar + 5%O2.

10
Page 10 of 32
 55 59 60 61 76 80 95 103 109 115 120 123 124 125

U
(V)
31

t
ip
30

29

cr
28

27

us
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 t (s)

Fig. 5. Voltage trace showing the arc voltage variation as a function of the droplet growing

an
and detachment (globular transfer): Iw = 182 A; WFS = 6.7 m/min; CTWD = 20 mm; shielding

gas = Ar + 2%O2
M
Ar+1 … 5% CO2 Ar+10 … 12% CO2 Ar+20 … 100% CO2
U
ed

U U

t t t
pt

Iw Iw Iw
ce
Ac

Droplet resistivity > Arc Droplet resistivity ≈ Arc Droplet resistivity < Arc
column resistivity column resistivity column resistivity

Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the alteration of the ratio between the droplet and arc column

electric resistivities as a function of the CO2 content in an argon based gas mixture. The

droplet and arc column electric resistivities are illustrated by lines, where the thicker line

means lower resistivity

11
Page 11 of 32
 Range of the electrode tip oscillation

Globular Short-circuiting Projected Spray Streaming spray

t
750 800 850 900 950 958 959 962 964 970 980 985 990 995 1000 1050 1100 1150

ip
Ua

cr
Iw
(V) Transition current (A)
45 200
175
Iw

us
35 150
125
100
25

15
Ua an 75
50
25
0
M
5 -25
0.75 0.85 0.95 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.35 t (s)
ed

1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1480 1485 1487 1490 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900
pt

(Ohm)
0.24
0.2
0.16 Ra
ce

0.12
0.08
0.04
0
0.75 0.85 0.95 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.35 t (s)
Ac

Fig. 7. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “Globular - Streaming

Spray” type: mean Ua = 28.4 V; mean Iw = 177 A; WFS = 6.5 m/min; travel speed = 36

cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

Thus, the reason for a "globular - spray" interchangeable metal transfer mode is a

lower specific resistance of the arc column compared to that of the metal droplet, which is

conditioned by the use of shielding gas mixtures with less than 12% CO2.

12
Page 12 of 32
 Then, the question is whether shielding gas mixtures with more than 12% CO2 could

promote or not an interchangeable transfer “globular – spray” as the specific resistance of

the arc column is now higher than that of the droplet, as illustrated by Fig. 6. During the

globular transfer stage, as long as the droplet is growing and, consequently the arc length is

reducing, the arc voltage reduces as well. The reason is that the reduction of the total arc

column voltage drop is more significant than the voltage drop in the growing droplet which

t
ip
when using constant voltage power sources, causing a current increase. Then, if,

hypothetically, the current exceeds the transition current level, the spray transfer mode could

cr
be established followed by an increase of the electrode melting rate and the arc lengthening

us
of the arc. This behaviour could be accompanied by a rise in the arc column resistance,

resulting in a reduction in the current. Finally, there might be a re-establishment of the

an
globular transfer mode. A new cycle would be re-established. However, the higher the CO2

content in a gas mixture, the higher the transition current value becomes, and, thus, it
M
becomes more difficult to be exceeded. This is the main reason why the interchangeable

metal transfer mode is usually not observed when using CO2 rich argon based shielding
ed

mixtures.
pt

3.3 - Interchangeable “globular – short-circuiting - streaming spray” mode

Fig. 8 illustrates the interchangeable mode "globular – short-circuiting – streaming

ce

spray". It is considered that, in this case, the conditions described in both sections 3.1 (high
Ac

post short-circuiting current) and 3.2 (a lower specific resistance of the arc column and of the

wire electrode compared to that of the metal droplet) are acting in combination. There was a

gradual reduction of the current between frames 792 and 900, caused by an increase in the

growing droplet resistance. Due to the consequent reduction of the electrode melting rate,

the electrode tip with a droplet starts to move towards the weld pool, from frames 900 to

1028. Together with an increase in the electrode extension, the total electric resistance starts

to reduce and the lower resistivity of the wire now starts to dominate over that of the arc

column so that the current increasing again. Although the increment in the current was not

13
Page 13 of 32
sufficient to exceed the globular-spray transition, as there was a short-circuit, the metal

transfer mode transition became possible due to a high post short-circuiting current. The

reduction of the arc voltage as compared with the case shown in Fig. 7 was one of the

favourable conditions for this mode to happen.

