CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION AND PHILOSOPHY

Meaning of Definition
Definition
 Derived from the Latin word De-finire which means To state the limits of or To enclose within
limits.

Two Classification of Definition

Nominal Definition
 Derived from Latin word Nominalis which means Having reference to a name.

SEED

 Synonym
Kind of definition presents another word, which is more popular or common, to
clarify a given term.

 Etymology
Way of defining a term limits a thing or term by taking its derivation; It states the
origin or root word of a symbol/term.

 Example
Gives us a picture of the thing referred to.
Ostensive Definition Defining a term by pointing gesture.

 Description
Provides the physical characteristics of a thing. It describes the physical
appearance of a term.

Real Definition/Essential Definition

 Derived from Latin word Realis which means Having reference to a thing or reality.

Analytic Definition

 Definiendum
Term being defined.
 Definiens
Describes the defining property of the definiendum.
Genus wider concept of which definiendum is a member.
Differentia states the trait or set of traits that distinguishes one
from other species in the genus.

 Denotata
Provides typical example of extension of definiendum.
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Definition of Philosophy
Nominal Definition of Philosophy
 Ancient Greek Understanding of Philosophy
The term philosophy was first introduced by Pythagoras.
 Philosophy derived from Greek word words philia meaning Love or
Friendship, and Sophia meaning Wisdom.
 Desire or to be in quest for truth and eventually live in it.

 Chinese Understanding of Philosophy

The term philosophy, Zhe-Xue or Che Shueh, was originally coined by Dr, Nashi
Amane.
 Zhe means Wisdom while Xue means Study; Zhe-Xue means The
study of wisdom.
 Translation of words into action or the application of theory into praxis.

 Indian/Hindu Understanding of Philosophy

Philosophy is shown in two Sankrit words.
 Anviksiki an examination of things through the use of true cognition.
 Darsana a mode of seeing or seeing not only through the sense of sight.
 To be impartial, to be objective, and to be critical in one’s assessment of
reality.

 Muslim/Islamic Understanding of Philosophy

Falsafa is the Arabic term which takes place the Greek term philosophia and another
term is hikma symbolizes light or illumination which connected to falsafa.
 Falsafa world and humanity as intrinsically and substantially unified.
 Hikma enables one to have an understanding of the basic principles of
reality and that of humanity.
 Seek to establish an understanding of the spiritual wholeness of the
world and humanity.

Real Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy is the science of beings in their ultimate reason, cause and principles known through the aid of
human reason alone.
 Science
Philosophy is a science because it’s a systematic body of knowledge which is not only
based on observation, opinions, hypotheses and theories but on the ideal knowledge.

 Beings

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Understood to mean as anything and everything that exist, that has existed, or that may
exist. This means that philosophy is the science that studies all things.

 Ultimate reason, cause and principles

Philosophy asks and answer not only facts and proximate cause but also of the deepest or
first cause of things or what is sometimes called the highest principle of first principle.

 Human reason or intellect alone

Uses only the power of the mind or the human intellect or pure reason alone, no more, no
less.

The First Principles and the First Cause

The First Principles
1. Principle of Identity
It states that, whatever is, is; whatever is not, is not, everything is what it is. Observable through
the senses.

2. Principle of Non-Contradiction
It states that it is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the same time and at the same
respect.
Use of simple negation.

3. Principle of Excluded Middle

A thing is either is or is not; everything must be either be or not be; between being and not being,
there is no middle ground.
Applied to metaphysics.

4. Principle of Sufficient Reason

Nothing exist without sufficient reason.

The First Cause

Cause exerts a positive influence in the production of a thing or reality; explains the how and why of a
being.

1. Material Cause
That out of which something is made.

2. Formal Cause
That through which something is made.

3. Efficient Cause
That by which something is made.

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4. Final Cause
That on the account of which something is made.

Birth and Development of Philosophy

 Hindus or Indians
Who am I? Concerned about their belief of individual soul, which is the Atman, and of
the universal soul, the Brahman.

 Chinese
What am I? Shows their passion for human relationship; the interconnectedness of their
social, political and moral life.

