Evolution and the Themes of Biology

 Properties of Life: Order, evolutionary adaptation, regulation, energy processing, growth and development,
response to environment, & reproduction
Study of Life reveals unifying themes:
organization, information, energy and matter, interactions, & evolution

1-) New properties emerge at successive levels of biological organization.

(Organization)
 Reductionism: zooming in through levels of biological hierarchy to reduce complex systems to simpler
stuff to study. (ex: DNA discovery to infer inheritance)
 Levels of Biological Organization:
1-) Biosphere 5-)organisms 9-)organelles
2-)Ecosystems 6-)organs 10)molecules
3-)Communities 7-)tissues 11-) atoms
4-)populations 8-)cells

Emergent Properties
 Zooming out leads to emergent properties due to arrangement/interaction of parts as complexity
increases. (ex: box of bicycle parts won’t transport you, but arrangement and interaction between the gears
will)
 Isolated components/reductionism lacks significant properties that emerge at higher levels of
organization. ex: to pump blood you don’t just need a heart, but vessels for transport and O2 to keep heart alive
 To fully explore emergent properties, we complement reductionism with systems biology, exploration
of a whole bio system by analyzing its interactions among its parts (a leaf can be a systems bio and so can
an ecosystem)
 Systems biology forms interdisciplinary bridges

Structure and Function

 There's correlation between structure and function at each level of biological hierarchy.
 Structure hints the function and vice versa. ex: porcupine quills & occipital foramen

The Cell: Basic Unit of Structure and Function

 Cell’s the smallest unit of organization that performs all activities for life
 Cell theory states all organisms are made of cells, so all actions of organisms are based on cells (ex: the
sliding filament theory)
 Every cell’s enclosed by a membrane, regulating passages
 we break cells into prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes & everything else are made of eukaryotes
 eukaryotes contain membrane enclosed organelles (ex: nucleus)
 Prokaryotes lack such organelles and are smaller

2-) Life’s Processes Involve Expression and Transmission of genetic info.

(Information)
Chromosomes Contain Genetic Material in the Form of DNA
 Each chromosome contains a strand of DNA with lots of genes, the unity of inheritance that establishes
identity and function. ex: development of multicellular organism from a single fertilized cell -thx to genes
 strands are made of nucleotides chains (have nitrogenous bases ATCG)
 Sequences of nucleotides code a gene for a protein
 Genes control the production indirectly using mRNA (RNA has many functions)
 gene expression: genes transcribe into mRNA & then into specific proteins (or into other types of RNA)
 All life uses same genetic code: sequences of nucleotides (universality that supports evolution)
 The structure and function of DNA best demonstrates the unity among all organisms
 Difference between organisms reflect differences in nucleotide sequence rather than genetic code
 Comparing sequences in several species for a gene that codes for a particular protein can provide valuable
information both about the protein an about relationship of the species to each other

Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences

 Genome = library of genes
 to make sense of all data discovered, we apply a systems biology approach at cellular and molecular
levels: rather than studying 1 gene at a time, we study whole sets of genes in one or more species. AKA
Genomics
 Proteomics: study of sets of proteins and their properties
 Proteome: entire set of proteins expressed by a system
 Important research developments that make these approaches possible:
1-) high-throughout technology
2-) bioinformatics
3-) interdisciplinary research teams

3-) Life requires transfer & transformation of energy and matter.

(Energy & Matter)
 Fundamental characteristics of organisms include use of energy to carry out activities
 input primarily from sun and transformation of that into chemical energy (starchy potatoes-light to stored
food)
 chemical energy by producers (autotrophs) is passed to consumers (heterotrophs) (a lot of lost as heat)
 chemicals recycle within an ecosystem, but energy is lost as heat
 energy flows through an ecosystem (entering usually as light and leaving as heat)

4-) From molecules to ecosystems, interactions are important in biological systems

(Interactions)
 Interactions between components of a system ensure that they all function as a whole (in all biological
hierarchy)
Molecules: Interactions within Organisms
 Ex: Blood sugar, so many processes and molecules must work to result in a healthy human. Cells must interact
with sugar to respond and regulate.
 the key is the ability of many biological processes to self-regulate = feedback regulation
 Feedback regulation: Output or product of a process regulates that very process
 Most common form of regulation in organisms: negative feedback, a loop in which the response
reduces the initial stimulus. ex: insulin and blood glucose levels
 Less common: positive feedback: an end product amplifies its own production. Ex: (Childbirth) pressure
of baby on cervix ->contractions ->more pressure release oxytocin ->More contractions ->more pressure release
oxytocin -more contractions->Birth

Ecosystems: Organism’s interaction with Others and Physical Environment

 Regulating functioning of the ecosystem. Ex: symbiotic relationships; predation keeps population at capacity;
photosynthetic organisms generate all the O2; Decomposers continue to recycle chemicals
 humans have added CO2 to atmosphere and increased 1 Celsius; we’re expected to rise at least 3
Celsius before the end of the century
 global warming is a major aspect of climate change
 climate change: a directional change to global climate that lasts for 3 decades or more, opposed to
short-term changes in weather
 ways climate is changing:
1-global warming
2-shifting wind/precipitation patterns
3-extreme weather events like storms are frequent
 climate change has affected organisms globally (endangerment and extinction)

5-) Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life

(Evolution)
 accounts for the unity, diversity, and adaptations to the environment.
 Concept: organisms on earth are modified descendants of common ancestors

Classifying the diversity of life (There are so many organisms; how is this possible?)
 Genus, species ex: homo sapiens
3 domains of life
 we classify through functions, structure, etc. since discovering comparing gene sequences, we reevaluate
 we've got Archaea, bacteria and eukarya
 eukarya has subgroups (by nutrition Modes): plantae, fungi, animalia, protists
 protists are the most numerous and diverse. research in DNA evidence showed some are less close to
other protists them plants, animals, or fungi. so they’re divided into subgroups as well

Unity in the diversity of life

 we've got unity, similar structures, universal language of DNA . it's evident at all hierarchies
 dimensions of bio: passages of time (fossils)

Charles Darwin and Theory of Natural Selection

 The book said:
1-) contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors that differed from them
(descent with modification). Unity from common ancestors but diversity in modifications
2-) Natural selection was primary cause of descent with modification
 He made observations:
1- Individuals in a population vary in heritable traits (hereditary variations)
2- population produces more than can survive (competition/ overproduction)
3- Species are generally suited to their environment (adaptation)
 He said: survival of the fittest
Tree of life
 according to descent with modification, Homologous structures reflect inheritance from a common
ancestor (ex the prototype mammal from whom we got forelimbs)
 divergence leads to speciation
 Adaptive Radiation (The Galápagos)
 Divergent Evolution v Convergent Evolution
 We’re connected down to prokaryotes and genetic code