Range of the electrode tip oscillation

t
ip
Globular Short-circuiting Streaming spray Globular

cr
us
750 780 792 850 900 950 980 1028 1029 1040 1045 1050 1065 1090 1110 1140

(A)

(V)
an
Transition current Iw
300

250

200
40
150
M
30
100
20
10 Ua 50

0 0
ed

0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.9 0.94 0.98 t (s)

(Ohm)
0.2
0.16 Ra
0.12
pt

0.08
0.04
0
0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.9 0.94 0.98
ce

t (s)
Ac

Fig. 8. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “globular – short-

circuiting – streaming spray” type: mean Ua = 27.5 V; mean Iw = 170 A; WFS = 6.5 m/min;

travel speed = 36 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

3.4 - Interchangeable “projected spray - streaming spray” mode

There are certain energy-related conditions which can make the current vary

periodically generating the "projected spray - streaming spray" interchangeable metal

transfer mode, Fig. 9. The intensive generation of metallic vapour in an arc under streaming

14
Page 14 of 32
spray transfer creates the potential to alter the plasma properties in such a way as to force

the current to reduce due to a lower ionization potential and/or heat transfer losses. The

transfer would, then, turn into projected spray with less metallic vapour generation, which

would make the current increase again, and so on.

An alternative reason for the current starting to reduce at the end of the streaming

spray stage is that, when using a constant voltage power supply, a progressively increasing

t
ip
arc length occurs. Vice-versa, during the projected spray transfer, a low current causes the

arc to shorten, inducing a current rise and moving the transfer mode transition towards the

cr
streaming spray mode. In either case, there is a clear manifestation of the interchangeable

us
metal transfer mode fundamental principles, when variations of conditions due to a previous

transfer mode give rise to conditions for the following mode to take place.
an
Range of the electrode tip oscillation
M
Spray projected Streaming spray Spray projected
ed

820 855 895 899 903 904 906 950 1100 1206 1255 1258 1300 1350 1402 1480
pt

(A)
Iw 215
ce

210
205

(V) 200
Ua
30 195
29
Ac

28
27
1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 t (s)
(Ohm)
0.15
Ra
0.14

0.13
1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 t (s)

15
Page 15 of 32
Fig. 9. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “spray projected –

streaming spray” type: mean Ua = 28.7 V; mean Iw = 207 A; WFS = 8.7 m/min; travel speed =

36 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

4 – Classification of Metal Transfer Modes

t
ip
Although the interchangeable transfer modes occur under welding conditions

between those for adjacent natural ones, they should not be confused with a transition

cr
transfer mode, because they are characterized by sequential periodic repeatability. It is not a

us
phenomenon of occasional natural instability between two modes. The most important

characteristic of Interchangeable transfer is that the following mode is a consequence of the

an
previous one. In particular, the variation of current, electrode temperature and/or plasma

status due to a transfer mode gives rise to conditions for the following mode to take place. An
M
interchangeable metal transfer mode takes place only if all the necessary conditions are

present, i.e., a combination of welding current, arc length, material and diameter of the wire,
ed

shielding gas, contact tube to work distance and favourable dynamics (inductance) of the

power source. It is important to note that further research work is still required to establish
pt

the ranges for the conditions promoting each of the interchangeable transfer modes.

The Interchangeable Transfer Mode cannot be attributed to either Natural Transfer

ce

Modes because its characteristic sequential periodic changing between two or even more
Ac

natural transfer modes or to Controlled Transfer Modes because there is no in-line or off-line

control. These types of transfer mode possess all characteristics of an individual class of

modes which has been called Class of Interchangeable Transfer Modes, as summarized in

Fig. 10.