 Greeks
Where am I? Tend to agree that there must be three objects of philosophical inquiry,
namely: God, Man, and World.
 Pythagoras first philosopher who coined philosophy.
 Thales first one who wonder: thauma-wonder.

Branches of Philosophy
Philosophy is the mother subject that gave birth to the different branches of philosophical study.

Two major Types of Philosophy

 Pure or Speculative Philosophy
Deals with the study of beings in relation to themselves and in relation to persons.

 Metaphysics or Ontology
Studies beings with regard to its essence and existence.

 Cosmology
Deals with the study of material world in relation to its order in the universe.

 Theodicy
Studies the nature and existence of God.

 Anthropology
Studies man in relation to the union between body and soul.

 Rational Psychology
Deals with the immaterial soul as the life principle of every living being.

 Logic
Studies the science and art of correct inferential thinking.

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 Epistemology
Studies human knowledge with regards to certainty and truth.

 Ethics
Deals with the morality of human act.

 Applied or Practical Philosophy

Makes philosophy relevant to special issues.
 Social Philosophy
Studies the relationship between the person and society.

 Philosophy of Religion
Deals with the person’s relationship with God.

 Axiology
Studies the person’s values.

 Aesthetics
Deals with the study of beauty and perfection.

 Oriental Philosophy
Studies the oriental ways of life and mind.

 Philosophy of Education
Deals with the approaches to teaching and learning process.

 Philosophy of Persons
Studies the nature of the person, the meaning and the reality of human life and existence.
CHAPTER 3: WHAT IS LOGIC?

Logic: Its Definition and Nature

Logic
o Derived from the Greek word Logike means Thought. Also it is treatise pertaining to thought.
o Defined as the science and art of correct inferential thinking.

 Logic is a Science
It is a systematized body of knowledge.

 Logic is an art
It is directly and immediately related to performance, namely to the act of the mind.

 Logic deals with correct inferential thinking

Study focuses on thinking that draws conclusions from given data or premises (inference).

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Kinds of Logic

 Deductive Logic
It deals with conclusive inferences.

 Inductive Logic
It deals with probable inferences.

Division of Logic

 Formal Logic
Emphasis the correctness, irrespective of whether or not the elements of the reasoning agree with
reality.

 Material Logic
Investigates the content of thought with a view to determining the truth of the reasoning.

The Three Acts of the Intellect

 Simple Apprehension
Consist in understanding or grasping the meaning of an idea.
Idea is a mental representation of the essence of a thing.

 Judging or Judgment
The intellect compares and pronounce the agreement or disagreement of two or more ideas.
Proposition the external sign.

 Reasoning, Inference or Argument

The intellect arrives at a new truth with the medium of an established truth already know.
Syllogism the external sign.

CHAPTER 4: SIMPLE APPREHENSION AND IDEA

Simple Apprehension
 The intellect forms a concept of something.

Formation of Ideas
a) Attention
The mind focuses on one object or group of object perceived.

b) Abstraction

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The mind grasps the essence of a thing and separates it from what is non-essential.

c) Reflection
The mind focuses on itself, becomes aware of itself, studies objectively its acts and states.

d) Analysis
The mind resolves an idea into essential notes.

e) Synthesis
The mind compounds two or more ideas into one, making these ideas the essential notes of single
idea.

f) Comparison
The mind observes similarities and differences in the object perceived.

Properties of Idea
 Comprehension
The sum total of the attribute or thought elements which constitute the idea. It also refers to the
meaning, signification or connotation of the idea.

 Extension
The sum of the object to which an idea applies.

Classification of Ideas

According to Origin
1. Intuitive Idea
Immediately formed upon sensation or contact with things.

2. Derivative Idea
Comes as a result of an arbitrary synthesis of intuitive ideas.

According to Perfection
A. Clear vs Obscure

 Clear Idea
Represents the object as discernible from all other objects.

 Obscure Idea
Represents an object but such a representation is not discernable from all other
objects.

B. Distinct vs Vague

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 Distinct Idea
Represent the object in such a manner that is essential notes are clearly
distinguishable from another idea.