16
Page 16 of 32
 t
ip
cr
us
Fig.10. GMAW Metal Transfer Classification based on hierarchical order: classes, groups

and modes an
M
Interchangeable metal transfer modes are not identifiable by welders and operators,
ed

even though characterized by a low frequency of metal transfer interchanging (3 to 5 Hz). If

the transfer is interchanging from globular to spray, it is unstable as occurs with a globular
pt

transfer. But if it is interchanging from short-circuiting and spray, the welder may not feel the

any difference in performance from the normal short-circuiting operation. In fact, modern
ce

power source manufactures are trying to develop controlled metal transfers interchanging

from, for instance, pulsed transfer to short-circuit transfer, to satisfy special applications.
Ac

Including the new “Interchangeable Metal Transfer” class in the overall classification

of GMA Metal Transfer Modes for arc welding completes the classification. It is now possible

to describe all modes of metal transfer from the simple “Natural Metal Transfer” class to the

often quite complex multi-mode type of transfer categorised in the “Interchangeable Metal

Transfer” class which has been identified in this study.

5 – Conclusions

17
Page 17 of 32
 Modern laboratory techniques, especially high speed video filming synchronized with

welding parameters acquisition, brought out evidences that:

- There is a new metal transfer class “Interchangeable Metal Transfer”, which with the

well known Natural and Controlled Metal Transfer classes completes the classification

of metal transfer for GMA welding of carbon steels;

t
ip
- The interchangeable metal transfer mode is distinguished from the others classes of

metal transfer because of its unique characteristic of periodical changes in the transfer

cr
mode induced from short temporal changes in welding parameters (a self-sustained

us
behaviour);

- The interchangeable metal transfer mode may comprise two or more natural transfer
an
modes happening in a periodic repetitive sequence, one following the other, as a

consequence of the previous one. There is no operator or adaptive control system

M
interference;

- The interchangeable metal transfer mode can only take place if all the necessary
ed

conditions are present, i.e., a combination of welding current, arc length, material and

diameter of the wire, shielding gas, contact-tube to work distance and favourable
pt

dynamics (inductance) of the power source;

- The interchangeable metal transfer mode does not occur when using shielding gas
ce

mixtures with more than 12% CO2.

Ac

6 – Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Brazilian agencies for research and development

(CNPq and Fapemig), which have provided the financial backing for the specialized

equipment used in this work (high-speed camera, laser back-light system, synchronized

frames-electrical signal data loggers).

18
Page 18 of 32
7 – References

Bálsamo, P.S.S., Vilarinho, L.O., Vilela, M., Scotti, A., 2000. Development of an experimental

technique for studying metal transfer in welding: synchronised shadowgraphy. Int. J. Join.

Mater. 12(1), 1-12, ISSN 0905-6866.

Clark, D.E., Buhrmaster, C.L., Smartt, H.B., 1989. Drop Transfer Mechanisms in GMAW. In:

t
ip
2nd Int. Conf. on Recent Trends in Welding Science and Technology, ASM, Gatlinburg,

Tennessee, USA, pp. 371-375.

cr
Haidar, J., Lowke, J.J., 1996. Predictions of metal Droplet Formation in Arc Welding, J. Phys.

us
D: Appl. Phys., 29, 2951-2960.

Heald, P. R., Madigan, R. B., Siewert, T. A., Liu, S., 1994. Mapping the Droplet Transfer
an
Modes for an ER100S-1 GMAW Electrode". Weld. J. 73 (2), 38s-44s.

IIW (International Institute of Welding), 1976. Classification of Metal Transfer, IIW Doc. XII-
M
636-76.

Johnson, J.A., Smart, H.B., Carson, N.M., Waddoups, M., 1992. Dynamics of droplet
ed

Detachment in GMAW. In: 3rd Int. Conf. on Trends in Welding Research, ASM,

Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA, pp. 987-991.

pt

Lin, Q., Li, X., Simpson, S.W., 2001. Metal transfer measurements in gas metal arc welding.

J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 34 (3), 347–353, doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/34/3/3172000.

ce

Madigan, R.B., Quinn, T.P., Siewert, T.A., 1992. Sensing Droplet Detachment and Electrode
Ac

Extension for Control of Gas Metal Arc Welding. In: 3rd Int. Conf. on Trends in Welding

Research, ASM, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA, pp. 999-1002.

Scotti, A., 2000. Mapping the Transfer Modes for Stainless Steel GMAW. J. Sci. Technol.

Weld. Join. 5 (4), 227-234, ISSN 1362-1718.

Scotti, A., Ponomarev, V., 2008. MIG/MAG Welding: better understanding – better

performance. Artliber Editora Ltda., São Paulo, Brazil, pp. 268 - 277 (in Portuguese).

Scotti, A., Ponomarev, V., Lucas, W., 2012. A Scientific Application Oriented Classification

for Metal Transfer Modes in GMA Welding. Journal of Materials Processing Technology,

19
Page 19 of 32
 212, 1406-1413, doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2012.01.021.

Scotti, A., Ponomarev, V., Resende, A., 2006. The influence of the electrode materials and

shielding gas mixture on the specific electric resistances of the drop/column of the arc in

GMA welding, IIW Doc. XII-1909-06.

Watkins, A.D., Smartt, H.B., Johnson, J.A., 1992. A Dynamic Model of Droplet Growth and

Detachment in GMAW. In: 3rd Int. Conf. on Trends in Welding Research, ASM,

t
ip
Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA, pp. 993-997.

cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

20
Page 20 of 32
Figure Captions

Fig. 1. Schematic maps of the main natural metal transfer modes occurring in GMA welding

as a function of the welding current (Iw), represented by either the welding voltage setting, on

the left, or the arc length, on the right (after Scotti et al., 2012).

t
ip
Fig. 2. Details of the optical laser system used for metal transfer visualization. 1, light source

(laser); 2, neutral filters; 3, divergent lens; 4, convergent lens; 5, protection glass; 6, band-

cr
pass and neutral filters; 7, high-speed video camera; 8, monitor; 9, image recording unit; 10,

us
computer; 11, current hall probe (after Scotti et al., 2012).

an
Fig. 3. Examples of an Interchangeable Metal Transfer mode of the type “short-circuiting –

spray” (above “streaming” and below “projected” spray) and the correspondent arc voltage
M
(Ua) and welding current (Iw) traces: mean Ua = 23.5 V; mean Iw = 170 A; set WFS = 7 m/min;

travel speed = 36 cm/min; contact-tube to work distance (CTWD) = 18 mm; shielding gas =
ed

Ar + 5%O2.
pt

Fig. 4. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “globular – spray” type

and the correspondent Ua, Iw and instantaneous arc resistance (Ra) traces: mean Ua = 27.9
ce

V; mean Iw = 166 A; WFS = 6.3 m/min; travel speed = 30 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding
Ac

gas = Ar + 5%O2.

Fig. 5. Voltage trace showing the arc voltage variation as a function of the droplet growing

and detachment (globular transfer): Iw = 182 A; WFS = 6.7 m/min; CTWD = 20 mm; shielding

gas = Ar + 2%O2 (after Scotti et al., 2006).

21
Page 21 of 32
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the alteration of the ratio between the droplet and arc column

electric resistivities as a function of the CO2 content in an argon based gas mixture. The

droplet and arc column electric resistivities are illustrated by lines, where the thicker line

means lower resistivity (after Scotti and Ponomarev, 2008).

t
ip
Fig. 7. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “Globular - Streaming

Spray” type: mean Ua = 28.4 V; mean Iw = 177 A; WFS = 6.5 m/min; travel speed = 36

cr
cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

us
Fig. 8. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “globular – short-
an
circuiting – streaming spray” type: mean Ua = 27.5 V; mean Iw = 170 A; WFS = 6.5 m/min;

travel speed = 36 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

M
ed

Fig. 9. An example of an interchangeable metal transfer mode of the “spray projected –

streaming spray” type: mean Ua = 28.7 V; mean Iw = 207 A; WFS = 8.7 m/min; travel speed =
pt

36 cm/min; CTWD = 18 mm; shielding gas = Ar + 2%O2.

ce
Ac

Fig.10. GMAW Metal Transfer Classification based on hierarchical order: classes, groups

and modes (described in more details by Scotti et al., 2012).

22
Page 22 of 32
Figure 1

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 23 of 32
Figure 2

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 24 of 32
Figure 3

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 25 of 32
Figure 4

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 26 of 32
Figure 5

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 27 of 32
Figure 6

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 28 of 32
Figure 7

t
ip
cr
us
an
M
d
te
p
ce
Ac

Page 29 of 32
Figure 8

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 30 of 32
Figure 9

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 31 of 32
Figure 10

i
cr
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 32 of 32