 Vague Idea
Represent the object in such a manner that is essential notes are not
distinguishable from another idea.

C. Complete vs Incomplete

 Complete Idea
Represents the object in such a way that all its essential notes are distinguished
and enumerated.

 Incomplete Idea
Represents the object in such a way that all its essential notes are not completely
distinguished and enumerated.

According to Comprehension
A. Simple vs Compound

 Simple Idea
Ones note in its comprehension.

 Compound Idea
More than one note.

B. Concrete vs Abstract

 Concrete Idea
Represent a subject together with its determinants.

 Abstract Idea
Represents an object separated from its subject.

According to Extension
A. Singular
Idea that has only one extension.

B. Universal
Idea which stands not only for a class as a whole but also for every member of the
class.

C. Particular
Idea which stands for an indefinite number of individuals.

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According to Relation
A. Identical Ideas
Ideas that constitute the same comprehension or extension.
a. Formally Identical
Ideas that bear the same comprehension.
b. Materially Identical
Ideas that bear the same extension.

B. Different Ideas
Ideas which do not have the same extension not comprehension.
a. Associable
Ideas which are not mutually exclusive.

b. Opposed
Ideas which are not associable they called Repugnant Ideas.
1. Contrary
Ideas that exclude each other but, leave a ground in between.

2. Contradiction
Ideas which mutually exclude each other and leave no
common ground between them.

3. Relative
Ideas which are related to each other in such a way that the
meaning of one is in reference to the other.

4. Private
Ideas which express perfection present in a given subject,
and negation or denial of that perfection in the other.

CHAPTER 5: TERM

Meaning of Term
Term
 An articulated idea or the external sign of simple apprehension.

Term: It’s Nature as a Sign

Term by nature is an idea, that term essence of a thing; or it, basically, serves as a articulated idea.

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Category of Sign
 Mental Term
Sign of Phantasm

 Oral Term
Sign of Mental Term.

 Written Term
Sign of Oral Term.

Three Things to be Consider

 Signifier
That which represents.

 Signified
The Thing represented.

 Signification
The nexus between the signifier and signified.

Classification of Term

According to Exactness
A. Univocal
Bears meaning that does not change even if used in different context.

B. Equivocal
Bears meaning that totally changes or becomes different when applied in different
context.

C. Analogous
Bears meaning which are not exactly the same nor totally different if used in different
contexts.
1. Analogy by Proportion
The relation between the normal and ordinary sense of a term.

2. Analogy by Attribution
The relation between the normal and ordinary sense of a term.

According to Comprehension
A. Positive Term
Expresses a thing positively.

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B. Negative Term
Expresses the absence of a thing.

C. Simple Term
Consist of a single word.

D. Complex Term
Consist of more two or more words which bear the principal term and the accidental
term.

E. Concrete Term
Expresses a concrete idea.

F. Abstract Term
Expresses an abstract idea.

According to Extension
A. Singular
Which has only one extension.
1. Proper Singular: Proper Term
2. Common Singular: Common Term

B. Universal
Extended to all members of a given class.

C. Indefinite
No definite indicator to point out its extension.

D. Particular
Extended to many but not to all members of the class.

E. Collective
Expresses a unit or group.
1. Singular Collective
2. Particular Collective
3. Universal Collective

Definition of Supposition
 Refers to the definite meaning, which a given term possesses in a proportion.

Two kinds of Supposition

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1. Material Supposition
A manner by which it signifies simply the spoken sounds or the written symbol.

2. Formal Supposition
A term for what it really means or signifies.

a. Logical Supposition
The concept that it signifies abstractly or mentally.

b. Real Supposition
The term for what it signifies in reality or in real existence.

Definition of Appellation
Appellation
 Defined as the calling of something.

Two Parts of Appellation

1. Appellant
Denominating term or sometimes called the modifying term.

2. Appellate
Denominating term or otherwise known as the term modified.

Two Kinds of Appellation

1. Material Appellation
Happens when the appellant is applied to the matter signified.

2. Formal Appellation
When the appellant is applied to the form signified.

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